Fundamental Earthquake Response

Characteristics
Conceptual Framework

Ø Fundamental response quantities

Ø Seismic design concept
Ø Member-level versus system-level consideration
Ø Social-economic limit states

Structural Response Characteristics

Ø Stiffness
Ø Strength
Ø Ductility
Ø Overstrength
Ø Damping
Ø Relationship between strength, overstrength and ductility
 Fundamental Response Quantities

The most important response parameters that describe the behaviour of structures
and their foundations when subjected to earthquake ground motion are
► Stiffness: The ability of a component or assembly of components to resist
deformations when subjected to actions.

► Strength: The capacity of a component or an assembly of components for load

resistance at a given response station.

► Ductility: The ability of a component or an assembly of components to deform

beyond the elastic limit.
 Fundamental Response Quantities
§ The figure below provides an example of two single-degree-of-freedom systems,
one stiffer than the other. The taller pier displaces less than the squat one even
though it is more flexible. Why?

1.00 4.0

Lateral Displacement Ratios (dtop/ dbase,max)

Stiff Pier FlexiblePier

2.0
Ground Acceleration (g)

0.50 2.05

0.00 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

-0.50 -2.0
-2.72

0.884 g
-1.00 -4.0
Time (seconds) Time (seconds)
 Fundamental Response Quantities (continued)
§ The strength is not constant and different failure modes may be obtained from
identical structures being subjected to different demands.

§ In the figure below, two reinforced concrete (RC) walls are subjected to different
loading regimes; one is subjected to monotonic loading whilst the other is
subjected to severe cyclic loading.
d d
F
V
Cracks
H

O d
B

dd dd
F

V
H

O d

B
 Definitions (continued)

► Demand
§ The action or deformation imposed on a component or assembly of components
when subjected to earthquake ground motion.

§ It continuously varies as the structural characteristics vary during inelastic

response.

► Supply/Capacity
§ The action or deformation capacity of a component or assembly of components
when subjected to earthquake ground motion.

§ It may continuously vary as the structural characteristics change during inelastic

response.
applied actions are directly
used for design actions Seismic Design Concept

SEISMIC DESIGN

DIRECT DESIGN CAPACITY DESIGN

A ductility-designed structure is
significantly less sensitive to unexpected
increase in the force demand imposed on
it than its strength-designed counterpart.

Force-Based Design Ductility-Based Design

High Force High (Inelastic)

Force Capacity Deformation (Inelastic) Capacity Capacity Deformation Capacity

Different approaches to seismic design (for Capacity Design, high force and high deformation coexist)

Capacity design is achieved by identifying a failure mechanism, the members

and regions responsible for its development, and providing these members
and regions with adequate ductility.

The opposite of ‘capacity design’ is ‘direct design’, which is the dimensioning of

individual components to resist the locally evaluated actions with no due
consideration to the action-redistribution effects in the system as a whole.
 Member-Level versus System-Level Consideration

Stress
MATERIAL(S)
O Strain

h
LOCAL

SECTIONS
B

+
MEMBERS + CONNECTIONS
GLOBAL

H
SYSTEM

Capacity design analogy: chain (left)

Hierarchical relationship between local and global
versus network system (right)
structural response

§ The chain system (left) is effective as a basis for explanation, rather than application, of the concept
of weak link and capacity design.
§ Networks provide a basis for conceptual and pictorial description of the seismic behavior of
structures and also prove that barriers between sub-disciplines are artificial.
 Social-Economic Limit States in Seismic Design Codes
§ When subjected to small earthquakes a society seeks the least disruption from
damage. This may be considered as an ‘uninterrupted use’ limit state, and is clearly
most correlated with structures having adequate stiffness to resist deformation
mainly in the elastic or near-elastic regime.

§ When subjected to medium earthquakes, a society would accept to tolerate

disruption to its endeavours, but would seek to minimize repair costs. This may be
viewed as a ‘controlled economic loss’ limit state and is most related to the
structure having adequate strength so that the damage is limited.

§ When subjected to large earthquakes, a society would accept interruption, high

economic loss, but would seek to minimise loss of life. This is a ‘life safety’ limit
state and is most affected by the ductility of the structure that enables it to deform
well into the inelastic range without significant loss of resistance to gravity actions.

Return Period Earthquake Structural Engineering Societal

Magnitude Characteristics Limit State Limit State
~ 75-200 years ~4.5-5.5 Stiffness Insignificant Damage Continued Operation
~ 400-500 years ~5.5-6.5 Strength Repairable Damage Limited Economic Loss
~2000-2500 years ~6.5-7.5 Ductility Collapse Prevention Life Loss Prevention

Let’s check the Turkish Code

 Tablo 3.3 – 3.5.1. Bina Performans Hedefleri

3.5.1.1 – 2.2
Bina binalara uygulanmak üzere, DTS 1, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 4a
[m]
Normal Performans Hedefleri ile DTS 1a, 2a
DTS 1, 1a, 2, 2a DTS 3, 3a DTS 4, 4a
Performans Hedefleri Tablo 3.4 ve Tablo 3.5
BYS 1 HN 70 HN 91 HN 105 Tablo 3.4
BYS 2 56 HN 70 70 HN 91 91<H N 105 seçilebilir.
BYS 3 42 HN 56 56 HN 70 56 HN 91

