Local behaviour and Landau

symbols: solved exercises

√ √ √ √
Exercise 1. Verify that f (x) = x + 5 − 5 and g(x) = x + 7 − 7 are infinitesimals
of the same order, as x → 0; then, determine c ∈ R so that g ∼ cf , as x → 0.

Exercise 2. Compare the infinitesimals f (x) = tan2 x and g(x) = tan(sin x), as x → 0.

Exercise 3. As x → 0+ , compare the infinitesimals

√
f (x) = x arctan x, g(x) = 2−1/x , h(x) = 1 − cos x.

Determine the order of the function f + g + h with respect to the infinitesimal u(x) = x
as x → 0+ .

Exercise 4. Compare the infinitesimals

√ √ √ 1 1
f (x) = x − 3, g(x) = x − 3, h(x) = √ − √
x 3

as x → 3+ ; then, determine the order of f, g, h with respect to the infinitesimal u(x) =

x − 3.

Exercise 5. Determine whether the infinite functions f (x) = x3 and g(x) = x3 esin x are
comparable, as x → +∞.

Exercise 6. Compare the infinitesimals

√ sin x 2+x
f (x) = sin( x2 + 1 − x), g(x) = , h(x) = ,
x x2

as x → +∞. Determine, if any, the order and the principal part of f , g and h with
1
respect to the infinitesimal u(x) = as x → +∞.
x

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2 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

(π )−1
Exercise 7. Compare the infinite functions f (x) = tan x and g(x) = −x , as
2
π−
x→ .
2
Exercise 8. Compare the infinite functions as x → +∞
√
f (x) = x4 , g(x) = x3 ln x, h(x) = x−1

and determine the order of the function f + g + h with respect to the infinite u(x) = x,
as x → +∞.

Exercise 9. As n → +∞, compare the infinite functions

( )
n √
an = 3n + n − 1,
2 n
bn = , cn = n! .
2
In order to study c), use the Stirling formula (not proved in this course)
√
n! ∼ nn e−n 2πn, as n → +∞.

Exercise 10. As x → +∞, compare the following functions

2 +x 2
f (x) = ex , g(x) = x 2x , h(x) = x100

defining the infinite function of the highest order and the one of the lowest order.

Exercise 11. Determine the principal part and the order of the following infinitesimal
functions with respect to the infinitesimal u(x) = x, as x → 0:
4
√
x2 +1
(a) f1 (x) = e3x − 1 (b) f2 (x) = e −e

1 − cos x
(c) f3 (x) = √ (d) f4 (x) = log(cos x)
x + x2
√ √ x
x + x2 − (f ) f6 (x) = ee − ecos x
3
(e) f5 (x) = 3
x + x2
(√ )
(g) f7 (x) = log(x + 3) − log 3 (h) f8 (x) = sin(2x2 ) 1 + 3x − 1
√ √ √
(i) f9 (x) = 1 − cos (x2 ) (l) f10 (x) = 1+x− 1−x
√
sin x + 2 3 x
(n) f12 (x) = x2 + sin(2x3 ) + 1 − e−x
2
(m) f11 (x) = √3
√
x+ 5x

( √ ) 1 + sin x
(o) f13 (x) = sin π 1 + x (p) f14 (x) = −1
1−x
√
1 + 3x2 (√ )
(q) f15 (x) = −1 (r) f16 (x) = log 9+x−2
1 + 2x

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 3

Exercise 12. Determine the principal part and the order of the following infinitesimal
functions with respect to the infinitesimal u(x) = x − x0 , as x → x0 :

(a) f1 (x) = log x − log 2 (x0 = 2) (b) f2 (x) = ex − e (x0 = 1)

√
(c) f3 (x) = 1 − sin x (x0 = π/2) (d) f4 (x) = 1 + cos(x2 ) (x0 = π)
√ π √
(e) f5 (x) = sin x − 1 (x0 = ) (f ) f (x) = 3
x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 9 (x0 = −1)
2
√ ex−1
(g) f (x) = 3
x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 9 (x0 = 3) (h) f8 (x) = √ − 1 (x0 = 1)
x

Exercise 13. Determine the principal part and the order of the following infinitesimal
1
functions with respect to the infinitesimal u(x) = , as x → +∞:
x
√
2x2 + 3 x 3
(a) f1 (x) = 3
(b) f2 (x) = arctan 2
x x
√
√ √ 1 x−3
(c) f3 (x) = x + 1 − x + (d) f4 (x) = −1
x x
( )
x+1 x+3
(e) f5 (x) = e x − e (f ) f6 (x) = log
x+1

Exercise 14. Determine the principal part and the order of the following infinite
functions with respect to the infinite u(x) = x, as x → +∞:

x3/2 + 5x2 2x3 − x + log(x)

(a) f1 (x) = √ √ (b) f2 (x) = √
1+ x+ 4x x x+1
√ √ √
(c) f3 (x) = x4 + x3 − x2 + x (d) f4 (x) = x3 + 5 + 2x

(e) f5 (x) = log(ex + 5x2 + 1) (f ) f6 (x) = log(e5x + e−7x + 4)

√ 2
(g) f7 (x) = log(e2x + 1) + x x + x2 log x (h) f8 (x) = (x2 + 2)e x+3

Exercise 15. Compute the principal part of the functions

f (x) = sin x − tan x + x2 , g(x) = x(1 − cos x)

with respect to x, as x → 0. Then, compute the limit of the quotient f /g, as x → 0.

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4 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

( π) 1
Exercise 16. Determine the principal part of f (x) = tan x + with respect to ,
2 x
as x → 0− .
√
Then, determine the principal part of g(x) = ex − x + 1 with respect to x, as x → 0− .
Finally, compute the limit of the product f g, as x → 0− .

Exercise 17. Compute the principal part of the functions

√
f (x) = ex − 3 + 2e−x , g(x) = 1 − 3x − 1

with respect to x, as x → 0. Then, compute the limit of the quotient f /g, as x → 0.

√ √
Exercise 18. Determine the principal part of f (x) = 5
x + 1 and g(x) = 5
x − 1 as
x → +∞ with respect to the infinite function u(x) = x. Then, compute the limit of the
difference f − g, as x → +∞.

Exercise 19. Determine, as α varies in R, the principal part and the order of the
following infinitesimal functions with respect to x, as x → 0:
(a) f1 (x) = sin(αx2 ) + 2x (b) f2 (x) = sin(x2 ) + 2αx

4 4
(c) f3 (x) = (x + 2)2 − (d) f4 (x) = log(1 + x2 ) + αxex
1 + αx2
4
(e) f5 (x) = (x + 2α)2 − (f ) f6 (x) = ecos x − e + αx
1 + x2

Exercise 20. Compute the following limits by using the Principle of elimination of
negligible terms.
√
(1 − cos x)2 + sin2 x 3
1 + x3 + x2
lim lim .
x→0 x3 − x2 x→+∞ 3x2 + sin x

Exercise 21. Being f (x) = o(1) as x → x0 and f (x) ̸= 0 in a neighborhood of x0 , verify

f 2 (x)
that 1 − cos [f (x)] ∼ . From the previous proof, deduct that, as x → 0,
2
1 − cos(x3 + 2x2 ) ∼ 2x4 .

