Local behaviour and Landau

symbols: suggested exercises

√
Exercise 1. Verify that f (x) = 2x2 + x + 1 and g(x) = x − 1 are infinite functions of
the same order as x → +∞; then, determine k ∈ R so that f (x) ∼ k g(x), as x → +∞.

Exercise 2. Compare, as x → 2, the infinitesimals

√
1 1 √ √
f (x) = x − 2, − , h(x) = ( x − 2)2 .
3
g(x) =
x 2

√
Exercise 3. Compare the infinite functions f (x) = x3 and g(x) = 3
x8 − 7x2 as x →
+∞.
√
Exercise 4. Compare the infinitesimals f (x) = x3 and g(x) = 3
x8 − 7x2 as x → 0.

x2
Exercise 5. Compare the infinite functions f (x) = and g(x) = x ln x, as x → +∞.
ln x

Exercise 6.

a) Being f (x) an infinitesimal for x → x0 , verify that sin f (x) ∼ f (x), as x → x0 .

√
b) From the previous proof, deduce that sin ( x2 + 1 − x) is an infinitesimal of the
1
same order of , as x → +∞.
x

Exercise 7. Being f (x) = o(1) as x → x0 and f (x) ̸= 0 in a neighbourhood of x0 , verify

that (1 + f (x))5 − 1 ∼ 5f (x). From the previous proof, deduce that, as x → 0,

(1 + sin x)5 − 1 ∼ 5x.

Then, compute the limit

(1 + sin x)5 − 1
lim √ .
x→0+ 1 − cos x

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2 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises

Exercise 8. Being f (x) = o(1) for x → x0 and f (x) ̸= 0 in a neighbourhood of x0 ,

verify that log(1 + f (x)) ∼ f (x). From the previous proof, deduce that, as x → 0,

log(1 + 4x) ∼ 4x.

Then, compute the limit

log(1 + 4x)
lim .
x→0 x + 3x2

Exercise 9. Determine the principal part and the order of the following infinitesimal
functions, as x → 0, with respect to u(x) = x:
√ √ cos x
(a) f1 (x) = x2 + 7 − 7 (b) f2 (x) = −1
1 + x2
x √
(c) f3 (x) = e x+1 − 1 (d) f4 (x) = arcsin( 4 cos x − 1)

(e) f5 (x) = 1 − cos3 (2x) (f ) f6 (x) = log(1 + tan3 x)

√ √
(g) f7 (x) = 4 − 3x2 − 2 (h) f8 (x) = cos x − 1

√ √ x3/2 + 5x2
(i) f9 (x) = n
1+x− m1−x (l) f10 (x) = √ √
x+ 3x
√
1 + sin x
√ −1
3
(m) f11 (x) = 1 + 2 sin2 x − cos x (n) f12 (x) =
1− x
(√ ) √
(o) f13 (x) = log x2 + 9 − log 3 (p) f14 (x) = arctan ( 4 cos x − 1)

Exercise 10. Determine the principal part and the order of the following infinitesimal
functions, as x → x0 , with respect to u(x) = x − x0 :
√
1 1 √ √
− (b) f2 (x) = ( x − 2)2 x
3
(a) f1 (x) = (x0 = 2) (x0 = 2)
x 2
√ √
(c) f3 (x) = sin x (x0 = π) (d) f4 (x) = 1 + 2x − 5 (x0 = 2)
[ ( )]
π
(e) f5 (x) = cos x (x0 = π/2) (f ) f6 (x) = (x − 1) 1 − sin
2
x (x0 = 1)
2
√ (√ )
(g) f7 (x) = x−1 (x0 = 1) (h) f8 (x) = log x+7−2 (x0 = 2)

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises 3

Exercise 11. Determine the principal part and the order of the following infinitesimal
1
functions, with respect to u(x) = , as x → +∞ and as x → −∞:
x
√
3x2 + 5 x3 3
(a) f (x) = 5
(b) g(x) = tan 2
x x
√ √ √
(c) h(x) = x2 + 2 − x2 + 1 (d) k(x) = sin ( x4 + 1 − x2 )

