Uniform Flow in Channels

Flow in open channels is classified

as being uniform or nonuniform,
depending upon the depth y.

Depth in Uniform Flow is called

normal depth yn

Uniform depth occurs when the

flow depth (and thus the average
flow velocity) remains constant
Common in long straight runs
Average flow velocity is called
uniform-flow velocity V0
Uniform depth is maintained as long as
the slope, cross-section, and surface
roughness of the channel remain
unchanged.
During uniform flow, the terminal
velocity reached, and the head loss
equals the elevation drop
 Uniform Flow in Channels
V2 V2
z + y1 + 1 = z + y 2 + 2 + h
1 2g 2 2g 

velocity head 1
V12 hl = Sf x
2g energy
V22
2 grade line
2g
Sf x
hydraulic
y1
grade line
y2

So x

x Sf=Sw =So
Datum
Non-uniform gradually varied flow. Sf≠Sw ≠So

hl = Sf x
Sf
 Steady-Uniform Flow: Force Balance
Shear force = oP  x Wetted perimeter = P

Gravitational force = A x sin

V2
Ax sin  − oPx = 0 2g
EGL
HGL
A b
o =  sin
P x c

So = sin θ
a
d
o = R So W cos  

Shear force
W

Hydraulic radius A
R= W sin 
P
Relationship between shear and velocity?
Steady-Uniform Flow: Force Balance
Relationship between shear and velocity?

Resistance Equation 0 = kV 2 
V= RSo
k

Wall-Shear Stress 0 =  R S o


V = C RSo C=
k
Manning Equation for Uniform Flow

1 2/3 1/2 (SI System)

V = R So
n
Discharge: Q = VA

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
Q = AR So
n
 Darcy-Weisbach equation
Chezy equation (1768)
(1840)
L V2 L V2
Introduced by the French hf = f =f
engineer Antoine Chezy in D 2g 4Rh 2g
1768 while designing a canal
L V2
for the water-supply system LS f = f
of Paris 4Rh 2g

V = C Rh S f
V2 8g
R hS f = f  V= RhS f
8g f
C = Chezy coefficient
m m
60 < C < 150
s s IMPORTANT:
where 60 is for rough and In Uniform Flow
150 is for smooth Sf=So
also a function of R (like f in
Darcy-Weisbach)
 Manning Equation (1891)

1 2/3 1/2
V = Rh S f (SI System)
n

Notes: The Manning Equation

1) is dimensionally nonhomogeneous
2) is very sensitive to n
Is n only a function of roughness? NO!

Dimensions of n? T /L1/3

1.49 2/3 1/2 (English system)

V= Rh S f
n
 Values of Manning n

n = 0.031d 1 / 6 d in ft d = median size of bed material

n = 0.038d 1 / 6 d in m
Relation between Resistance Coefficient
 Example 3.1

A trapezoidal channel has a

base width b = 6 m and side yo
slopes 1H:1V. The channel
bottom slope is So = yo 1

0.0002 and the Manning 1

roughness coefficient is n =
b=6m
0.014. compute
a) the depth of uniform flow
if Q = 12.1 m3/s
b) the state of flow
c) the average wall-shear
stress along the wetted
perimeter.
 Solution of Exp.3.1
a) Manning’s equation is used for uniform flow;
A 2/3
Q= R So
n
A = b.y o + 2.(y o /2) = y o (b + y o )
2

P = b + 2 2 yo = 6 + 2 2 yo

Qn  y (6 + y o ) 
2/3
AR 2 / 3 = = 11 .978
So 11.978 = y o (6 + y o ) o 
 6 + 2 2 y o 

Y(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) AR2/3

1 7 8.28 0.84 6.23

1.2 8.64 9.39 0.92 8.17

1.4 10.36 9.96 1.04 10.63

1.5 11.25 10.24 1.098 11.976

by trial & error yo=1.5 m

 Solution of Exp.3.1
b) The state of flow
V
Fr = ave , D = A , T = b + 2 y
gD o
T
A = 1.5 (6+1.5) = 11.25 m2
T = 6+2 x 1.5 =9 m
D = 11.25 / 9 =1.25 m
Q 12 .1
V = =
ave
= 1.076 m/s
A 11 .25
1.076
Fr = = 0.307 <1 Subcritical
9.81x1.25

c)   =  .R.S o
R = A/P ,
P = 6+2√2 x 1.5 = 10.24 m
R = 11.25 / 10.24 = 1.098 m
  = 9810 x1.098 x0.0002 = 2.15 Pa
Graphical Solution
 Composite Section