Then, compute the limit

1 − cos(x3 + 2x2 )
lim .
x→0 x4 − x7

Exercise 22. Being f (x) = o(1) as x → x0 and f (x) ̸= 0 in a neighbourhood of x0 ,

verify that ef (x) − 1 ∼ f (x). From the previous proof, deduct that, as x → 0,
√ x
e( 1+x−1
−1∼ .
2

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 5

Then, compute the limit √

e 1+x − e
lim √ .
x→0+ 2x + x

Exercise 23. Compute the following limits

x4 − x3 + 1 log(3 − x)
(a) lim (b) lim √ √
x→1+ 1 − x3 x→2 4−x− 2
√
e−2x+4 − 1 4x + 5 − 1
(c) lim (d) lim
x→2 x−2 x→−1 5 · 5x − 1

(√ ) 1 − sin(π cos x)
(e) lim 1 + x − 1 ex−3 −1 (f ) lim
x→3 x→−π x sin x
(√ ) 1 log x − log 5
(g) lim x sin(x−1) (h) lim
x→1 x→5 (x − 3)2 − 4

Exercise 24. Compute the limit of the following functions, as x → 0.When the limit
does not exist, compute the limits as x → 0+ and as x → 0− .

x3 − x2 + 4x log(1 + 3x)
(a) f (x) = (b) lim
x5 − x x→0 x2 + 2x
√ √ √ √
1+x− 1−x 3
1+x− 31−x
(c) f (x) = (d) f (x) =
x x

sin (x4 ) 1 − cos (2x)

(e) f (x) = (f ) f (x) =
sin2 (x2 ) sin2 (3x)

x2 + 3 sin (2x) x2 − tan(2x3 )

(g) f (x) = (h) f (x) =
x − 2 sin (3x) 2x5 + 5 sin3 x
2
1 − ex π x − 3x
(i) f (x) = √ (l) f (x) =
x3 + x x
√
sin (2x − 1) 2x3 − x6
(m) f (x) = (n) f (x) = √
(2x − 1)2 4x6 − x4 + x3
√
e3x − 1 − x sin (π 3x )
(o) f (x) = (p) f (x) =
sin x x
3
etan x − 1 log(e + x) − 1
(q) f (x) = (r) f (x) =
x(cos x − ex2 ) x

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6 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

Exercise 25. Compute the following limits:

( )
x3 x2 x2 log3 x + x log7 x
(a) lim − (b) lim
x→−∞ 3x2 − 4 3x + 2 x→+∞ 1 + x3
( ) 2
√ (√ √ ) 1 x
(c) lim x 3x+1− 3x−1 (d) lim cos
x→+∞ x→+∞ x

22x + 2−x 22x + 2−x

(e) lim lim
x→−∞ (2x − 1)2 x→+∞ (2x − 1)2

x3 (2x − 2−x ) x3 (2x − 2−x )

(f ) lim lim
x→−∞ 3x + 3−x x→+∞ 3x + 3−x

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 7

SOLUTIONS

Exercise 1. Considering that (1 + x)α = 1 + αx + o(x) as x → 0, it results

√ √ √
(√
x
)
√ (x ) √5
f (x) = x + 5 − 5 = 5 1+ −1 = 5 + o(x) = x + o(x),
5 10 10
and, similarly, √
√ √ 7
g(x) = x + 7 − 7 = x + o(x).
14
√
Thus, f and g are infinitesimals of the same order (order 1) as x → 0 and c = 5
7;
it results g ∼ cf , as x → 0.

Exercise 2. Let’s compute the limit of the quotient f /g:

f (x) tan2 x
lim = lim .
x→0 g(x) x→0 tan(sin x)

tan(sin x) tan y
Being lim = lim = 1, it follows that tan(sin x) ∼ sin x, as x → 0.
x→0 sin x y→0 y
Thus,
tan2 x tan2 x
lim = lim = 0.
x→0 tan(sin x) x→0 sin x

Therefore, f is an infinitesimal of higher order than g, as x → 0.

Exercise 3. Being arctan x ∼ x, as x → 0, it results f (x) = x arctan x ∼ x2 , as x → 0.

1
Being 1 − cos x ∼ x2 , as x → 0, it results
2
√ √ √
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1
lim = lim 2
= ;
x→0 + x x→0+ x 2
√ √
therefore 1 − cos x ∼ 12 x, as x → 0.

Moreover, imposing t = − x1 , it follows that

2− x
1
2t
lim = lim ( )α = lim (−t)α · 2t = 0, for any α > 0
x→0+ xα t→−∞ − 1 t→−∞
t

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8 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

Therefore

f (x) x arctan x x2 + o(x2 ) x2

lim = lim √ = lim √ = lim √ = 0,
x→0+ h(x) x→0+ 1 − cos x x→0+ 1 x + o(x) x→0+ 1
x
2 2

2− x 2− x 2− x
1 1 1
g(x)
lim = lim = lim = lim = 0;
x→0 f (x)
+ x→0+ x arctan x x→0+ x2 + o(x2 ) x→0+ x2

thus, it follows that g = o(f ) and f = o(h), as x → 0+ . So, h is the infinitesimal of the
lowest order.
The function f (x) + g(x) + h(x) has the same order of h(x), as x → 0+ ; so it has
order 1 with respect to x, as x → 0+ .

Exercise 4. Let’s calculate the principal part of each function with respect to u(x) =
x − 3. Since
√
f (x) = x − 3 = (x − 3)1/2 ;

it follows that f has principal part (x − 3)1/2 , as x → 3+ with respect to u(x) = x − 3

1
and it is an infinitesimal of order .
2
Now, let’s analyse the function g: imposing t = x − 3, it results t → 0, as x → 3. Thus,
it is possible to study the function
√ ( ) ( )
√ √ 1 √ √ 1 1 √
k(t) = g(t + 3) = t + 3 − 3 = 3 1 + t − 3 = 3 1 + · t + o(t) − 3 =
3 2 3
√
3
= t + o(t), t → 0.
6
Recalling that t = x − 3, it follows
( )
√ √ √ 1 √
g(x) = x − 3 = 3 1 + (x − 3) + o(x − 3) − 3
6
√
3
= (x − 3) + o(x − 3), as x → 3
6
√
3
and, consequently, g has principal part (x − 3) with respect to u(x) = x − 3 and it
6
is an infinitesimal of order 1. Finally,
√ √ [ √ ]
1 1 3− x 1 − 3
h(x) = √ − √ = √ =√ (x − 3) + o(x − 3) .
x 3 3x 3x 6

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 9

1 1 1
Being √ ∼ √ = , as x → 3, we have that
3x 9 3
√
3
h(x) ∼ − (x − 3), as x → 3
18

Therefore, g and h are infinitesimals of order 1, as x → 3, and they have higher order
than f , as x → 3.

Exercise 5. The limit

x3 1
lim = lim sin x
x→+∞ x3 esin x x→+∞ e
π
does not exist, since, choosing the sequences xn = nπ and yn = + 2nπ, we have that
2
1 1 1
lim xn = +∞, lim yn = +∞, lim = 1, lim = .
n→+∞ n→+∞ n→+∞ esin xn n→+∞ esin yn e

Therefore, the infinite functions f and g cannot be compared.