BYS 4 28 HN 42 42 HN 56

BYS 5 17.5 HN 28 28 HN 42 (a)

– BYS 2 )
BYS 6 10.5 HN 17.5 17.5 HN 28
(1) (1)
7 HN 10.5 10.5 HN 17.5 Deprem DTS 1,1a , 2, 2a , 3, 3a, 4, 4a DTS 1a (2) , 2a (2) )
BYS 7
Yer H. Normal Performans
BYS 8 HN 7 HN 10.5 Düzeyi Hedefi Hedefi
DD-3 –– –– SH
DD-2 KH DGT(5) KH DGT(3,4)
Bina Performans Hedefleri DD-1 –– –– KH
sistemleri için Bina Performans Düzeyleri 3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.4.4’te
(b) BYS 1 )
3.4.1. Kesintisiz
Deprem DTS 1, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 4a DTS 1a, 2a
Yer H. Normal Performans
Düzeyi Hedefi Hedefi
DD-4 KK DGT –– ––
DD-3 –– –– SH
DD-2 KH DGT(3) KH DGT(3,4)
DD-1 GÖ KH
gelmektedir.
(c) Mevcut Yerinde Dökme Betonarme, Önüretimli Betonarme ve Çelik Binalar
3.4.3. Kontrollü Hasar (KH) Performans Düzeyi – BYS 2 )

Deprem DTS 1, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 4a DTS 1a, 2a

Yer H. Normal Performans
Düzeyi Hedefi Hedefi
3.4.4. Göçmenin Önlenmesi (GÖ) Performans Düzeyi
DD-3 –– –– SH
DD-2 KH –– ––
DD-1 –– –– KH
(1)
BYS 3
(2)
BYS 2,3
(3)
(4)
I 1.5
UYGULANACAK (5)
Bkz. 3.5.2.2.

bina performans hedefleri, 2.2 deprem yer hareketi

düzeyleri 3.4 bina performans düzeyleri’ni ifade eder. 3.5.1.2 – Tablo 3.4 -2 deprem yer
Kontrollü Hasar

17 18
 Problem

What are the differences between ‘direct’ and ‘capacity’ design? In a multi-
storey reinforced concrete frame that is to be capacity-designed, state the
sequence of dimensioning of each of the components of the frame, from the
foundations to the roof.

Capacity design: you keep beams responsible for energy dissipation so you the beams first by using applied actions once the beam's max capacity is known
considering any overstrength the columns are designed utilizing equilibrium conditions and other design checks are made.
 Stiffness
Stiffness defines the relationship between actions and deformations of a structure and
its components at a specified level of action or deformation.

§ Earthquakes generate inertial forces

initial stiffness
d d second stiffness
due to vibration of masses. Horizontal
F V K0 Ks components of these inertial forces are
K t tangent stiffness
Vj often dominant, hence lateral stiffness
Vi is of primary importance for structural
Total Base Shear

earthquake engineers.
Vy
§ The stiffness of a system is associated
primarily with satisfaction of the
functionality (or serviceability) of the
structure under dynamic loads.
O dy di dj du d
Top Lateral Displacement
§ Large deformations drastically reduce
the structural functionality.
Definition of initial, secant and tangent
structural stiffness § Adequate lateral stiffness is an
essential requirement to control
deformations, prevent instability (local
and global), prevent damage of non-
structural components and ensure
human safety and comfort during
minor-to-moderate earthquakes.
 Factors Influencing Stiffness

► Material properties Esteel=210Gpa Econcrete=20Gpa Emasonry=1-20 Gpa

§ Material properties which influence the structural stiffness are Young’s modulus E
and the shear modulus G.

► Section properties K=3EI/L^3

§ Section properties which affect the structural stiffness are the cross-sectional area A,
the flexural moment of inertia I and the torsional moment of inertia J. The stiffness of
the section is significantly affected by modifications of its geometry.
► Member properties
Member Property: Length of the member

§ The lateral stiffness also depends on the type of structural members utilised to
resist earthquake loads. For ex: Structural walls are much stiffer in their strong axis
than columns.

§ Geometrical properties of structural components influence significantly their

horizontal shear and flexural stiffness values. For ex: Flexural deformations are
normally higher than shear deformations for relatively slender structural
components.
 Factors Influencing Stiffness (continued)

§ For slender walls the lateral displacements are mainly due to the flexural flexibility.

d d 5 50
F

Shear-to-Flexural Stiffness Ratio (ks/kf)

Flexural-to-Total Stiffness Ratio (kf/kt)

ks/kf kf/kt
4 40

H1

H2

H3
3 30
B B B
H

Slender Intermediate Squat

2 20
ks (1/kf)

1 10

0 0
h

1,0 3,0 5,0 7,0 9,0

B Wall Aspect Ratios (B/H)

Structural wall under horizontal loads:

wall layout (left) and variations of relative shear and flexural stiffness (right)
 Factors Influencing Stiffness (continued)
welded stiffener

► Connection properties
d d
§ Connection behaviour influences F
EIb
m<5 5 < m < 18 m ³ 18

significantly the lateral deformation of

structural systems. EIc EIc

H
§ The lateral stiffness Ksemi-rigid of semi- Pinned Semi-Rigid Rigid
Lb
rigid frames can be expressed as:

K semi - rigid m (1 + z ) 1.00

Ratios of Lateral Stiffness (Ksemi-rigid/ Krigid)

=
K rigid m (1 + z ) + 6 0.75
z = 0.10
z = 1.0
z = 10
where m and ζ are dimensionless 0.50

parameters given by:

(K ) (EI L )b
0.25 Pinned Semi-Rigid Rigid

j con
m= ζ=
(EI L )b (EI H )c 0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Nondimensional connection stiffness (m)

where KΦ is the connection rotational

stiffness; I, L and H are the flexural
The stiffness of beam-to-column connections
moment of inertia, the beam span and influences also the natural period of vibration
column height, respectively; and E is of framed structures.
Young’s modulus of the material.
Factors Influencing Stiffness (continued)- Effects on Action
and Deformation Distribution:
► System properties
§ The lateral stiffness of a structure depends on the type of system utilised to
withstand horizontal earthquake loads, the distribution of the member stiffness and
the type of horizontal diaphragms connecting vertical members.

FF § Uniform distribution
EEI I ==¥¥ of stiffnessFF in plan Eand
EI I= =0 0 elevation
E IE =I 0= 0is necessary to prevent

localisation of high seismic demand.

H

H
H

H
• Irregularities, such as sharp variations of stiffness, may generate concentrations of
displacement demand.
• In addition
L to theL importance of absolute stiffness,
L the Lrelative stiffness of members within a
L L L L
structural system is of significance especially in seismic assessment, because it influences
the distribution of actions and deformations.
M1 M2 M3
M1 M2 M3
H/2
H/2

H H
H/2

Effect of relative
H/2

M1 M2 M3 M1 M2 M3
stiffness of beams
M1 M2 M3 M1 M2 M3
and columns on the
d d d d d d
F
distribution of
d d d d d d actions and
F
deformations in
H
H

single-storey frames
H
H

L L L L
Factors Influencing Stiffness (continued)- Effects on Action
and Deformation Distribution:
more drift demands

Strong column-weak beam (SCWB) Weak column-strong beam (WCSB)

q2 2 2
q q q2
columns and beams work together
H

H
q1 q1 q1 q1
H

H
q1 q1 q1 q1
Columns take Moment
H

H
q1 q1 q1 q1
H

H
q1 q1 q1 q1
H

H
q1 q1 q1 q1
H

H
All beams equal EI EI All beams equal EI All beams equal
EI
EI EI All beams equal EI EI
All columns equal H
> 10
columns L beams All columns equal L
beams
> 10
beams
cannot >transfer
10
L
M to columns
All columnsHequalcolumns
H columns beams All columns equal L
> 10
beams H columns

L L L L L L L L L L L L

Bending moment distributions due to gravity loads, horizontal loads, and both
The lateral deformation of structural systems is measured by the horizontal drift.
6 6
Strong Column-Weak Beam
5 Weak Column-Strong Beam 5
Drifts of the WCSB
Storey Level (No.)

4
Storey Level (No.)

4 frame are generally

3
higher than those of
3
2 SCWB frame,
1
2 Strong Column-Weak Beam especially at higher
1
Weak Column-Strong Beam
storeys.
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Normalized Lateral Displacements (di/Dtop) Normalized Storey Drifts (@i/@max)
Factors Influencing Stiffness (continued)- Effects on Action
and Deformation Distribution:
§ Irregularities, such as sharp variations of stiffness, may generate concentrations of
displacement demand.
D

di

hi
H
L L L

6 6

Regular Frame Irregular Frame

5
5
Storey Level (No.)

Storey Level (No.)

Regular Frame
4 Irregular Frame
3

3
2

1 2

0
1
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Normalized Lateral Displacements (di/Dtop)
Normalized Storey Drifts ( i/ max)

§ Soil-structure interaction (SSI) should also be taken into account in the evaluation of
the global system stiffness. This type of interaction reduces the stiffness of the super-
structure and may alter the distribution of seismic actions and deformations under
earthquake ground motion.
 Torsional Effects
§ Horizontal earthquake accelerations induce inertial forces in structural systems
which are applied in the centre of mass of the structure (CM).
§ Restoring forces are generated by the reaction of the structure. These are applied in
the centre of rigidity (CR) of the lateral resisting systems.
§ Centres of mass and rigidity may or may not coincide. If there is an offset
(eccentricity, e) between CM and CR, torsional moment (MT ) effects are generated.
§ The presence of MT leads to an unbalanced distribution of column shears,
accordingly the column moments
Y

uy
FXi cm
X
yi cs
Y
Fyi MiT
X
xi

18
Consider the single-storey dual system shown in the figure below. To distribute the seismic force Fy
among lateral resisting elements, i.e. frames and structural walls, the following equation is employed:
k yi k yi × d xi
Vyi = M
× Fy ± M
× Mt
åk i =1
yi åkj=1
yj ×d 2
xj

where kyi are the lateral stiffness of the moment resisting systems along the y-direction.
The distances of these systems from the centre of stiffness CR are dxj; Mt is the torsional moment.
30B

B B 8B 10B 8B B B

Y
2B B

Column

Column

2
Wall
7B

Column
Wall
30B

10B

O X
Column

Beam

EI ȴ
7B

Column

Column
Wall
Check the Turksih code-
H

Wall
Column

Column
B 2B

A Plan Layout B 8B 10B 8B

appendices
26B

Fy Vertical Layout A

Beam Beam

EI ȴ EI ȴ
Column

Column

2/3H
3/4H

Column

Column
Column

Column
Wall
H

9B 10B 9B 8B 10B 8B

28B 26B

Vertical Layout 1 & 2

Vertical Layout B
 Non-Structural Damage Control

§ Strength limits do not provide adequate drift control.