A channel section, which is composed, of different

roughness along the wetted perimeter is called
composite section. For such sections an equivalent
Manning roughness can be defined as
Pavlovski’s Eq
 ni2 Pi
neq =
 Pi

n1,
P1
Horton and Einstein Eq
ni,
𝑛 1.5 2/3
Pi σ𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 𝑛𝑖
𝑛𝑒𝑞 =
σ 𝑃𝑖
A 2/3
Q= R Sf
neq
 Compound Channel

is the channel for which the cross section is

composed of several distinct subsections

1 3
2
Discharge computation in Compound Channels

To compute the discharge, the channel is divided into 3 subsections by

using vertical interfaces as shown in the figure:
Then the discharge in each subsection is computed separately by using
the Manning equation.
In computation of wetted perimeter, water-to-water contact surfaces
are not included.

I 1m II 1
n2 I I I 1

1
2m
n1 1 n3
2 2

2/3
Ai  Ai 
Qi =   So i = 1,2,3
ni  Pi 
3
Q total =  Q i
i =1
Compound Channel
Generalized section representation

actual cross section

compound-composite cross section.

 Example 3.2:

Example 3.2: Determine the discharge passing through the

cross section of the compound channel shown below. The
Manning roughness coefficients are n1 = 0.02, n2 = 0.03 and
n3 = 0.04. The channel bed slope for the whole channel is
So = 0.008.

I 1m II 1
n2 I I n 1
I 3

2m
1 1
2 n1 2

10m 4m 5m 4m 10m
 Solution of Example 3.2
Divide the channel into 3 subsections by using
vertical interfaces as shown in the figure:

I 1m II 1
n2 I I I 1

1
2m
n1 1 n3
2 2

10m 4m 5m 4m 10m

2/3
Ai  Ai 
Qi =   So i = 1,2,3
ni  Pi 
3
Q total =  Q i
i =1
 Example 3.2
For the main channel (subsection I):
The main channel is a composite channel too.
Therefore, we need to find an equivalent value of n.

1/2
  n 2P 
neq = i i 
  Pi 
 
1/2 1/2
 n 25 + n 2 5 * 2 + n 2 5 * 2   (0.02)2 5 + 2 5 (0.032 + 0.04 2 ) 
neq = 1 2 3  = 
 5+4 5   5+4 5 
   
neq = 0.03074
1
A1 = (5 + 13) * 2 + (13 * 1) = 31 m2
2
P1 = 5 + 2 x 2 5 = 13.944 m
2/3
31  31 
Q1 =   0.008 = 154.05 m3 / s
0.03074  13.944 
 Example 3.2
For the subsection II:
A2 = 10 * 1 = 10 m2
P2 = 10 + 1 = 11 m
2/3
10  10 
Q2 =   0.008 = 27.97 m3 / s
0.030  11 

For the subsection III:

1
A3 = (10 + 11) * 1 = 10.5 m2
2
P3 = 10 + 2 = 11.41 m
2/3
10.5  10.5 
Q3 =   0.008 = 22.21 m3 / s
0.040  11.41 

Qtotal = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3 = 154.05 + 27.97 + 22.21 = 204.23 m3 / s

FloodPlain
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS FOR
UNIFORM FLOW
Hydraulic Efficiency of Cross-sections:
A 2/3
Q= R S0
n
Q A 2 / 3 A 5/3
= R = 2/3 = K 0 = Conveyance of the channel
S0 n nP

Best Hydraulic Section:

A channel section having the least wetted perimeter for a given area has the
maximum conveyance; such a section is known as the best hydraulic section.
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS

T T
T T

1 1y
m m
1 2
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS
Example 3.10 What are the most efficient dimensions (the best hydraulic section)
for a concrete (n=0.012) rectangular channel to carry 3.5 m3/s at So=0.0006?