Exercise 12. Determine the principal part and the order of the following infinitesimal
1
functions, as x → +∞, with respect to u(x) = :
x
√ √ ( )
x+ 3x 2 3
(a) f1 (x) = 3/2 (b) f2 (x) = arctan +
x + 5x2 x x2
√ √ √ √ 1
(c) f3 (x) = 3
x+1− 3x−1 (d) f4 (x) = x2 + x−x+
x
( )
3 √ √ 1
(e) f5 (x) = log e + −1 (f ) f6 (x) = x+1− x− √
x x
( ) ( )
1 1
(g) f7 (x) = log cos (h) f8 (x) = log 3 + arctan x2 − log 3
x x

Exercise 13. Determine the principal part and the order of the following infinite
functions, with respect to u(x) = x, as x → +∞:
√ √ √
(a) f1 (x) = 2x2 + x + 1 − x − 1 (b) f2 (x) = 3 x8 − 7x2 − x2

1
( )
(c) f3 (x) = xe x (d) f4 (x) = log e2x + 3

√ √ √
x4 1
(e) f5 (x) = √ − x3 + x (f ) f6 (x) = x2 + x+x+
2
x +1 x

Exercise 14. As x → 0+ , compare the following infinitesimals, sorting them in increas-

ing order:
√
2
x sin x x2 ex − 1
2− x2 , x2 , x x,
1
, x2 log x, e− x , x log2 x, √ ,
1 1
, xx , .
log x x log x x

Exercise 15. Compute the following limits:

cos (2x) − 1 log(1 + 4x3 )
(a) lim (b) lim
x→0 x2 x→0 2x3
√3
1 + 5x4 − 1 e5x − 1
(c) lim (d) lim
x→0 2x4 x→0 x
√
log(e + 2x5 ) − 1 16 + 3x3 − 4
(e) lim (f ) lim
x→0 x5 x→0 x3

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4 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises

Exercise 16. Compute the following limits:

sin(sin x) cos x − cos (2x)

(a) lim (b) lim
x→0 x x→0 1 − cos x
( )3
x x log3 (1 + 2x)
(c) lim 1 + (d) lim
x→0 2 x→0 sin x
2 √
3x − 1 n
1 + 2x − 1
(e) lim (f ) lim
x→0 x2 x→0 x
√
( 2)x − 1 log sin x
(g) lim (h) lim
x→0 2x + sin x x→0 log x

x2 1
(i) lim (l) lim (2 − cos x) sin2 x
x→0+ log2 x sin x x→0

1 1
1 + 2x 1 + 2x
(m) lim 1 (n) lim 1
x→0− 3 + 2x x→0+ 3 + 2x
( )
log 1 + tan4 x log(cos x)
(o) lim (p) lim
e2 sin x − 1
4
x→0 x→0 x2

xsin x − 1 1
(q) lim (r) lim (3 · 2x − 2 · 3x ) x
x→0+ x x→0
( )
1 1 √
(s) lim (ex − 1) log x (t) lim 9 + sin (2x − 1) − 3
x→0+ x→0 x

Exercise 17 Compute the following limits:

x−3 x+1
(a) lim √ √ (b) lim √ ,
x→3 x− 3 x→−1 2
6x + 3 + 3x
√
3
10 − x − 2 sin x − 1
(c) lim (d) lim ( π )2 ,
x−2
2 −x
x→2 x→π/2

( )
cos π x sin x − cos x
(e) lim √ 4 (f ) lim
x→2− 4 − x2 x→π/4 sin(4x)
[( )x+5 ]
− log1 x √
(g) lim x (h) lim x+6 −1
x→1 x→−5

√
√ sin x2 − 1
cos x
(i) lim (tan x) (l) lim ( √ )
x→ π2 − x→1+ log x + 3 x2 − 1

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises 5

Exercise 18. Compute the limits of the following functions as x → +∞ and as x → −∞:

x3 − 3x √
(a) a(x) = (b) b(x) = x4 + 5x2 + 1 − x2
x2 + 1 − 2x3
√ √
(c) c(x) = 2x − 4x2 + x (d) d(x) = x2 + 2x + x

1 sin x − cos x
(e) e(x) = x sin (f ) f (x) =
x x
( )−x
e x5 3x + 2x
(g) g(x) = 1 − (l) h(x) =
x x4 4x + 3x

Exercise 19. Compute the limits of the following functions as x → +∞:

x2 + log3 x − ex ex sin (e−x sin x)

(a) a(x) = (b) b(x) =
3e−x + 5ex − x10 x
( )x+3
x2 + 2x + 3 ( 1
)
(c) c(x) = (d) d(x) = x 2 x − 1
x2 − x + 1
( ) [ ( )]x
x+3 1
(e) e(x) = x log (f ) f (x) = log e +
x x

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6 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises

SOLUTIONS

√
Exercise 1. It is easy to verify that f (x) ∼ 2 g(x), as x → +∞.