§ Modern seismic codes also include stringent drift limits to ensure adequate lateral
stiffness of the structure and hence reduce the extent of non-structural damage.

§ Sharp variations of stiffness in plan and elevation can cause damage

concentrations and should be avoided.

§ Whilst their capacity for gravity loads may be low, infills often act as shear walls
and affect the seismic structural response in the following respects:

• Stiffening of the structure; may cause amplification depending on freequency of your input motion

• Alteration of the load path; infill walls can change lateral stiffness distribution

• Premature failure at short columns. if we have incomplete infill there can be short column effect and may
cause shear failure of the column
 Problem
For an eight-storey RC building design, two options are available for the building lateral resisting
system. These are provided in the figure below along with the lateral capacity of the sample structures
obtained from inelastic pushover analysis.
§ Calculate the elastic lateral stiffness. It may be assumed that both structures behave linearly up to yield

3.0

12 x 3.0 = 36.0 m
limit state.

3.0
3.0
§ If the property owner decides to employ brittle partitions which structural system is preferable and why?

3.0

8 x 3.0 = 24.0 m
3.0
3.0
Base Shear

3.0
V (kN)
3.0

12 x 3.0 = 36.0 m
4.5 m
3.0

Ultimate limit state

3.0

10000 Ultimate strength 3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m

5 x 4.0 = 20.0 m 9000 5 x 4.0 = 20.0 m
3.0

8 x 3.0 = 24.0 m
F1 Yield limit state X
3.0

8.0 m
Z Z
F2
3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m

3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m
3.0

3.0

These columns

4.0 m
are removed in X X Z

12 x 3.0 = 36.0 m
3.0

F2
3.0

the ground storey

D ( mm)
3.0
4.5 m

8.0 m
Solid slabs
150 750 Waffle slab
Top Disp.
3.0

F1

8 x 3.0 = 24.0 m
3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m
3.0

5 x 4.0 = 20.0 m 5 x 4.0 = 20.0 m

(a) (b) Ultimate limit state (c)
3.0

Base Shear X

8.0 m
Z More stiff structure means
3.0

Z
3.0 m3.0

small drifts and it is good forV (kN)

3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m

18000
12 x 3.0 = 36.0 m
3.0 = 15.0

4.5 m

These columns brittle material

4.0 m
are removed in X X 16000 Z
3 x 5.0

the ground storey

Yield limit state 3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m
5 x 4.0 = 20.0 m 5 x 4.0 = 20.0 m
3.0

8 x 3.0 = 24.0 m
F1

8.0 m
Solid slabs Waffle slab X
3.0

8.0 m
Z Z
F2
3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m

3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m
3.0

These columns

4.0 m
(a) are removed in X(b) X (c) Z
3.0

the ground storey F2

4.5 m

8.0 m
D ( mm)
Solid slabs Waffle slab
F1
3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m
80 160
5 x 4.0 = 20.0 m
(a)
5 x 4.0 = 20.0 m
(b) Top
(c) Disp.
X
8.0 m

Z
Reinforced concrete moment resisting frame (top) and dual (moment resisting frame and
Z
3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m

3 x 5.0 = 15.0 m

structural wall) system (bottom): layout (left) and capacity curve (right)
These columns
4.0 m

are removed in X X Z
the ground storey
8.0 m

Solid slabs Waffle slab

 Strength
§ Strength defines the capacity of a member or an assembly of members to resist
actions. This capacity is related to a limit state expressed by the stakeholder. It is
therefore not a single number and varies as a function of the use of the structure.

§ Relationships between geometry,

d d
F V K0 mostly used mechanical properties and
Vmax strength can be derived through
Vi principles of engineering
Total Base Shear

mechanics.
Vy

§ Uncertainties in the evaluation of

structural capacities are attributed
O dy di d max du d to (i) the randomness in material
Top Lateral Displacement
properties, especially strength
parameters, (ii) geometric
Definitions of strength properties and (iii) construction
quality.

§ Attainment of shear, axial and

flexural capacities in gravity and
earthquake resistant systems can
cause damage in structural
components.
 Factor Influencing Strength
► Material properties the strength-to-weight ratio (σ/γ).
Density Young Modulus Strength Specific Elasticity Specific Strength
(kN/m3) (GPa) (MPa) (x104 m) (x102 m)

Low strength 18 - 20 16 - 24 20 - 40 89 - 120 11 - 20

Concrete Normal Strength 23 - 24 22 - 40 20 - 55 92 - 167 8 - 22
High Strength 24 – 40 24 - 50 70 - 1000 100 - 125 29 - 250
Masonry Concrete 19 - 22 7 - 10 5 - 15 37 - 45 3 - 20
Brick Clay 16 - 19 0.8 - 3.0 0.5 - 4 5 - 16 0.3 - 2
Aramidic 14 - 16 62 - 83 2500 - 3000 443 - 519 1786 - 1875
Fibre composites Carbon 18 - 20 160 - 270 1400 - 6800 889 - 1350 778 - 3400
Glass 24 - 26 70 - 80 3500 - 4100 292 - 308 1458 - 1577
Wood 1.1-13.3 0.2 - 0.5 p 28 - 70 p 4 - 18 p 53 - 255 p
7 - 12 o 2 - 10 o 90 - 636 o 8 - 18 o
Mild 79 205 200 - 500 259 25 - 63
Metals Stainless 80 193 180 - 480 241 23 - 60
Aluminium 27 65 - 73 200 - 360 240 - 270 74 - 133
Other Alloys 40 - 90 185 800 - 1000 205 - 462 111 - 200