Given: Find b and y.

y n=0.012
Q=3.5 m3/s
So=0.0006
b

Solution:
The best hydraulic section for a rectangular channel is:
A = by  A
 P must be minimum for a given A : b =
P = b + 2y  y
A dP dP A
P= + 2y  =0 = − 2 + 2 = 0  A = 2y 2
y dy dy y
A 2y 2
b= = = 2y b = 2y
y y
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS
When Q = 3.5 m3 / s , n = 0.012 and So = 0.0006
AA
2/3
A = by = 2y 2  2y 2 y
Q=   So R= =
n P P = b + 2y = 2y + 2y = 4 y  4y 2
2/3
2y 2  y 
3 .5 =   0.0006
0.012  2 
1.36 = y 2 y 2 / 3 = y 8 / 3 y = (1.36 )3 / 8 = 1.123 m.
b = 2y = 2.245 m.
y = 1.12 m , b = 2.25 m
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS

These are NOT good sections.

For BHS, the dimensions

of rectangular channel are y
b=2y, i.e half of a square
which has a length of 2y.
b=2y
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS
Example: What are the most efficient dimensions (the best hydraulic section) for
a triangular channel?

T Ty
A= Eqn. (1)
2
2
T
1 1y P = 2   + y2 Eqn. (2)
m m 2
1 1
From eqn. (1) one can get T = 2A then eqn. (2) can be rewritten as:
2
y
A
P = 2   + y 2
y
Keeping A constant:
P 2A 2 2A 2 y 2
= − 3 + 2y = 0  A = y2 T= = = 2y
y y y y
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS

T=2
y
For BHS, the dimensions
of triangular channel are
1 1 T=2y which has 450
y
m1=1/ m2=1/ inclinations on both sides.
2 2
45 45
0 0
BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS
 BEST HYDRAULIC
T=2y
SECTIONS
T=2b
T=2r
T=2c

3
b
2r 1 1
= 3
2
= 3 r m1=1/2 m2=1/2 c

450 450

3 3 2
A rec tan gular = 2 y 2
A trapezoidal = b A circular = r 2 A triangular = c 2
4
Prec tan gular = 4 y Ptrapezoidal = 3b Pcircular = r Ptriangular = 2 2c

A rec tan gular = 314.159 A trapezoidal = 314.159 A circular = 314.159 A triangular = 314.159
Prec tan gular = 50.132 Ptrapezoidal = 46.653 Pcircular = 31.416 Ptriangular = 50.134

Having the same cross-sectional area:

Pcircular  Ptrapezoidal  Prec tan gular  Ptriangular

 Energy Concept
Component of energy equation V2
H1 = z + y1 + 1
1) z is the elevation head 1 2g
2) y is the gage pressure head-potential head
3) V2/2g is the dynamic head-kinetic head

V12
2g
Sf x
V22 EGL
2g
HGL
y1
y2

So x

x
Continuity and Energy Equations
1D steady continuity equation can
be expressed as
V1A1 = V2 A 2
1D steady energy equation
between two stations

V2 V2
z + y1 + 1 = z + y 2 + 2 + h 
Δx 1 2g 2 2g
Head loss hL
h = Sf x
The change in elevation head can
be written in terms of the bed
slope 
( z1 − z 2 )
So =
x
V2 V2
y1 + 1 = y 2 + 2 + (S f − So )x
2g 2g
 Example 1

Water flows under a sluice gate in a horizontal

rectangular channel of 2 m wide. If the depths of
flow before and after the gate are 4 m, and 0.50 m,
compute the discharge in the channel.

y1=4 m b=2 m

y2=0.50 m
x
1 2
 Solution:

The energy equation between sections (1) and (2) is:

H1=H2+hf
The head loss between sections (1) and (2) can be neglected.
Therefore: V2 V2
1 2
z 1 + y1 + α 1 = z2 + y2 + α2
2g 2g
Choose the channel bottom as datum. Then z1=z2=0, =1
For rectangular channels, we can define unit discharge, q, as:
Q Vby q
q= = = Vy V=
b b y
Therefore Energy equation between sections (1) and (2) becomes:
q2 q2
y1 + 2 = y2 +
2gy 1 2gy 22
 Solving for q:
q 2  1 1 
- 2 = y1 - y 2 substituting the values :

2 g  y 2 y1 
2

q2  1 1 
 -  = 3 . 5 solving for q = 4.176 m 3
/s/m
2 g  0.50 4 
2 2

The total discharge is Q=q.b=4.176*2=8.35 m3/s

Example 2:

Water flow with a velocity of 3 m/s, and a depth of 3 m in a

rectangular channel of 2 m wide. Then there is an upward
step of 30 cm as shown in figure below. Compute the depth
of flow over the step.
 V1=3 m/s y2=?
y1=3 m
Datum z=0.30 m
(1) (2)
Energy Eq. Between Sections (1) & (2):

q2 q2
z 1 + y1 + = z2 + y2 + q = V1 y1 = V2 y 2 = 3.3 = 9 m 3 / s / m
2gy 12 2gy 22
92 92 4.1284
3+ = 0.30 + y 2 + ⇒ y2 + = 3.1587
2g3 2 2gy 22 y 22
The last equation contains only one unknown: y2.
However, it is a third degree polynomial of y2.
Y3-3.1587y2+4.1284=0 This polynomial has three possible
solutions:
Y(1)=2.496≈2.5 m
Y(2)=1.66 m
Y(3)=-0.996 ≈-1 m Negative depth is not acceptable
But both 2.5 m and 1.66 m depths are quite possible.
Which one will occur on the step????
Nor Energy equation neither continuity equation will help to
decide.
Luckily, in 1912, Bakhmeteff introduced the concept of
SPECIFIC ENERGY, which is the key to even the most
complex open-channel flow phenomena.
Then let’s learn the specific energy concept.
 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONCEPT

V2 V2
y1 + 1 = y 2 + 2 + (S f − So )x
2g 2g
E1 = E 2 + (S f − So )x

V2
E1 = y1 + 1 E is called as specific energy
2g
V2
E2 = y 2 + 2
2g

If channel bottom is horizontal and no head loss E1 = E 2

For uniform flow Sf=So then
 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONCEPT
Specific Energy, E, is the energy referred as the channel
bed as datum,i.e:
Taking the datum z=0 as the bottom of the channel, the
specific energy E is the sum of the depth of flow and the
velocity head is the specific energy.

V2 Q2
E = y+ = y+
2g 2gA 2 (y)

A=A(y)
 Specific-Energy Curve

For a given Q, E is only a function of y, i.e: E=E(y)

Above equation can be written as:

Q2
(E − y )A( y )2 = = cons tan t
2g

The plot of E vs y is called specific-energy curve. Above

equation has two asymptotes:
(E-y)=0 and y=0, in fact one section of the curve falls within
the 45o angle between these two asymptotes in the first
quadrant as in figure below.
There is another section of the curve shown as broken line, but
this is of no practical interest as it yield negative values for y.
 y

A
V12 2g
y1 y1

yc Fr=1
y2 C
y2
45o V22 2g E=E1 B
E
If we regard this curve as a means of solving Eq.:

V2 Q2
E = y+ = y+
2g 2gA 2 (y)
for y, given E and Q, the three solutions of cubic are clearly shown by
drawing a vertical line coresponding to the given value of E.
Only two of them are physically real, so for given values of E and Q,
there are two possible depths of flow, unless the vertical line
referred misses the curve altogether, a case which will be discussed
later.
These two possible flow depths, for a given E and Q, are referred as
alternate depths.
Alternatively we may say that the curve represents two possible
regimes of flow- slow and deep on the upper limb, fast and shallow on
the lower limb-meeting at the crest of the curve, C.
Other curves might be drawn for other values of Q; since, for a given
value of y, E increases with Q, curves having higher values of Q will
occur inside and to the right of those having lower values of Q.
 y

V12 2g
y1 y1

yc
y2 C
y2
45o V22 2g E=E1
E
Specific Energy for rectangular channels

Specific Energy, E, for rectangular channels is defined in

terms of unit discharge q as:

V2 q2
E = y+ = y+
2g 2gy 2
Therefore specific- energy curve is drawn for a given unit
discharge.
 y

A
V12 2g
y1 y1

yc Fr=1
y2 C
y2
45o V22 2g E=E1 B
E
 y

V12 2g
y1 y1

yc
y2 C
y2
45o V22 2g E=E1
E
 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONCEPT

V2 Q2
E= y+ = y+
2g 2gA 2

For a given Q, E = E(y) only. The plot of E vs. y gives

Specific Energy Curve.
 Specific Energy
Plot E vs y for constant Q
– Easy to see breakdown of E into pressure (y) and
dynamic (V2/2g) head
– E →  as y → 0 What is the physical
– E → y for large y interpretation of local
– E reaches a minimum minimum?
4