Exercise 6. In order to compare the infinitesimals f , g and h, it is useful to determine

1
their principal part with respect to the infinitesimal u(x) = , as x → +∞. It results:
x
√ (√ )
√ 1 1
x2 + 1 − x = |x| 1 + 2 − x = x 1+ 2 −1 =
x x
(1 1 ( 1 )) 1 (1)
= x · 2 +o 2 = +o .
2 x x 2x x

(√ ) ( ( 1 )) (1)
1 1
f (x) = sin x2 +1−x = sin +o = +o
2x x 2x x

1 1
Therefore, f has order 1 and principal part , with respect to u(x) = , as x → +∞.
2x x
1
To compare g and u(x) = , the following limit has to be computed:
x
g(x)
lim = lim xα−1 sin x;
x→+∞ uα (x) x→+∞

this limit does not exist for α ≥ 1 (it is possible to verify this statement, choosing the
sequences xn and yn , as done in the previous exercise); it is equal to 0 for α < 1 (being,

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10 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

in this case, the product of an infinitesimal and a bounded function). Therefore, it is

1
not possible to compare g and . Considering h, it results that
x
2+x x + o(x) 1
h(x) = 2
= 2
∼ ;
x x x
1
thus, h has principal part and order 1, as x → +∞, with respect to the infinitesimal
x
1
. The conclusion is that f and h are infinitesimals of the same order, while g cannot
x
be compared with them.

( )
Esercizio 7. Let’s compute the limit of the quotient f /g. Since tan α + π2 = − tan1 α ,
it results that
(( π) π) 1 1 π−
tan x = tan x− + =− ( ) ∼− , as x → .
2 2 tan x − 2
π x− π
2 2
π−
Therefore, f (x) and g(x) have the same infinite order, as x → 2 .

Exercise 8. Since ln x is an infinite function of lower order than xα , for any α > 0, it
follows that
x4 x
lim = lim = +∞,
x→+∞ x3 ln x x→+∞ ln x
√ 1
Moreover, x − 1 ∼ x 2 , as x → +∞. Thus
x3 ln x
lim √ = +∞.
x→+∞ x−1
Therefore, f is an infinite of higher order than g and g is an infinite of higher order than
h, as x → +∞. It follows that f + g + h = f + o(f ) = x4 + o(x4 ), as x → +∞.

Exercise 9. We observe that an = 3n2 + n − 1 = 3n2 + o(n2 ), as n → +∞, while

( )
n n! n(n − 1)(n − 2)! n(n − 1) 1
bn = = = = = n2 + o(n2 ), as n → +∞.
2 2!(n − 2)! 2(n − 2)! 2 2
1/n 1/n
Moreover, if pn ∼ qn , as n → +∞, it follows that pn ∼ qn .
Indeed,
1/n ( )1/n
pn pn 1
log pn
lim 1/n
= lim = lim e n qn = e0 = 1.
n→+∞ qn n→+∞ qn n→+∞

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 11

Thus, using the Stirling formula, it results

√
cn = (n!)1/n ∼ (nn e−n 2πn)1/n ∼ e−1 n, as n → +∞

since
1
lim (2πn)1/n = lim e n log 2πn = e0 = 1.
n→+∞ n→+∞

Therefore, as n → +∞, an and bn are infinite sequences of order 2 and cn is of order

1, with respect to n.

Exercise 10. Let’s compute the limits of the quotients f /g and g/h, as x → +∞

f (x)
2
ex +x ( e ) x 2 ex
lim = lim = lim · = +∞
x→+∞ g(x) x→+∞ x2x2 x→+∞ 2 x

2 2
g(x) x2x 2x
lim = lim = lim = +∞
x→+∞ h(x) x→+∞ x100 x→+∞ x99

Therefore, f is an infinite of higher order than g and g is an infinite of higher order

than h, as x → +∞.

Exercise 11.

11a) Recalling that et − 1 = t + o(t), as t → 0, it results that

4
f1 (x) = e3x − 1 = 3x4 + o(x4 ) as x → 0,

f1 is infinitesimal of order 4 and its principal part is 3x4 , with respect to x, as

x → 0.

11b) It results that

√ 1 2 2
( 1 2 2
)
x2 +1
f2 (x) = e − e = e1+ 2 x +o(x ) − e = e e 2 x +o(x ) − 1
( )
1
= e 1 + x2 + o(x2 ) − 1
2
( )
1 2 e
= e x + o(x ) = x2 + o(x2 ), as x → 0.
2
2 2
e 2
f2 is infinitesimal of order 2 and its principal part is x , with respect to x, as
2
x → 0.

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12 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

11c) Since cos x = 1 − 12 x2 + o(x2 ), as x → 0, it results that

1 2
1 − cos x 2 x + o(x
2)
1
f3 (x) = √ 2
= √ √ = x3/2 + o(x3/2 ), as x → 0.
x+x x + o( x) 2

1 3/2
f3 is infinitesimal of order 3/2 and its principal part is x , with respect to the
2
infinitesimal x, as x → 0.

11d) Since log(1 + t) = t + o(t) ∼ t (t → 0), it results that

( )
1 2 1
f4 (x) = log(cos x) = log 1 − x + o(x ) = − x2 + o(x2 ), as x → 0.
2
2 2

1
f4 is infinitesimal of order 2 and its principal part is − x2 , with respect to x, as
2
x → 0.

√ √
11e) Even though it is possible to notice that 3 x + x2 ∼ 3 x (x → 0), this does not
√ √
allow to conclude that 3 x + x2 − 3 x + x2 is equivalent to x2 , as x → 0. Indeed,
recalling that (1 + x)α − 1 = αx + o(x) ∼ αx, as x → 0, it results that
√ √ √ ( )
x + x2 − 3 x + x2 = 3 x (1 + x)1/3 − 1 + x2 =
3
f5 (x) =
( )
√ 1
= 3x x + o(x) + x2 =
3
1 4/3
= x + o(x4/3 ), as x → 0.
3
1 4/3
f5 is infinitesimal of order 4/3 and its principal part is x , with respect to x,
3
as x → 0.

11f ) As x → 0, it results that

x 1 2 2
f6 (x) = ee − ecos x = e1+x+o(x) − e1− 2 x +o(x ) =
( )
= e ex+o(x) − e− 2 x +o(x )
1 2 2

( )
1 2 2
= e x + o(x) + x + o(x ) = ex + o(x).
2

f6 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is ex, with respect to x, as

x → 0.

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 13

11g) It results that

( ) (
x+3 x) x
f7 (x) = log(x + 3) − log 3 = log = log 1 + = + o(x), as x → 0.
3 3 3
x
f7 is infinitesimal of order 1and its principal part is , with respect to x, as x → 0.
3
√
11h) Since sin(2x2 ) ∼ 2x2 and 1 + 3x − 1 ∼ 23 x (x → 0), it results that
(√ )
f8 (x) = sin(2x2 ) 1 + 3x − 1 ∼ 3x3 , as x → 0.

f8 is infinitesimal of order 3 and its principal part is 3x3 , with respect to x, as

x → 0.