§ Reinforced concrete (RC) How to prevent strain softening issue?

by doing transverse reinforcement
• Loss of both strength and stiffness takes place in
concrete as the strain increases; this is referred to as
strain softening or strength and stiffness degradation.
• The loss of bond between concrete and steel in RC
structures under large alternating loads reduces
strength and stiffness.
0.003
§ Structural steel Bond failure specially for Old buildings because they mostly
have smooth bars not dented bars (ribbed bars)
0.002

• It exhibits higher strength at large deformations

beyond yield; this is referred to as strain hardening.
• Under dynamic loads, the material strength increases
150-200
with the increase in strain rate.
 Factors Influencing Strength (continued)
► Section properties
§ The area A of cross-sections affects both axial and shear capacity, whilst flexural (I)
and torsional (J) moments of inertia influence flexural and torsional capacity,
respectively.

§ Shear-axial and shear-flexure interactions affect the seismic response of beams

and columns in framed systems.

§ The strength of cross-sections may also be reduced by local or global buckling.

► Member properties
§ System strength is affected by the properties of structural components and their
connections. For ex: Columns generally possess lower flexural and shear
strengths than structural walls. Slender walls are frequently used to increase
lateral stiffness and strength in medium and high-rise frames.

§ Confinement of compressed concrete and prevention of steel bar buckling is also

essential to reach the maximum member capacity of walls and columns.
d d d d
F F

► Connection properties Displaced

Wall
Shear Cracks
Displaced
Wall
Deformed Bars

Connections between horizontal

H

(Shear Deformations)

Reinforcement

diaphragms and lateral-force resisting

Torn Bar
bars Reinforcement bars
(Close-spaced) Dowel Action

systems, e.g. frames and/or walls,

considerably influence the global action Sliding Plane Spread Footing Small Cracks Spread Footing

and deformation capacity of the structure. Sliding (Discontinued) No Sliding

Squat wall with weak (left) and strong (right) foundation connections
 Factors Influencing Strength (continued)
► System properties
§ The overall lateral earthquake resistance of a system is not the sum of the
resistance of its components and the connections between them. It is more closely
related to the weakest part of the structure.

§ Cyclic loading may cause loss of resistance in structural components and the
connections between them, which, in turn, considerably lower the global strength
of the system.

§ Consistent distribution of strength in plan and elevation are fundamental

prerequisites to avoid concentration of high demand leading to concentrated
damage.

§ Interaction between structural and non-structural components may lead to

localised damage in columns.

§ Infill panels may also contribute significantly to the storey horizontal strength in
addition to the lateral stiffness and ductility.
 Effects on Load Path
§ Earthquake-resistant structures should be provided with lateral and vertical force
resisting systems capable of transmitting inertial forces from the location of masses
throughout the structure to the foundations, as well as other forces, such as from
gravity and wind.
§ Load paths depend on the
structural system utilised to resist
GRAVITY (vertical)
vertical and horizontal loads.
LOADS

EARTHQUAKE (horizontal & vertical) § Side-stepping and offsetting are

common vertical discontinuities
which lead to unfavourable stress
HORIZONTAL STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS concentrations.

STRUCTURE CONNECTIONS § Openings in diaphragms may

considerably weaken slab
VERTICAL STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
capacities.

§ Load paths may also be

LOADS
FOUNDATION CONNECTIONS
significantly affected by masonry
FOUNDATIONS
and concrete infills in framed
structures. Note that masonry and
concrete infills are generally
distributed non-uniformly in plan
GROUND and elevation. Irregular layouts of
infills may generate considerable
torsional effects and lead to high
stress concentrations.
Path for vertical and horizontal loads
 Structural Damage Control
§ Failure may be caused by the accumulation of stresses beyond the capacity of
materials, members and connections in the structure. Also, unfavourable failure of
members and structures may be caused by high stiffness and inadequate strength.

§ Shear resistance should be significantly higher than flexural capacity, an objective

that can be achieved by applying capacity design.

§ The occurrence of damage in structural components is also correlated with the

onset of target values of strains (materials), curvatures (sections), rotations
(elements and connections), inter-storey drifts (sub-system) and global drift
(systems).

§ Limiting damage in beam-to-column and foundation connections is essential to

achieve adequate performance of the structural system. For ex: Overturning
moments caused by horizontal seismic loads tend to tip over the super-structure
with or without its foundations; this mechanism is referred to as ‘up-lift’. So, deep
foundations are often more effective in resisting overturning moments than
shallow footings because of friction activated along the lateral surface of
embedded piles.

§ Overturning moments can also generate net tension and excessive compression in
columns.
 Ductility
§ Ductility is defined as the ability of a material, component, connection or structure to
undergo inelastic deformations with acceptable stiffness and strength reduction.