3
y
V2/(2g)
2
y

1 y

45°
0
E
0 1 2 3 4
 Minimum Specific Energy
Remember that:

2 2 2 2 2
V Q A 2 Q A Q Q Q T
Fr = = ⇒ Fr = = 2 = =
gD gD gD gDA A gA 3
g A
T
2
2 Q T
∴ Fr = T
gA 3
dy
A=f(y)
y dA=T*dy

dA
=T
dy
 Minimum Specific Energy
Q2
E=y+
2gA 2
dE
For a given Q, when specific energy is minimum: =0
dy

dE Q2 d  1  dA Q 2 2 dA Q 2T
= 1-  2  =1 = 1- or
dy 2 g dA  A  dy 3
2 g A dy gA

dE
= 1 Fr2 = 0
dy Fr=1, i.e: flow is critical
 y

yc Fr=1
C
45o B
E
Emin
Minimum Specific Energy for Rectangular Channels

yc Fr=1
C
45o B
E
Emin
 Characteristics Of The Specific Energy Curve

Curve has 2 asymptotes: E = y

and y = 0 lines
Curve has 2 limbs AC and BC
Limb AC approaches the
horizontal axis as y → 0
Limb BC approaches to E = y line
as y → 
On this curve Q remains constant
At any point P on this curve, the
ordinate represents the depth
yc

and the abscissa represents the

specific energy.
Emin For a given specific energy E,
there are 2 possible flow depths:
y1 and y2

Critical depth
 Characteristics Of The Specific Energy Curve
At point C, the specific energy is minimum
▪Minimum specific energy corresponds to
critical state of flow, i.e. Fr = 1.
▪At the critical state, the two alternate depths

y2 become one, which is known as critical depth, yc.

▪If y  yc , V  Vc → Fr  1
▪the limb AC corresponds to supercritical flow
yc and y2, corresponding to supercritical depth
y1
▪If y  yc , V  Vc → Fr  1
Emin
▪the limb BC corresponds to subcritical flow and
E
y1 corresponding to subcritical depth
V Q2T
Fr =  Fr ==
2

gA 3
gD
▪The depths y1 and y2 are called alternate
depths.
As Q increase, the curves will move towards right
Specific Energy For rectangular Channel

Q
y A Q = AV = byV = q unit disch arg e
b
b

V2
E=y+
2g

Q2
E=y+
2gA 2

q2
E=y+
2gy2
 Critical Flow:Rectangular channel

Q 2 Tc Tc = b
1=
gA 3c

Q = qb Ac = yc b Tc

q2b2 q2 yc
1= 3 3 =
Ac
gy c b gy 3c

1/ 3
q 2
 Only for rectangular channels!
y c =  
 g 
q = gy 3c Given the depth we can find the discharge

Vc = gy c q = Vc y c
 Critical Flow Relationships:
Rectangular Channels
2 1/ 3
q   V 2 2
c yc
 q = Vc y c
y c =   y c = 
3
 because
g   g 
Vc
=1
yc g Froude number for critical flow

Vc2 y c Vc2
yc = = velocity head = 0.5 (depth)
g 2 2g
V2
E=y+
2g
y 2
Therefore: E = y + c = 3 y or y c = Ec
c c
2 2 c 3
 Critical Depth

Minimum energy for q 4

dE
=0
3

dy 2

y
2
yc V
Fr=1 = c
1
2 2g
0
0 1 2 3 4
Fr>1 = Supercritical
E
Fr<1 = Subcritical

2
yc = E
3 c
 Koch Parabola
For a given E,
Q = [2gA 2 (E − y )]1/ 2 or q = y 2 g (E − y )

and since A=A(y), then Q = Q(y) [q=q(y) for rectangular channels]

The plot of Q vs. y [q vs y] gives Koch Parabola.
y y
Fr < 1 Fr < 1
E0 E0

yc yc
c Fr =1 c Fr = 1

Fr > 1 Fr > 1
Q q
Q = Qmax q = qmax

Therefore, the total discharge Q for arbitrary cross sections, and unit discharge q
for rectangular cross sections become maximum for a given E, when the flow is
critical.
Variation of specific energy and (unit) discharge with
depth: (a) E versus y for constant q; (b) (q) Q versus y for
constant E.
 Characteristics of Critical Flow