Exercise 2. h is an infinitesimal of higher order than f and g is an infinitesimal of

higher order than g, as x → 2.

Exercise 3. f is an infinite function of order 3, g is an infinite function of order 83 , as

x → +∞. Thus, f has order higher than g, as x → +∞.

Exercise 4. f is infinitesimal of order 3, g is infinitesimal of order 23 , as x → 0. Thus,

f is an infinitesimal of higher order than g, as x → 0.

Exercise 5. f is an infinite function of higher order than g, for x → +∞.

(1 + sin x)5 − 1
Exercise 7. lim √ = 10.
x→0 1 − cos x

log(1 + 4x)
Exercise 8. lim = 4.
x→0 x + 3x2

Exercise 9.
√ √
7 2 7 2
9a) f1 (x) = x + o(x2 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f1 is x as x → 0.
14 14
The order is 2.
3 3
9b) f2 (x) = − x2 + o(x2 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f2 is − x2 as x → 0.
2 2
The order is 2.

9c) f3 (x) = x + o(x) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f3 is x as x → 0.

The order is 1.

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises 7

1 1
9d) f4 (x) = − x2 + o(x2 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f4 is − x2 as x → 0 .
8 8
The order is 2.

9e) f5 (x) = 6x2 + o(x2 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f5 is 6x2 as x → 0 .

The order is 2.

9f ) f6 (x) = x3 + o(x3 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f6 is x3 as x → 0 .

The order is 3.

3 3
9g) f7 (x) = − x2 + o(x2 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f7 is − x2 as x → 0 .
4 4
The order is 2.

1 1
9h) f8 (x) = − x2 + o(x2 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f8 is − x2 as x → 0 .
4 4
The order is 2.
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
9i) f9 (x) = + x + o(x) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f9 is + x as x → 0.
n m n m
The order is 1.

9l) f10 (x) = x7/6 + o(x7/6 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f10 is x7/6 as x → 0 .

The order is 7/6.

7 7 2
9m) f11 (x) = x2 + o(x2 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f11 is x as x → 0+ .
6 6
The order is 2.

9n) f12 (x) = x1/2 + o(x1/2 ) as x → 0+ , =⇒ P.P. of f12 is x1/2 as x → 0 .

The order is 1/2.

1 2 1 2
9o) f13 (x) = x + o(x2 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f13 is x as x → 0 .
18 18
The order is 2.

1 1
9p) f14 (x) = − x2 + o(x2 ) as x → 0, =⇒ P.P. of f14 is − x2 as x → 0 .
8 8
The order is 2.

Exercise 10.

1 1 1 1 1
10a) f1 (x) = − √
3
(x−2) 3 +o((x−2) 3 ) as x → 2, =⇒ P.P. of f2 is − √
3
(x − 2) 3 per x → 2 .
4 4
The order is 1/3.

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8 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises

1 1
10b) f2 (x) = (x−2)2 +o((x−2)2 ) as x → 2, =⇒ P.P. of f1 is (x − 2)2 as x → 2 .
8 8
The order is 2.

10c) f3 (x) = −(x − π) + o(x − π) as x → π, =⇒ P.P. of f3 is −(x − π) as x → π .

The order is 1.
1
10d) f4 (x) = √ (x − 2) + o(x − 2) as x → 2, =⇒ P.P. of f4 is (x − 2) as x → 2 .
5
The order is 1.
( ) (( )) ( )
π π π π π
10e) f5 (x) = − x − +o x− as x → , =⇒ P.P. of f6 is − x − as x → .
2 2 2 2 2
The order is 3.
π2 π2
10f ) f6 (x) = (x−1)3 +o((x−1)3 ) as x → 1, =⇒ P.P. of f6 is (x − 1)3 as x → 1 .
4 4
The order is 3.
1 1
10g) f7 (x) = (x − 1) + o((x − 1)) as x → 1, =⇒ P.P. of f7 is (x − 1) as x → 1 .
2 2
The order is 1.
1 1
10h) f8 (x) = (x − 2) + o((x − 2)) as x → 2, =⇒ P.P. of f8 is (x − 2) as x → 2 .
6 6
The order is 1.