F
d d
V K0
§ The general analytical definition of
Brittle Ductile
Vmax displacement ductility is as given
A B
below: Du
Total Base Shear

Vu
Failure Failure
μ=
Vy Dy
where Δu and Δy are deformations
at ultimate and yield points, respectively.
O dy di d u,A d u,B d
Top Lateral Displacement
D+max + D-max
§ Definition of ductility factor based on cyclic response: μ=
D+y + D-y
where Δ+max and Δ-max are the positive and negative ultimate deformations,
respectively; Δ+y and Δ-y the corresponding deformation at the yield point;

§ High available ductility is essential to ensure inelastic redistribution of actions

among components of lateral resisting systems and to allow for large absorption
and dissipation of earthquake-induced energy.

§ Ductile systems may withstand extensive structural damage without collapsing;

this corresponds to the ‘collapse prevention’ limit state.
 Factors Influencing Ductility (continued)
► Material properties
§ Earthquakes cause alternating loads, thus action-deformation relationships
generate hysteretic loops (inelastic cyclic response ). The amount of energy
absorbed at a given deformation level corresponds to the total area under the
action-deformation curves. The dissipated energy is named ‘hysteretic energy’.
§ Several factors influence this: commonly, stiffness and strength degradation (or
strain rate effects). The latter reduces the energy dissipation capacity of the
material.
• Strain softening, which typically affects the post-peak response of plain concrete and
masonry, involves loss of strength with increasing strain. Strain softening may be reduced
by providing adequate transverse confinement of the material.
• Strain hardening

► Section properties
§ The ductile response of cross-sections of structural members subjected to bending
moments is generally quantified through the curvature ductility, which is the quotient
of the maximum section rotation and the yield rotation.
25

§ In RC structures, the curvature ductility

Confined Section
20 Unconfined Section

significantly depends on:

Curvature Ductility

15
• the ultimate compressive strain εcu,
10 • the compressive concrete strength fc,
• the yield strength of the steel reinforcement bars fy,
5
• the overstrength-ratio fu/ fy of the reinforcement,
0 • the percentage of steel in compression A’s/As,
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Column Load: Percentage of Ultimate Axial Load Capacity
35
• the level of axial forces n = N / Acfc, and
• the level of confinement (transverse reinforcement)
 Factors Influencing Ductility (continued)
► Member properties
theory
§ An adequate metric for ductile
behaviour of structural members is
the rotation ductility factor μθ given
by: θu
μθ =
θy
θu and θy are the ultimate and yield
rotations, respectively.

§ Inelasticity is concentrated in flexural plastic hinges at the ends of elements. It is often

assumed that curvatures within plastic hinges are constant thus allowing plastic
rotations θp to be expressed as follows: where cp is the plastic curvature
and Lp the length of the plastic hinge.
θ p = c L
p p

§ Plastic hinges should be located in beams rather than in columns since the
columns are responsible for the gravity load resistance, hence the stability of the
structure. Shear capacity of both beams and columns should always be higher than
flexural strength, to avoid brittle shear failure. To provide these requirements:
• To ensure adequate rotational ductility in flexural plastic hinges, it is necessary to carefully
detail critical regions (plastic hinges).
• In RC members, it is essential to provide closely spaced stirrups which confine effectively
the concrete and use sufficient lap splices and anchorage lengths.
• For steel and composite members, cross-sections employing plates with high width-to-
thickness ratios in plastic hinge regions are necessary in order to avoid local buckling.
 Factors Influencing Ductility (continued)
► Connection properties
§ The behaviour of connections affects significantly the global ductile response of
structures. The ductility of beam-to-column connections is controlled by yield
mechanisms and failure modes.
• Multiple yield mechanisms may contribute to plastic rotations if their resistances are all lower
than the strength of the critical failure mode of the connection.Multiple yield mechanisms rather
than a single yield mechanism are generally desirable to achieve adequate seismic performance.
► System properties
§ The most convenient parameter to quantify the global ductility of structural systems
under earthquake loads is the displacement ductility μδ. D
μ= u
§ Displacement ductility factors μδ should be expressed as storey drift ductility rather D y
than roof lateral displacements, to detect localised inelastic demands along the height.
§ For a given earthquake ground motion and predominant period of vibration, the global
ductility increases as the yield level of the structural system decreases.
Definition of yield deformations Definitions of ultimate deformations
.
V V Maximum (Ultimate)
V V Maximum (Ultimate)
Load Load
Limiting Compressive
Vmax Vmax
Strain
V
Total Base Shear
Total Base Shear

Total Base Shear

Total Base Shear

First Yielding

Vy

O dy d O dy d O du d O du d
Top Lateral Displacement Top Lateral Displacement
Top Lateral Displacement Top Lateral Displacement
(a) Based on First Yield (b) Based on Equivalent Elasto-Plastic Yield (a) Based on a Limiting Compressive Strain (b) Based on Peak Load
V Maximum (Ultimate) V Maximum (Ultimate) V V
Maximum (Ultimate)
Load Load First Fracture or Buckling
Vmax Vmax Vmax
Load