1
11i) Since 1 − cos (x2 ) = x4 + o(x4 ), as x → 0, it results that
2

√ 1
f9 (x) = 1 − cos (x2 ) = √ x2 , as x → 0.
2
1
f9 is infinitesimal of order 2 and its principal part is √ x2 , with respect to x, as
2
x → 0.

11l) As x → 0, it results that

( )
√ √ 1 1
f10 (x) = 1 + x − 1 − x = 1 + x + o(x) − 1 − x + o(x) = x + o(x).
2 2
f10 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is x, with respect to x, as
x → 0.

11m) Since sin x = x + o(x), as x → 0, it results that

√ ( )
sin x + 2 3 x 2x1/3 + o(x1/3 )
f11 (x) = √ √ = = 2x2/15
+ o 2x2/15
.
3
x+ 5x x1/5 + o(x1/5 )
f11 is infinitesimal of order 2/15 and its principal part is 2x2/15 , with respect to x,
as x → 0.

11n) sin (2x3 ) = 2x3 + o(x3 ), as x → 0, and 1 − e−x = x2 + o(x2 ), as x → 0, therefore

2

f12 (x) = x2 + sin(2x3 ) + 1 − e−x = 2x2 + o(x2 ), as x → 0.

2

f12 is infinitesimal of order 2 and its principal part is 2x2 , with respect to x, as
x → 0.

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14 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

11o) Using the equivalence sin(π + t) = − sin t, it results that, as x → 0,

( √ ) ( x ) (π ) π
f13 (x) = sin π 1 + x = sin π + π + o(x) = − sin x + o(x) = − x+o(x).
2 2 2
π
f13 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is − x, with respect to x, as
2
x → 0.

1
11p) Recalling that = (1 + t)−1 = 1 − t + o(t), as t → 0, it follows that, as x → 0,
1+t
1
f14 (x) = (1 + sin x) − 1 = (1 + x + o(x)) (1 + x + o(x)) − 1 = 2x + o(x).
1−x
f14 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is 2x, with respect to x, as
x → 0.

11q) As x → 0
√
1 + 3x2 x + o(x2 ) − 2x
3 2
−2x + o(x)
f15 (x) = −1= 2 = = −2x + o(x).
1 + 2x 1 + 2x 1 + o(1)
f15 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is −2x, with respect to x, as
x → 0.

11r) It is possible to notice that, as x → 0,

√ ( )
√ x x x
9+x−2=3 1+ −2=3 1+ + o(x) − 2 = 1 + + o(x)
9 18 6
therefore, as x → 0
(√ ) ( x ) x
f16 (x) = log 9 + x − 2 = log 1 + + o(x) = + o(x).
6 6
x
f16 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is − , with respect to x, as
6
x → 0.

Exercise 12.

12a) With the substitution x − 2 = t, as x → 2, it results that t → 0; in this way, it is

possible to study the function
( )
2+t t t
g(t) = log(2 + t) − log 2 = log = log 1 + = + o(t) (t → 0).
2 2 2

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 15

Therefore,
1
f1 (x) = (x − 2) + o((x − 2)), as x → 2.
2
1
f1 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is (x − 2), with respect to
2
u(x) = x − 2, as x → 2.

12b) With the substitution x − 1 = t, as x → 1, it results that t → 0; in this way, it is

possible to study the function

( )
g(t) = et+1 − e = e · et − e = e et − 1 = e t + o(t), as t → 0.

Therefore,
f1 (x) = e(x − 1) + o((x − 1)), as x → 1.

f2 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is e(x − 1), with respect to
u(x) = x − 1, as x → 1.

π π
12c) With the substitution x − = t, as x → , it results that t → 0; in this way, it is
2 2
possible to study the function
(π ) 1
g(t) = 1 − sin + t = 1 − cos t = t2 + o(t2 ) (t → 0).
2 2

Therefore,
1( π )2 (( π )) π
f1 (x) = x− +o x− , as x →
2 2 2 2
1 ( )
π 2
f3 is infinitesimal of order 2 and its principal part is x− , with respect to
2 2
π π
u(x) = x − , as x → .
2 2
√ √
12d) Substituting x − π = t, as x → π, it results that t → 0 and, recalling that
1
1 − cos z = z 2 + o(z 2 ), as z → 0, it follows that
2
√ ( √ )
g(t) = 1 + cos( π + t)2 = 1 + cos π + 2 π t + t2 =
( √ ) 1 ( √ )2
= 1 − cos 2 π t + t2 = 2 πt + o(t2 ) = 2πt2 + o(t2 ), t → 0.
2

Therefore,
√ 2 √
f4 (x) = 2π(x − π) , as x → π.
√ 2
f4 is infinitesimal of order 2 and its principal part is 2π(x − π) , with respect to
√ √
u(x) = x − π, as x → π.

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 16 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

π π
12e) Substituting x − = y, as x → , it results that y → 0; in this way, it is possible
2 2
to study the function
√ ( √
π) √ y2 y2
g(y) = sin y + −1 = cos y−1 = 1 − + o(y 2 )−1 = − +o(y 2 ), as y → 0
2 2 4

Therefore,
(( )
√ 1( π )2 π )2 π
f (x) = sin x − 1 = − x − +o x− , x→ .
4 2 2 2

1( π )2
The function f is infinitesimal of order 2 and its principal part is − x − ,
4 2
π π
with respect to u(x) = x − , as x → .
2 2

12f ), 12g) Since f (−1) = 0 and f (3) = 0, it follows that the polynomial P (x) = x3 −5x2 +3x+
9 can be divided by x+1 and by x−3; the decomposition is P (x) = (x+1)(x−3)2 .
Therefore
√
f (x) = 3
P (x) = (x + 1)1/3 (x − 3)2/3 .
√
It is possible to easily notice that f (x) ∼ 3 16(x + 1)1/3 as x → −1, and f (x) ∼
√3
4(x − 3)2/3 as x → 3. The principal part of f with respect to u(x) = x + 1, as
√ 1
x → −1, is 16(x + 1)1/3 and it is an infinitesimal of order ; the principal part of
3

√ 3
f with respect to v(x) = x − 3, as x → 3, is 4(x − 3)2/3 and it is an infinitesimal
3

2
of order .
3

12h) Substituting x − 1 = y, as x → 1 it results that y → 0; it follows that

ey ( y ) y y
g(y) = √ −1 = (1 + y + o(y)) 1 − + o(y) −1 = 1+y− +o(y)−1 = +o(y),
1+y 2 2 2

as y → 0. Therefore,

ex−1 1
f (x) = √ − 1 = (x − 1) + o(x − 1), x → 1.
x 2
1
Hence, f is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is (x − 1), with respect
2
to u(x) = x − 1 as x → 1.

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 17

Exercise 13.

13a) It results that

√ ( )
2x2 + 3
x 2 1 2 1
f1 (x) = = + 8/3 = + o (x → +∞),
x3 x x x x

1
since 1
x8/3
is an infinitesimal of higher order than, as x → +∞.
x
2 1
f1 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is , with respect to u(x) = ,
x x
as x → +∞.