Rectangular Cross
Arbitrary Cross Section
Section
3
• Fr = 1 →
Q 2 Ac
= • Fr = 1 q = 2
gy c3 yc =
q2
3
g Tc g

Vc2 Vc2 yc
• =
Dc
→ Ec = yc +
Dc
• = → Ec =
3
y
2g 2 2 2g 2 2 c

• For a given Q, E = Emin • For a given q, E = Emin

• For a given specific • For a given specific
energy, energy
Eo, Q = Qmax Eo, q = qmax
 Discussion
A long rectangular channel carries water with a flow depth of y1
on a horizontal channel. If there is a rise on the channel bed:
a) What is the relation of total head between section 1 and 2, if head
loss assumed to be negligible.

H1 = H2

a) What is the relation of specific energy between section 1 and 2

E1 = E 2 + z E1 = E 2 + z

b) How does the water surface profile react to channel bed elevation
change
E1 = E 2 + z

Side view H1 = H2
 CHANNEL TRANSITION
for rectangular channels

▪Change on the bottom elevation of channel

▪Change on the width of the channel
▪Change on the bottom elevation and width of the channel
 Upward Step-Constant width
Q = VA = V1( y1b) = V2 ( y 2b)  q1 = q2 H1 = H2
1/ 3
q
2
 E1 = E 2 + z
y c =  
g 

1) Subcritical flow
Upward Step-Constant width
q1 = q2
1/ 3
 q2 
yc = 
 g 
 
H1 = H2
E1 = E 2 + z
 Downward Step-Constant width
Q = VA = V1( y1b) = V2 ( y 2b)  q1 = q2 H1 = H2
2 1/ 3 E 2 = E1 + z
q 
1) Subcritical flow y c =  
g 
q1 = q2
1/ 3
 q2 
yc =  g 
 
H1 = H2
E 2 = E1 + z
 Upward Step-Constant width

Subcritical flow

y3
E1 = E2 + z

(3)

E1 = E2 + z E3 = E2 + z
 q1 = q2
Specific Energy: q 2 1/ 3

y c =  
Step Up  g
Additional H1 = H2
Consideration E1 = E 2 + z
E 2 = E1 − Z
4

2
y

1
z
0
0 1 2 E1=3.3
3 m4
E
 q1 = q2
Specific Energy: q 2 1/ 3

y c =  
Step Up  g
Additional H1 = H2
Consideration E1 = E 2 + z
E 2 = E1 − Z
4 4

3 3

2 2
y

y
1 1
z
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3
E E
 Choking
In an open-channel flow, whenever there is a
contraction in a flow area, there may be a case
where the specific energy of the flow may not be
enough to pass the given discharge.
Let us consider different cases where this may
happen:
a) Consider the case where there is an upward step
in a rectangular channel which has a constant
width b:

V1
y1
F1<1 z
The energy equation between sections (1) and (2):
E1=z+E2, or E2=E1-z,
if E2<Emin, as shown in figure below,
What does it mean?

C
zmax
45o B
E
E2 Emin z E1
It means that the available specific energy is not
enough to pass the given discharge. Therefore this
means that:
E1, q, and z cannot occur simultaneously in the
channel. One of them must change.
This phenomenon is called choking.
Which one will change and how will it change?
In a design problem, we can change z easily, such
that:
z ≤ zmax
However, if it is not a design problem and if z is a
fixed quantity, then either E1, or q will change, i.e:
Either E1 will increase, or q will decrease.
Which one will change depends on the controls in
the channel.
Let’s see how they will change:

Case 1) How E1 will increase?