V
V
Total Base Shear

Total Base Shear

Total Base Shear

0.75Vmax
Equal Areas Small Reduction
Total Base Shear

in Load Capacity

O dy d O dy d
O du d O du d
Top Lateral Displacement Top Lateral Displacement
Top Lateral Displacement Top Lateral Displacement
(c) Based on Equivalent Elasto-Plastic Energy Absorption (d) Based on Reduced Stiffness Equivalent Elasto-Plastic Yield
(c) Based on Significant Load Capacity After Peak Load (d) Based on Fracture and/or Buckling
 Relations btw Factors Influencing Ductility
§ Global mechanisms with plastic hinges at column base and within beams (strong
column-weak beam design) are preferred due to the higher energy dissipation capacity.
§ Large inelastic deformations and large amounts of energy dissipation require high
values of local ductility.
• Adequate inelastic behaviour of structures under strong earthquakes can only be achieved if
curvature ductility factors μc are much higher than displacement ductility factors μδ. For the
cantilever bridge pier shown in the figure below, the relationship between μδ and μc can be
expressed as follows: 20,0
Lp/L = 0.05 Lp/L = 0.10 Lp/L = 0.15

D tot Lp/L = 0.20 Lp/L = 0.25 Lp/L = 0.30

Displacement ductility (pp)

15,0
De Dp
F Gm

Lp é æ L p öù
ê(μ χ - 1) çç1 - 0.5 ÷÷ú
10,0
μδ = 1 + 3 Ductile Response

L ë è L øû
L

qp
5,0
Lp

cp ce
0,0
Member Bending Moment Curvatures Displacements
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0
Curvature ductility (p p)

• To ensure adequate energy dissipation and prevent dynamic instability of the system as a whole,
plastic hinges at the base of multi-storey frames should possess high rotational ductility.
Inelastic storey drifts are correlated to plastic hinge rotations θp:
du du du du du

δp = δu - δy = q p Hc

Hc
Hc is the sum of the inter-storey height of stories
Hc

involved in the collapse mechanism

Hc

Hc
Hc

as shown in the figure below.

θp = cpLp L L L L L

Typical plastic mechanisms for framed systems

 Problem

The structural response of the bridge pier shown in the figure below can be idealized as
an elastic-perfectly plastic relationship. Assume that the yield bending moment (My=Vy H)
and the elastic lateral stiffness (k L) of the pier are 480 kN-m and 480 kN/m, respectively.
Calculate the displacement ductility µd of the pier corresponding to a top drift of 0.5m. If
the plastic hinge length Lp is equal to 0.1 L, compute the curvature ductility factor µc for
the cantilever pier.

Base shear
L=10 m

D D
Vy

kL
Section
1

Top displacement
 Effects on Action Redistribution
§ Inelastic response of structures subjected to earthquakes is primarily controlled by local and
global ductility.
§ Failure of ductile structures does not correspond to the maximum resistance or formation of
first plastic hinge in structural components. Ductility allows redundant structures to dissipate
energy and continue to resist seismic actions, while successive plastic hinges are formed. It is
highly desirable in seismic design to control the location of dissipative zones and the type of
post-elastic behaviour in these zones.
§ Column-sway and beam-sway modes correspond to WCSB and SCWB design approaches,
respectively. Global frame response is often characterised by mixed-mode mechanisms, with
hinges in beams and columns.
§ The amount of seismic energy dissipated in beam-sway mechanisms is higher than that in
column-sway. Because in frames with SCWB, the total number of plastic hinges is generally
higher than in frames with WCSB.
§ Ultimately, structures only fail due to gravity, but are weakened by earthquakes: Systems with
WCSB may experience severe damage in columns, and column failure leads to the collapse of
the entire building due to gravity.

(a)(a) (a) Column-sway mechanism

Column-sway
Column-sway mechanism for
mechanism (b) Beam-sway mechanism
(b)(b) Beam-sway
Beam-sway mechanism
mechanism (c) Mixed mechanism
(c)(c) Mixed
Mixed mechanism
mechanism
Energy-dissipating mechanisms multi-storey frames: column-sway (left), beam-sway (middle)
and mixed (right) mechanisms
 Structural Collapse Prevention
§ Prevention of structural collapse is a Material of construction Brittle Failure Modes
fundamental objective of seismic design. Buckling of reinforcement bars
Reinforced Concrete Bond or anchorage failure
Structural collapse prevention can be Member shear failure
achieved through failure mode control. The
Out-of-plane bending failure
following failure modes should be avoided for Masonry Global buckling of walls
any type of loading: Sliding shear
Fracture of welds and/or parent
• Those involving sudden failure; material
• Those involving total collapse due to failure of Bolt shear or tension failure
Structural Steel
vertical load-carrying members. Member buckling
Member tension failure
Member shear failure

§ In the capacity design approach, the designer dictates where the damage should occur in the
system and imposes a ductile failure mode of the structure as a whole.

§ For MRFs designed in compliance with SCWB rules, beams are dissipative members. The
remainder of the structure is designed with the strength to ensure that no other yielding zones
are likely to occur; these are ‘non-dissipative components’. The only exception is the bases of
columns at the ground floor.

§ Elements carrying vertical loads are designed with added strength.

• Members with large slenderness ratios should be avoided and the level of axial loads should not exceed
25-30% of the yield force in the columns.
• Variations of axial loads in columns due to overturning moments and vertical vibrations increase the
likelihood of local and global instability.