13b) Having that arctan t = t + o(t), as t → 0, it results that

( )
3 3 1
f2 (x) = arctan 2 = 2 + o as x → +∞.
x x x2

3 1
f2 is infinitesimal of order 2 and its principal part is , with respect to u(x) = ,
x2 x
as x → +∞.

13c)
√
√ √ 1 √ 1 √ 1
f (x) = x+1− x+ = x 1+ − x+
x x x
( ( ))
√ 1 1 1 √ 1
= x 1+ · +o − x+
2 x x x
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= · √ +o √ + = · √ +o √ , as x → +∞,
2 x x x 2 x x
( )
1 1
since = o √ , as x → +∞.
x x
1 1 1
Hence, f is infinitesimal of order and its principal part is · √ , with respect
2 2 x
1
to , as x → +∞.
x
13d) It results that
√ √ ( )
x−3 3 3 1
f4 (x) = −1= 1− −1=− +o as x → +∞.
x x 2x x

3 1
f4 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is − , with respect to u(x) = ,
2x x
as x → +∞.

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18 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

13e) Having that et − 1 = t + o(t), as t → 0, it results that

( 1 ) e ( )
x+1 1 1
f5 (x) = e x − e = e1+ x − e = e e x − 1 = + o , as x → +∞.
x x
e 1
f5 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is , with respect to u(x) = ,
x x
as x → +∞.

13f ) Having that log(1 + t) = t + o(t), as t → 0, it results that

( ) ( ) ( )
x+3 2 2 2 1
f6 (x) = log = log 1 + = = +o , as x → +∞,
x+1 x+1 x+1 x x
since x + 1 ∼ x, as x → +∞.
2 1
f6 is infinitesimal of order 1 and its principal part is , with respect to u(x) = ,
x x
as x → +∞.

Exercise 14.

14a) As x → +∞, it results that

x3/2 + 5x2 5x2 + o(x2 )
f1 (x) = √ √ = = 5x3/2 + o(x3/2 ).
1+ x+ 4x x1/2 + o(x1/2 )

f1 is an infinite function of order 3/2 and its principal part is 5x3/2 , with respect
to u(x) = x, as x → +∞.

14b) Since x = o(2x3 ) and log x = o(x3 ), as x → +∞, it results that

2x3 − x + log x 2x3 + o(x3 ) 3 3
f2 (x) = √ = 3 3 = 2x 2 + o(x 2 ).
x x+1 x 2 + o(x 2 )
3
f2 is an infinite function of order 3/2 and its principal part is 2x 2 , with respect to
u(x) = x, as x → +∞.

14c) As x → +∞, it results that

(√ ) ( ( ))
√ 1 1 1 x
x4 + x3 − x = x
2 2
1+ −1 =x 2
+o = + o(x);
x 2x x 2
√
hence, having that x = o(x) (x → +∞), it follows that
√ √ x √ x
f3 (x) = x4 + x3 − x2 + x = + o(x) + x = + o(x), x → +∞.
2 2
x
f3 is an infinite function of order 1 and its principal part is , with respect to
2
u(x) = x, as x → +∞.

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 19

14d) It results that

√ ( ) √
√ 5 √ 5
f4 (x) = x3 + 5 + 2x = x3 1 + 3 + 2x = x3 1 + 3 + 2x
x x
√ ( 5
( ))
1
= x3 1 + 3 + o + 2x
2x x3
√ ( √ )
√ 5 x3 x3
= 3
x + +o + 2x
2x3 x3
√ (√ )
= x3 + o x3 , as x → +∞.
√
f4 is an infinite function of order 3/2 and its principal part is x3 , with respect
to u(x) = x, as x → +∞.

14e) As x → +∞, it results that

[ ( )] ( )
x 2 x 5x2 + 1 5x2 + 1
f5 (x) = log(e +5x +1) = log e 1 + = x+log 1 + = x+o(x).
ex ex
f5 is an infinite function of order 1 and its principal part is x, with respect to
u(x) = x, as x → +∞.

14f ) As x → +∞ it results that

f6 (x) = log(e5x + e−7x + 4) = log(e5x + o(e5x )) = log [e5x (1 + o(1))] =

= 5x + log (1 + o(1)) = 5x + o(1) = 5x + o(x).

f6 is an infinite function of order 1 and its principal part is 5x, with respect to
u(x) = x, as x → +∞.

14g) Since
x
lim = 0 ⇒ x = o(x2 log x), as x → +∞,
x→+∞ x2 log x
√
x x √
lim 2 = 0 ⇒ x x = o(x2 log x), as x → +∞,
x→+∞ x log x
( ) ( )
1 1
log(e2x + 1) = log e2x 1 + 2x = 2x + log 1 + 2x = 2x + o(1), as x → +∞,
e e
we have that
√
f7 (x) = log(e2x + 1) + x x + x2 log x
√
= 2x + o(x) + x x + x2 log x = x2 log x + o(x2 log x), per x → +∞

f7 cannot be compared to u(x) = x, as x → +∞.

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20 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

14h) As x → +∞, it results that

2
f8 (x) = (x2 + 2)e x+3 =
( ( ))
2 1
= (x2 + 2) 1 + +o =
x+3 x+3
( 2 )
2 x2 + 2 x +2
= (x + 2) + +o =
x+3 x+3
x2 + 2
poiché = x + o(x) as x → +∞, si ottiene
x+3
= (x2 + 2) + x + o (x) = x2 + o (x) as x → +∞.

f8 is an infinite function of order 2 and its principal part is x2 , with respect to

u(x) = x, as x → +∞.

Exercise 15. Considering only the principal parts of the addends, we have that

f (x) = sin x − tan x + x2 = (x + o(x)) − (x + o(x)) + x2 = o(x).

From this result, it is only possible to affirm that f is an infinitesimal of order bigger
than 1 with respect to x; however, this does not provide any information on the principal
part of f , as x → 0. In order to determine the principal part of f , we need to compute
that of sin x − tan x; since
( )
1 cos x − 1 x3
sin x − tan x = sin x 1 − = sin x ∼− ,
cos x cos x 2
it follows that
x3
f (x) = − + o(x3 ) + x2 = x2 + o(x2 ).
2
Then f has principal part x2 with respect to u(x) = x, as x → 0.
For the function g, it results that
( )
1 2 1 x3
g(x) = x(1 − cos x) = x x + o(x2 ) = + o(x3 ), as x → 0.
2 2 2

x3
Then g has principal part with respect to u(x) = x, as x → 0.
2
It follows that
f (x) sin x − tan x x2 + o(x2 )
lim = lim = lim 1 3 = +∞.
x→0+ g(x) x→0+ x(1 − cos x) x→0+ 3
2 x + o(x )

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 21

Exercise 16. Recalling that tan x ∼ x, as x → 0− , it results that

( ( )
π) 1 1 1
f (x) = tan x + =− =− +o , as x → 0− .
2 tan x x x

1 1
The principal part of f with respect to , as x → 0− , is − .
x √ x
x
Now, using the formulas ex = 1 + x + o(x) and 1 + x = 1 + + o(x), as x → 0, it
2
results that
( ) ( x ) x
g(x) = 1 + x + o(x) − 1 + + o(x) = + o(x).
2 2
x
The principal part of g with respect to v(x) = x, as x → 0, is .
2
Therefore,
( ( )) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 x 1
lim f (x)g(x) = lim − + o x + o(x) = lim − · =− .
x→0 − x→0 − x x 2 x→0 − x 2 2