Exercise 11.
( )
3 1 2
11a) f (x) = 3 + o as x → ±∞ =⇒ P.P. of f is as x → ±∞ .
x x3 x3
The order is 3.
( )
3 1 3
11b) g(x) = 2 + o as x → ±∞ =⇒ P.P. of g is as x → ±∞ .
x x2 x2
The order is 2.
( )
1 1
11c) h(x) = +o as x → ±∞
2|x| x
1 1
=⇒ P.P. of h is as x → +∞ and − as x → −∞ .
2x 2x
The order is 1.
( )
1 1 1
11d) k(x) = 2 + o as x → ±∞ =⇒ P.P. of k is as x → ±∞ .
2x x2 2x2
The order is 2.

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises 9

Exercise 12.
( )
1 1 1
12a) f1 (x) = 3/2 + o 3/2
as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f1 is as x → +∞ .
5x x 5x3/2
The order is 3/2.
( )
2 1 2
12b) f2 (x) = + o as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f2 is as x → +∞ .
x x x
The order is 1.
( )
2 1 2
12c) f3 (x) = 2/3 + o 2/3
as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f3 is as x → +∞ .
3x x 3x2/3
The order is 2/3.
( )
1 1 1
12d) f4 (x) = 1/2 + o 1/2
as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f4 is as x → +∞ .
2x x 2x1/2
The order is 1/2.
( )
3 1 3
12e) f5 (x) = +o as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f5 is as x → +∞ .
ex x ex
The order is 1.
( )
1 1 1
12f ) f6 (x) = − 1/2 + o 1/2
as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f6 is − as x → +∞ .
2x x 2x1/2
The order is 1/2.
( )
1 1 1
12g) f7 (x) = − 3 + o as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f7 is − as x → +∞ .
2x x3 2x3
The order is 3.
( )
2 1 2
12h) f8 (x) = +o as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f8 is as x → +∞ .
3x x 3x
The order is 1.

Exercise 13.

√ √
13a) f1 (x) = 2x + o(x) as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f1 is 2x as x → +∞ .

The order is 1.
8
( 8
) 8
13b) f2 (x) = x 3 + o x 3 as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f2 is x 3 as x → +∞ .

The order is 8/3.

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10 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises

13c) f3 (x) = x as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f3 is x as x → +∞ .

The order is 1.

13d) f4 (x) = 2x as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f4 is 2x as x → +∞ .

The order is 1.

13e) f5 (x) = −x3 as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f5 is −x3 as x → +∞ .

The order is 3.

13f ) f6 (x) = 2x as x → +∞ =⇒ P.P. of f6 is 2x as x → +∞ .

The order is 1.

Exercise 14. In increasing order of infinitesimal, as x → 0+ , it results

√
2
sin x ex − 1 x x2
, e− x , x x , 2− x2 .
1 1 1
√ , x log2 x, , x x, x2 log x, x2 ,
x x log x log x

Exercise 15. (a) − 2 (b) 2 (c) 5/6 (d) 5 (e) 2/e (f ) 3/8

2 2 log 2
Exercise 16. (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) e3/2 (d) (e) log 3 (f ) (g) (h) 1
log 3 n 6
√ 1 1 1 8 log 2
(i) 0 (l) e (m) (n) 1 (o) (p) − (q) −∞ (r) (s) e (t)
3 2 2 9 6

√
√ 1 1 2 1
Exercise 17. (a) 2 3 (b) 1 (c) − (d) − (e) 0 (f ) − (g) (h) 0
12 2 4 e
1
(i) 1 (l)
3

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: suggested exercises 11

Exercise 18.
1 1
(a) lim a(x) = − lim a(x) = −
x→+∞ 2 x→−∞ 2
5 5
(b) lim b(x) = lim b(x) =
x→+∞ 2 x→−∞ 2
1
(c) lim c(x) = − lim c(x) = −∞
x→+∞ 4 x→−∞

(d) lim d(x) = +∞ lim d(x) = −1

x→+∞ x→−∞

(e) lim e(x) = 1 lim e(x) = 1

x→+∞ x→−∞

(f ) lim f (x) = 0 lim f (x) = 0

x→+∞ x→−∞

(g) lim g(x) = ee lim g(x) = ee

x→+∞ x→−∞

(h) lim h(x) = 0 lim h(x) = +∞

x→+∞ x→−∞

1
Exercise 19. (a) − (b) 0 (c) e3 (d) log 2 (e) 3 (f ) e1/e
5

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