§ Failure mode control is significantly affected by material randomness, presence of non-

structural components and quality control: For ex, infilled walls, claddings and internal
partitions can may alter the hierarchy in the failure mode sequence. To achieve an adequate
control of the failure mode, non-structural components should be accounted for in the analysis
of the dynamic behaviour and in the seismic detailing of the dissipative components.
 Overstrength
§ Overstrength is a parameter used to quantify the difference between the
required and the actual strength of a material, a component or a structural Vy
system. Structural overstrength is generally expressed by the ‘overstrength Ω d =
factor’ Ωd defined as follows, where Vy and Vd are the actual and the design Vd
lateral strengths of the system, respectively.
§ Structural overstrength results from
a number of factors, such as:
i. Difference between actual
and design material
strengths;
ii. Effects of confinement in RC,
masonry and composite
members;
iii. Minimum reinforcement and
member sizes exceeding
design requirements;
iv. Conservatism of the design (W i

procedures;
Relationship between strength, overstrength and ductility.
v. Effects of structural elements
not considered in predicting
the lateral load capacity;
vi. Load factors and multiple load cases adopted in seismic design including
accidental torsion;
vii. Serviceability limit state provisions;
viii. Structural redundancy;
ix. Participation of non-structural elements in the earthquake response of structures.
 Problem
Rank the components circled below according to overstrength factors (Ωd) to render the
structure ductile (higher energy dissipation capacity):

• Beam, Ωd,bf;
• Column, Ωd,cf;
• Beam-column joint, Ωd,js.

!d,bf : Overstrength factor for beam flexural strength

!d,js : Overstrength factor for beam-column joint shear strength

!d,cf : Overstrength factor for column flexural strength

Overstrength factors employed for the design of multi-storey moment resisting frames
 Damping
§ Damping is utilised to characterise the ability of structures to dissipate energy
during dynamic response. Damping values depend on several factors:
Vibration amplitude; Material of construction; Fundamental periods of vibration;
Mode shapes; Structural configurations
§ Seismic energy transmitted to structures can be 1 w1 E Diss 1 A hyst
ξ eq = × × = ×
dissipated through different damping mechanisms: 4π w E Sto 2π F0 u 0
Structural damping, Supplemental damping,.. ccr is the critical damping coefficient
ξeq the equivalent damping ratio
x0 corresponds to the initial damping in the elastic
§ For relatively small values of damping, range
hysteretic, viscous and friction damping can be xhyst indicates the equivalent viscous damping ratio
conveniently expressed by ‘equivalent viscous that represents the dissipation due to the
inelastic hysteretic - behaviour.
damping’ ceq as follows: EDiss is the energy loss per cycle , ESto represents the
elastic strain energy stored in an equivalent
c eq = ξ eq × c cr linear elastic system.
The terms w1 and w are the natural frequency of the
xeq increases in proportion to w1 system and the frequency of the applied load

§ Minimum, maximum and mean values of equivalent viscous damping for several
forms of structures employing different materials are summarised in the table
below. Structural system Structural Damping (%)
(type) Minimum Maximum Mean
Buildings 0.5 5.0 2.75
Steel towers, unlined, welded construction 0.4 0.7 0.55
Steel tower, unlined, bolted construction 0.6 1.0 0.80
Steel tower, unlined welded, elevated on steel support structure 0.3 0.5 0.40
Concrete tower 0.5 1.2 0.85
Concrete tower with internal partitions 0.1 2.5 1.30
Steel bridges 0.3 1.0 0.65
Reinforced concrete bridges 0.5 2.0 1.25
Pre-stressed concrete bridges 0.3 1.0 0.65
 Relationship between Strength, Overstrength and Ductility
The ratio between seismic design Vd and elastic Ve Ve Vy Ve
base shears is defined as ‘force reduction factor’ R: R = Ω d = R = Wd
V Vd Vd Vy
y
Ωd =
Assume Vd=Vy Vd =1, and get inelastic /or Long period --> equal displacement
design ) base shear-disp behaviour for a SDOF:
V
► For long period structures: The maximum Ve
displacement of the inelastic system is almost Elastic

constant. Therefore, criterion based on ‘equal

displacements’ may be used to link the two systems, Inelastic

Vd = Vy
which corresponds to the following ratios between
actions and deformations at yield and elastic. The
inelastic (or design) base shear Vy of the new system is: Equal
Displacement

Vy Ve V O Dy D e= D u D
Du = De = Vy = e R=𝜇
Dy De μ Intermediate period --> equal energy

► For intermediate period structures:

V The displacement V
Δu increases with decreasing yield
Ve
action Vy. The inelastic Ve
(or design) base shear Vy and lateral displacement
Elastic Δu of Elastic

the new system are: Equal

Areas
Inelastic Inelastic
Ve μ Vd = Vy Vd = Vy
Vy = Du = De R= 2𝜇 − 1
2μ - 1 2μ - 1
Equal
Displacement
► For short period structures: there is no reduction (R=1)
in design forces which corresponds
O Dy
to elastic D e= D u D
design. O Dy De Du D
 Problem
Derive the following relationship for the intermediate-period structures:

VeV V
Vy =
2μV- 1
e
Elastic
Ve
Elastic
Equal
Areas
Inelastic Inelastic

Vd = Vy Vd = Vy

Equal
Displacement

O Dy D e= D u D O Dy De Du D