Exercise 17. Using the same method of the previous exercise, it is possible to re-write
the functions f and g as
( )
f (x) = ex − 3 + 2e−x = (1 + x + o(x)) − 3 + 2 1 − x + o(x) = −x + o(x),

and ( )
√ 3 3
g(x) = 1 − 3x − 1 = 1 − x + o(x) − 1 = − x + o(x),
2 2
The principal part of f with respect to u(x) = x, as x → 0, is −x.
3
The principal part of g with respect to u(x) = x, as x → 0, is − x.
2
Hence, it follows that
f (x) −x + o(x) 2
lim = lim 3 = .
x→0 g(x) x→0 − x + o(x) 3
2

Exercise 18. In order to compute the principal parts of f and g with respect to x, as
x → +∞, it is possible to operate as follows: as x → +∞
√
√ √ 1 √ ( 1 1 ( 1 )) √ 1
f (x) = x + 1 = 5 x 1 + = 5 x 1 + · + o = 5 x + · x−4/5 + o(x−4/5 )
5 5

x 5 x x 5
√
√ √ 5 1 √ ( 1 1 ( 1 )) √ 1
g(x) = 5 x − 1 = 5 x 1 − = 5 x 1 − · + o = 5 x − · x−4/5 + o(x−4/5 )
x 5 x x 5

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22 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

√
The principal part of f and g with respect to u(x) = x, as x → +∞, is 5
x and the
1
infinitesimal order is 5.
Hence, considering the difference f − g, it results that

√ √ 2
5
x + 1 − 5 x − 1 = x−4/5 + o(x−4/5 ).
5

It follows that
(√ √ )
lim 5
x + 1 − 5 x − 1 = 0.
x→+∞

Exercise 19.

19a) f1 (x) = sin (αx2 ) + 2x = αx2 + o(x2 ) + 2x = 2x + o(x), as x → 0.

For any α ∈ R, f1 has order 1 and principal part 2x with respect to u(x) = x, as
x → 0.

19b) f2 (x) = sin(x2 ) + 2αx = x2 + o(x2 ) + 2αx, as x → 0.

If α = 0, f2 has order 2 and principal part x2 with respect to u(x) = x, as x → 0.

If α ̸= 0, f2 has order 1 and principal part 2αx with respect to u(x) = x, as x → 0.

19c) It results that

4
f3 (x) = (x + 2)2 − = x2 + 4x + 4 − 4(1 + αx2 )−1
1 + αx2
= x2 + 4x + 4 − 4(1 − αx2 + o(x2 ))
= x2 + 4x + 4 − 4 + 4αx2 + o(x2 )
= (1 + 4α)x2 + 4x + o(x2 ), as x → 0.

For any α ∈ R, it results f3 (x) = 4x + o(x), as x → 0.

f3 has order 1 and principal part 4x with respect to u(x) = x, as x → 0, ∀α ∈ R.

19d) It results that

4
f4 (x) = log(1 + x2 ) + αxex = x2 + o(x2 ) + αx(1 + x4 + o(x4 ))
= x2 + o(x2 ) + αx + αx5 + o(x5 )) = αx + x2 + o(x2 ) as x → 0.

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 23

If α = 0, it results f4 (x) = x2 + o(x2 ) as x → 0.

f4 has order 2 and principal part x2 with respect to u(x) = x, as x → 0.

If α ̸= 0, it results f4 (x) = αx + o(x) as x → 0.

f4 has order 1 and principal part αx with respect to u(x) = x, as x → 0.

19e) It results that

4
f5 (x) = (2 + αx)2 −
1 + x2
= 4 + 4αx + α x − 4(1 + x2 )−1
2 2

= 4 + 4αx + α2 x2 − 4(1 − x2 + o(x2 ))

= 4αx + (α2 + 4)x2 + o(x2 ), as x → 0.

If α = 0, f5 has order 2 and principal part 4x2 with respect to x, as x → 0; if

α ̸= 0, the order is 1 and the principal part is 4αx.
x2
19f ) Using the principal part of cos x − 1 = + o(x2 ), as x → 0, it results that
2
( )
f6 (x) = ecos x − e + αx = e ecos x−1 − 1 + αx
( 2 )
x 2)
= e e2 +o(x
− 1 + αx
( 2 )
x 2
= e + o(x ) + αx
2
e 2
= x + o(x2 ) + αx
2
e
If α = 0, f6 has order 2 and principal part x2 with respect to x, as x → 0; if
2
α ̸= 0, the order is 1 and the principal part is αx.

Exercise 20. Since (1 − cos x)2 = 14 x4 + o(x4 ), sin2 x = x2 + o(x2 ) and x3 = o(x2 ), as
x → 0, using the Principle of elimination of negligible terms, it results that
(1 − cos x)2 + sin2 x x2 + o(x2 ) x2
lim = lim = lim = −1.
x→0 x3 − x2 x→0 −x2 + o(x2 ) x→0 −x2
√
Similarly, since 3 1 + x3 = o(x2 ) and sin x = o(3x2 ), as x → +∞, it follows that
√
3
1 + x3 + x2 x2 + o(x2 ) x2 1
lim 2
= lim 2 2
= lim 2 = .
x→+∞ 3x + sin x x→0 3x + o(x ) x→0 3x 3

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24 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

Exercise 21. Having that f (x) = o(1) as x → x0 and that f (x) ̸= 0 in a neighborhood
of x0 , the aim is to verify that 1 − cos f (x) ∼ f 2 (x)/2, as x → x0 , i.e. to prove that

1 − cos f (x)
lim = 1.
x→x0 f 2 (x)/2

In this case, it is possible to apply the Limit of composite function theorem, with the
substitution y = f (x). Observing that as x → x0 , it results that y = f (x) → 0, the
previous limit is equal to
1 − cos y
lim = 1.
y→0 y 2 /2
Using the obtained result, as x → 0, we have that

1 1
1 − cos(x3 + 2x2 ) ∼ (x3 + 2x2 )2 ∼ (2x2 )2 = 2x4 .
2 2

Since x7 = o(x4 ), it follows that

1 − cos(x3 + 2x2 ) 2x4

lim = lim = 2.
x→0 x4 − x7 x→0 x4

Exercise 22. Having that f (x) = o(1) as x → x0 and that f (x) ̸= 0 in a neighborhood
of x0 , the aim is to verify that ef (x) − 1 ∼ f (x) as x → x0 ; to that end, it is possible to
proceed as done in the previous exercise.
√ √ x √ √
Hence, since e 1+x−1 − 1 ∼ 1 + x − 1 ∼ and 2x + x ∼ x, as x → 0, it follows
2
that √ √
ex
e 1+x − e e(e 1+x−1 − 1)
lim √ = lim √ = lim √2 = 0.
x→0+ 2x + x x→0+ 2x + x x→0 x

Exercise 23.