E1 will increase such that E2 =E1- z have a point of
contact with q constant curve. Therefore:
E2 =E1- z= Emin for the given q value.
 Change in E1, keeping q constant
y

A
y1new

y1

z

C
zmax
45o B
E
z E1
E2 = Emin E1new
Case 2) How q will decrease?
q will decrease such that E1- z have a point of
contact with a new q constant curve. Therefore:
E2 =E1- z= Emin for the new q value.
 Change in q, keeping E1 constant

A
y1new
y1

zmax
45o B
E
E2 = Emin for newz
q E1
q1 = q2
1/ 3
q  2
yc = 
 g 
 
H1 = H2
E1 = E 2 − z
Channel Expansion (constant bed elevation)
q1  q2
1/ 3
q 2

y c =  
 g 
H1 = H2
E1 = E 2
Channel Contraction (constant bed elevation)
q1  q2
1/ 3
q 2

y c =  
 g 
H1 = H2
E1 = E 2
CHOKING
Figure E10.7
Figure 10.7 – Channel constriction: (a) raised channel
bottom; (b) specific energy diagram.
 Example 3.3
Water is flowing in a rectangular channel. Find the change in depth and
in absolute water level produced by a smooth downward step of
0.30 m if the upstream velocity and depth are given as.
a) V1=3 m/s and y1=3 m.
b) V1=5 m/s and y1=0.60 m.
Draw the water-surface profiles for both cases

yabs=?

V1=3m/s y
y1=3 m

z=30 cm Datum

b
(1) (2)
 Example 3.3 Solution
Energy Eq’n between (1) and (2) :E1+z=E2 +hl

V12 32
E1 = y1 + =3+ = 3.46m  E 2 = 3.46 + 0.30 = 3.76 m
2g 19.62
q2
E2 = y 2 + 2
, q = V1y1 = 3  3 = 9 m2 / s
2g y 2
92 4.128
3.76 = y 2 + 2
= y2 + There are 2 possible solutions. To determine
19.6 2y 2 y 22
which one occurs we should compute upstream Froude number.
V1 3
F1 = = = 0.553  1 subcritical flow. Therefore, y2 will correspond to
gy1 9.81  3
subcritical flow.

y2=3.40 m q=9 m2/s

y1=3.00 m
yc

E
E1=3.46 m E2=3.76 m
z=0.30 m
 y2 must be greater than 3 m. The
root of greater than 3 m can
found by trial and error as;

y2=3.40 m q=9 m2/s

y2 = 3.40 m

Δyabs = y2 - ( Δz + y1 )
y1=3.00 m
= 3.40 - ( 3.0 + 0.30 )
yc
Δyabs = 0.10 m.
E
E1=3.46 m E2=3.76 m
z=0.30 m
V1=5m/s
y1=60cm yabs=? y

z=30 cm
b

Energy equation between section (1) and (2)

0
V 12 52
z + E1 = E1 + h  E1 = y 1 + = 0.60 + = 1.874 m
2g 19.62
q2
E 2 = 0.30 + 1.874 = 2.174 m = y 2 + , q = V1 y 1 = 5  0.6 = 3 m / s
2
2
2gy 2

32 0.4587
2.174 m = y 2 +  2.174 m = y 2 + Two possible solutions.
19.62y 22 y 22
The upstream Froude number
V1 5
Fr1 = = = 2.06  1, supercritical flow
gy1 9.81  0.60
 y2 must be smaller than 0.60
q=3m2/s
m
can be solved by trial and
error to obtain y2=0.528
yc m.
y1=0.60m
y2=0.53m Or y2 = 0.53 m.
E1=1.874m
z=0.30m
E2=2.174m
Dyabs = ( Δz + y1 ) - y2
= ( 0.30 + 0.60 ) - 0.53
Δyabs = 0.37 m.
Solution of Specific Energy Equation

q2
q2 C
E=y+
2gy2
E=y+ 2
E = y+ 2
2gy y

Subcritical Root
C
y* = E −
y2

Supercritical root

E−y
y* =
C
 SPECIFIC FORCE CONCEPT

Momentum Equation in x-direction:

FT = P1 − P2 −F f +FH = QV2 − QV1 ........ (1)
For uniform vel. distn. and horizontal channel,
FT = Q( V2 − V1 )
If the vel. distribution is not uniform,
FT = Q( 2 V2 −  1V1 ) where  is the momentum correction factor
Momentum Equation in Open-Channel flow

Consider a steady flow in an open-channel of arbitrary cross

section:

FP1 y1
Ff1 Wsin Q
y
y1 y2 y
Ff2 FP2
W 
y2 x

The momentum Equation along the x-direction is:

FP1-FP2-Ff1-Ff2+WSin=Q(2V2-1V1)
Where:
Fpi= pressure force at section (i), i=1,2
Ff1=resistance to the flow applied by the obstacle in the channel
Ff2= resistance due to wall shear stress
Assume that 1=2=1, and Pf=Ff1+Ff2= total resistance to the flow
note that Vi=Q/Ai, i=1,2 and