23a) Observing that x4 − x3 = o(1) as x → 1, it results that

x4 − x3 + 1 1 + o(1) 1 + o(1)
lim = lim = lim = −∞.
x→1+ 1−x 3 x→1 (1 − x)(1 − x + x )
+ 2 x→1 (1 − x)(1 + o(1))
+

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 25

23b) If x → 2, then y = x − 2 → 0; with the variable substitution x − 2 = y (so,

x = y + 2), it follows that y → 0. Moreover,
√ ( ) √
√ √ √ y √ 1 y √ 2
4−x = 2−y = 2 1− = 2 1− + o(y) = 2 − y + o(y)
2 2 2 4
Therefore,
log(3 − x) log(1 + y)
lim √ √ = lim √ √
x→2 4−x− 2 y→0 2−y− 2
y + o(y) 4 √
= lim √ = − √ = −2 2.
y→0 − 2 y + o(y) 2
4

23c) Setting x − 2 = y, as x → 2, it follows that y → 0; therefore

e−2x+4 − 1 e−2y − 1 −2y + o(y)

lim = lim = lim = −2.
x→2 x−2 x→2 y y→0 y

23d) If x → −1, then x + 1 → 0;setting x + 1 = y (so x = y − 1), it results y → 0.

Therefore,
√ √
4x + 5 − 1 4(y − 1) + 5 − 1
lim = lim
x→−1 5 · 5x − 1 y→0 5 · 5y−1 − 1
√
4y + 1 − 1
= lim
y→0 5y − 1
1 + 12 4y + o(y) − 1
= lim
y→0 1 + y log(5) + o(y) − 1
2y + o(y) 2
= lim = .
y→0 y log 5 + o(y) log 5

23e) The proposed limit is an indeterminate form, since

(√ ) 1
lim 1 + x − 1 = 1 and lim = +∞.
x→3 x→3 ex−3 −1

Re-writing the function as

1 √
log( 1+x−1)
f (x) = e ex−3 −1

and setting y = x − 3, it follows that

1 1 1
= y = , as y → 0
ex−3 − 1 e −1 y + o(y)
( )
√ √ 1 1
1 + x − 1 = 4 + y − 1 = 2 1 + y + o(y) − 1 = 1 + y + o(y), as y → 0
8 4
( )
(√ ) 1 1
log 1 + x − 1 = log 1 + y + o(y) = y + o(y), as y → 0
4 4

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26 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

Therefore
1 (√ ) 1
y + o(y) 1
lim log 1 + x − 1 = lim 4 =
x→3 ex−3 − 1 y→0 y + o(y) 4

and
1 √
lim f (x) = lim e ey −1 log( 4+y−1) 1
= e4 .
x→3 y→0

23f ) If x → −π, then x + π → 0; performing the variable substitution x + π = y (so

x = y − π), it follows that y → 0. Therefore

− sin(π cos x) − sin(π cos(y − π))

lim = lim
x→−π (x + π) sin x y sin(y − π)
y→0
− sin(−π cos y)
= lim
y→0 y sin y
sin(π cos y)
= lim .
y→0 y sin y

1
Considering the expansions cos y = 1 − y 2 + o(y 2 ) as y → 0 and sin t = t + o(t)
2
as t → 0 and the equivalence sin(π − t) = sin t, it results that sin(π cos y) =
( 2
)
sin π − π y2 + o(y 2 ) .

Hence,

− sin(π cos x) sin(π cos y)

lim = lim
x→−π (x + π) sin x y→0 y sin y
( 2 )
sin π y2 + o(y 2 )
= lim
y→0 y(y + o(y))
y2
π 2 + o(y 2 ) π
= lim 2 2
= .
y→0 y + o(y ) 2

23g) If x → 1, then x − 1 → 0; performing the variable substitution x − 1 = y (so

x = y + 1), it follows that y → 0. Therefore, it results that

(√ ) 1 (√ ) 1
sin y
lim x sin(x−1) = lim y+1
x→1 y→0
√
log 1+y 1 log(1+y) y+o(y)
= lim e sin y = lim e 2 sin y = lim e 2y+o(y) = e1/2 .
y→0 y→0 y→0

23h) If x → 5, then x − 5 → 0; performing the variable substitution x − 5 = y (so

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 27

x = y + 5), it follows that y → 0. Therefore, it results that

log x − log 5 log(y + 5) − log 5

lim = lim
x→5 (x − 3)2 − 4 y→0 (y + 5 − 3)2 − 4
( ( ))
log 5 1 + y5 − log 5
= lim
y→0 (y + 2)2 − 4
( )
log 5 + log 1 + y5 − log 5
= lim
y→0 y 2 + 4y + 4 − 4
y
+ o(y) 1
= lim 5 = .
y→0 4y + o(y) 20

Exercise 24.
xα
24a) It is possible to observe that lim = 0 if α > β, that is xα = o(xβ ) as x → 0.
x→0 xβ

x3 − x2 + 4x 4x + o(x)
lim = lim = −4.
x→0 x5 − x x→0 −x + o(x)

24b) Recalling that log(1 + t) = t + o(t) as t → 0, it results that

log(1 + 3x) 3x + o(x) 3

lim 2
= lim = .
x→0 x + 2x x→0 2x + o(x) 2

√ 1
24c) Applying the expansion1 + x = 1 + x + o(x) as x → 0, it results that
2
( )
√ √ 1 + 1
x + o(x) − 1 − 1
x + o(x)
1+x− 1−x 2 2
lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x
1 + 21 x + o(x) − 1 + 21 x + o(x)
= lim
x→0 x
x + o(x)
= lim =1
x→0 x

√ 1
24d) Applying the expansion 3
1 + x = 1 + x + o(x) as x → 0, it results that
3

( )
√ √ 1 + 13 x + o(x) − 1 − 31 x + o(x)
3
1+x− 31−x
lim = lim =
x→0 x x→0 x
1 + 13 x + o(x) − 1 + 31 x + o(x)
= lim =
x→0 x
2
x + o(x) 2
= lim 3 = .
x→0 x 3

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28 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

24e) Applying the expansion sin t = t + o(t) as t → 0, it results that

sin (x4 ) x4 + o(x4 ) x4 + o(x4 )

lim = lim = lim = 1.
x→0 sin2 (x2 ) x→0 (x2 + o(x2 ))2 x→0 x4 + o(x4 )

1
24f ) Applying the expansion cos t = 1 − t2 + o(t2 ) as t → 0, it results that
2

1 − cos (2x) 1 − 1 + 21 (2x)2 + o(x2 ) 2x2 + o(x2 ) 2

lim = lim = lim = .
x→0 sin2 (3x) x→0 (3x + o(x)) 2 x→0 2 2
9x + o(x ) 9

24g) Since sin t = t + o(t) as t → 0, it results that

x2 + 3 sin (2x) x2 + 3(2x + o(x)) 6x + o(x) 6

lim = lim = lim =− .
x→0 x − 2 sin (3x) x→0 x − 2(3x + o(x)) x→0 −5x + o(x) 5

24h) Since tan t = t + o(t), as t → 0, it results that tan(2x3 ) = 2x3 + o(x3 ) = o(x2 ) as
x → 0; moreover sin3 x = (x + o(x))3 = x3 + o(x3 ), as x → 0; hence

x2 − tan(2x3 ) x2 + o(x2 ) 1
lim 3 = lim 3 3
= lim does not exist.
x→0 2x5 + 5 sin x x→0 5x + o(x ) x→0 5x

It follows that

x2 − tan(2x3 ) x2 − tan(2x3 )
lim = −∞ and lim = +∞.
x→0− 2x5 + 5 sin3 x x→0+ 2x5 + 5 sin3 x

24i) Applying the expansion et = 1 + t + o(t) as t → 0, it results that

( )
1 − 1 + x2 + o(x2 )
2
1 − ex −x2 + o(x2 )
lim 3 √ = lim √ √ = lim √ √ = 0.
x→0 x + x x→0 x + o( x) x→0 x + o( x)
√
Since x is defined for x ≥ 0, it is possible to observe that the limit for x → 0
coincides with the limit for x → 0+ .