FPi = γy i A i i = 1,2
Where y is the depth of the centroid of the cross section
Substituting these into the momentum equation:

 1 1 
y1 A1 - y 2 A2 - Pf + W sin  = Q 2  - 
 A2 A1 

Now, let’s divide by , and assume that  is small, and reaarange the
equation as:
 Pf Q2 Q2
= y1 A 1 + y2A2 +
γ gA 1 gA 2

In this equation, the total friction force is in the form of

difference of two terms. These terms are in the form as:
Q2
F
 = y +
Specific Force pressureforce
gA

per unit weight momentum flux
per unit weight

The term F is defined as the specific force in open-channel

flow. In terms of specific force above equation becomes:

Pf
= F1 - F2 Hence, momentum equation is reduced
 to a simple force balance equation in
the direction of flow.
Specific force for any channel section
2 For a given Q, F = F (y)
Q
F = yA + The plot of F vs y gives specific
gA
force curve
 Characteristics of the Specific Force Curve:
•Specific force curve has two
limps AC and BC A
•At point C, flow is critical, and
•Specific force becomes minimum
when the flow is critical
•Lower limp AC corresponds to
supercritical flow
•Upper limp BC corresponds to C
subcritical flow.
•For a given F and Q, there are B
two possible flow regimes
represented by the depths y1 and Fmin F
y2 which are called conjugate or
sequent depths, corresponding to
supercritical and subcritical flows,
respectively.
y Q3
Q2 Q1

Q1>Q2>Q3

F
Characteristics of the Specific Force Curve:
•For rectangular channels, the specific force can be
written as specific force per unit width as

2
F 1 2 q
= y +
b 2 gy
 Application of Specific Force Concept
The specific force concept reduces momentum equation to a
force balance equation in the direction of flow
The direction of specific force can be considered as the
direction of the pressure force.
Let us discuss the various flow cases:
Case A) Head loss, hf=0, Pf0
i) Flow over a smooth step

F1 y1 y2 F2
V1 V2
Pf
z
(1) (2)
Pf
E1 = Δz + E 2 , and F1 = F2 +
γ
2) Flow under a sluice gate:

Pf

F1 y1
Q F2
y2
(1) (2)
Pf
E1 = Δz + E 2 , and F1 = F2 +
γ
Case B) Head loss, hf  0, Pf=0
This is the case of hydraulic jump. Then let’s learn the
hydraulic jump.
 HYDRAULIC JUMP

Hydraulic jump is a rapidly varied flow in which

flow changes abruptly from supercritical state to
a subcritical state accompanied by considerable
turbulence and energy loss.

Q2 Q2 E1 = E 2 + h 
F1 = F2 → y1 A1 + = y2 A 2 +
gA1 gA 2
 Rectangular Channels
Q2 Q2
F1 = F2 → y1 A1 + = y2 A 2 +
gA1 gA 2

For a rectangular channel,

y above equation reduces to a simple form:
y=
2

A=by, Q=qb

y y1 q2b2 y2 q2b2
by1 + = by 2 +
2 gby 1 2 gby 2
b Dividing by b, and rearranging:

q2  1
 −
1  1 2
(
 = y 2 − y1 →
2
)
q 2  y 2 − y1  1
  = ( y 2 - y1 )( y 2 + y1 )
g  1
y y 2  2 g  1 2  2
y y

2
Simplifying, and dividing by y 1 and reaaranging
 q2 y2  y2  this equation is a second order
2 3 =  + 1 = 2 F12
gy1 y1  y1  polynomial of y2/y1:
2
 y2   y2 
  +   − 2 F12 = 0 The positive root is the solution:
 y1   y1 
y2 1
=
y1 2
( 1 + 8F 2
r1 )
−1

The energy equation: E1=E2+hf , subtituting, E values and

after certin manupulations, the head loss can be written as:

( y 2 - y1 ) 3
hf =
4 y1 y 2
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HYDRAULIC
JUMP
To dissipate energy
To recover head or raise the water level
To increase weight on apron
To mix chemicals used for water purification
To aerate water
Figure – Variation of the momentum function with depth.