24l) Recalling that ax = 1 + x log a + o(x), as x → 0, for any a > 0, we get

π x − 3x /1 + x log π − /1 − x log 3 + o(x) π

lim = lim = log π − log 3 = log .
x→0 x x→0 x 3

24m) It is possible to observe that if x → 0, then t = 2x − 1 → 0. Indeed, if x > 0, then,

also t = 2x − 1 > 0; vice versa, if x < 0, then, also t = 2z − 1 < 0.
It follows that

sin (2x − 1) sin t t 1

lim = lim = lim 2 = lim
x→0 (2x − 1)2 t→0 t 2 t→0 t t→0 t

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 29

sin (2x − 1)
Therefore lim does not exist.
x→0 (2x − 1)2
Moreover, it is possible to observe that
sin (2x − 1) 1
lim = lim = +∞,
x→0+ (2x − 1)2 t→0+ t

sin (2x − 1) 1
lim = lim = −∞.
x→0− (2x − 1)2 t→0− t

24n) It is possible to observe that, as x → 0

√ ( )
√ 3/2 3/2 1
x4 + x3 = x 1+x=x 1 + x + o(x)
2
1
= x3/2 + x3/2 x + o(x3/2 x)
2
= x3/2 + o(x3/2 ).

Therefore
√ √ 3/2
2x3 − x6 2 x + o(x3/2 ) √
lim √ = lim = − 2.
x→0 4x6 − x4 + x3 x→0 −x3/2 + o(x3/2 )

24o) It results that

√ ( )
e3x − 1 − x 1 + 3x + o(x) − 1 − 21 x + o(x) 7
x + o(x) 7
lim = lim = lim 2 = .
x→0 sin x x→0 x + o(x) x→0 x + o(x) 2

24p) Since 3x = 1 + x log 3 + o(x) as x → 0 and sin(t + π) = − sin t, we have that

sin (π 3x ) = sin (π + πx log 3 + o(x)) = − sin (πx log 3 + o(x)) = −πx log 3 + o(x),

and so
sin (π 3x )
lim = −π log 3.
x→0 x
24q) Having that tan3 x = (x + o(x))3 = x3 + o(x3 ) as x → 0, it results that
3 3 +o(x3 )
etan x − 1 ex −1 x3 + o(x3 )
= ( )= 3
x(cos x − ex2 ) x 1− x2
+ o(x2 ) − (1 + x2 + o(x2 )) − 2 x3 + o(x3 )
2

and so 3
etan x − 1 x3 + o(x3 ) 2
lim = lim = − .
x→0 x(cos x − e ) x→0 − x3 + o(x3 )
3
x 2
2
3
( x)
24r) Observing that log(e + x) − 1 = log 1 + , it follows that
e
( )
log(e + x) − 1 log 1 + xe x
e + o(x) 1
lim = lim = lim = .
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x e

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30 Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises

Exercise 25.

25a)
( )
x3 x2 2x3 + 4x2 2x3 + o(x3 ) 2
lim − = lim = lim = .
x→−∞ 3x2 − 4 3x + 2 x→−∞ (3x − 4)(3x + 2)
2 3 3
x→−∞ 9x + o(x ) 9

25b) As x → +∞, the function (log x)α is an infinite of lower order than xβ ∀α, β > 0.
Observing that
x log7 x log7 x
lim = lim = 0,
x→+∞ x2 log3 x x→+∞ x log3 x

it follows that

x2 log3 x + x log7 x x2 log3 x + o(x2 log3 x)

lim = lim =
x→+∞ 1 + x3 x→+∞ x3 + o(x3 )
log3 x + o(log3 x)
= lim = 0.
x→+∞ x + o(x)

25c)
√ (√ √ )
limx 3x+1− 3x−1
x→+∞
[√ ( ) √ ( )]
√ 1 1
= lim x 3
x 1+ − x 1−
3
x→+∞ x x
[ ( ( )) ( ( ))]
√ √ 1 1 √ 1 1
= lim x 3
x 1+ +o − x 1−
3
+o
x→+∞ 3x x 3x x
[ √ √ (√ )]
√ √ 3
x √ 3
x 3
x
= lim x 3x+ − 3x+ +o
x→+∞ 3x 3x x
[ √ (√ )]
√ 3
x 3
x
= lim x 2 +o = 0.
x→+∞ 3x x

25d) As x → +∞, ( )
1 1 1
cos = 1 − 2 + o
x 2x x2
and ( ) ( ( )) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
log cos = log 1 − 2 + o 2
=− 2 +o ;
x 2x x 2x x2

therefore
( ) 2 ( )
1 x x2 − 12 +o( 12 )
lim cos = lim e x2 log cos x1
= lim e 2x x = e−1/2 .
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x→+∞

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Local behaviour and Landau symbols: solved exercises 31

( )
25e) As x → +∞, 2−x = o(1) and (2x − 1)2 = 22x − 2x+1 + 1 = 22x + o 22x ;

therefore
22x + 2−x 22x + o(1)
lim = lim = 1.
x→+∞ (2x − 1)2 x→+∞ 22x + o(22x )

As x → −∞, 22x = o(1) and (2x − 1)2 = 1 + o(1);

therefore
22x + 2−x 2−x + o(1)
lim = lim = +∞.
x→−∞ (2x − 1)2 x→−∞ 1 + o(1)

25f ) As x → +∞, x3 (2x − 2−x ) = x3 · 2x + o(1) and 3x + 3−x = 3x + o(1);

therefore
( )x
x3 (2x − 2−x ) x3 2x + o(1) 2
lim = lim = lim x3 = 0.
x→+∞ 3x + 3−x x→+∞ 3x + o(1) x→+∞ 3

As x → −∞, x3 (2x − 2−x ) = −x3 · 2−x + o(1) and 3x + 3−x = 3−x + o(1);

therefore
[ ( )−x ]
x3 (2x − 2−x ) −x3 · 2−x + o(1) 3 2
lim = lim = lim −x =
x→−∞ 3x + 3−x x→−∞ 3−x + o(1) x→−∞ 3
[ ( )x ]
3 3
= lim −x = 0.
x→−∞ 2

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