Chapter 4 - Uniform Flow
Chapter 4 - Uniform Flow
UNIFORM FLOW
4.1. Concepts and Establishment of Uniform flow
Flow in an open channel is called uniform flow or normal flow if the depth, flow area, and
velocity remain constant at every cross-section along the channel. Strictly speaking, normal flow
is possible only in prismatic channels, and it rarely occurs naturally. Uniform flow in open
channels often is used as a design condition to determine the dimension of artificial channels.
In free-surface flow, the component of the weight of water in the downstream direction causes
acceleration of flow (it causes deceleration if the bottom slope is negative), whereas the shear
stress at the channel bottom and sides offers resistance to flow. Depending upon the relative
magnitude of these accelerating and decelerating forces, the flow may accelerate or decelerate.
For example, if the resistive force is more than the component of the weight, then the flow
velocity decreases and, to satisfy the continuity equation, the flow depth increases. The converse
is true if the component of the weight is more than the resistive force. However, if the channel is
long and prismatic (i.e., channel cross section and bottom slope do not change with distance),
then the flow accelerates or decelerates for a distance until the accelerating and resistive forces
are equal. From that point on, the flow velocity and flow depth remain constant (Fig. 4.1). Such a
flow, in which the flow depth does not change with distance, is called uniform flow, and the
corresponding flow depth is called the normal depth.
Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is practically
nonexistent.
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.1 Establishment of uniform flows in a long channel
In Fig. 4.1, the upstream reach that is required for the establishment of uniform flow is known as
the transitory zone. In this zone the flow is accelerating and varied. If the channel is shorter than
the transitory length required by the given conditions, uniform flow cannot be attained. Towards
the downstream end of the channel the resistance may again be exceeded by gravity forces, and
the flow may become varied again.
The length of the translator zone depends on the discharge and on the physical conditions of the
channel, such as entrance condition, shape, slope, and roughness.
There have been developed and published a large number of practical uniform-flow formulas,
but none of these formulas meet the qualifications of a good formula. The best known and most
widely used formulas are the Chezy and Manning formulas.
F = W sin = A L sin
is shear stress along the perimeter. If we let shear velocity V * = √ gRS0 the above equation
implies.
= V*2
V* is known as shear velocity.
From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel perimeter resisting
motion. Ff, is proportional to the square of the average velocity or
Ff V2
Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of resistance can also be
written as
Ff = KLPV2
Where K = constant of proportionality. Setting the force casing motion equal to the force
resisting motion, i.e. F = Ff.
( )
γ
√ A
1/2
ρ gALSo = KLPV 2 ⇒ γ ALS o = KLPV 2 ⇒ V = S
K P 0
( ) ( )
1/ 2
γ γ 1/2
V =
k √ RSo ⇒ V =
k
√ RS
Wh
ere the subscript associated with s has been dropped.
()
1/2
γ
The resistance coefficient, C, defined as k , is commonly known as the Chezy C and in
practice is determined by either measurement or estimate. The coefficient of resistance defined
by the above equation is found to vary with bed and flow characteristics.
V = C√ RS
Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of energy line
(m/m), and C is a factor of flow resistance, called Chezy’s C.
Let us compare the Chezy equation for open channel with Darcy-Weisbach friction formula for
pipes,
2
f LV
hf =
D2g
In which hf = head loss in a pipe of diameter D and Length L. The slope of the energy grade line,
S = hf/L. Therefore, we may write this equation as,
V=
√ 2g D S
f
Noting that the hydraulic radius, R, for a pipe is equal to D/4, Chezy’s equation will become
V =C
√ DS
4
It follows from the above two last equations that C=√ 8 g/f
A number of empirical formulae have been proposed for the determination of the values of C in
the Chezy formula. In 1869 Ganguillet and Kutter proposed the following formulae based on an
analysis of the behavior of rivers and open channels which, stated in SI units, is
Where k depends on the surface roughness. Typical values of k are given in Table 4.1.
In order to give guidance in the proper determination of the roughness coefficient, four general
approaches will be discussed; namely,
(1) To understand the factors that affect the value of n and thus to acquire a basic knowledge
of the problem and narrow the wide range of guesswork,
(2) To consult a table of typical n values for channels of various types,
(3) To examine and become acquainted with the appearance of some typical channels whose
roughness coefficient are known, and
(4) To determine the value of n by an analytical procedure based on the theoretical velocity
distribution in the channel cross section and on the data of either velocity or roughness
measurement.
Factors Affecting Manning’s Roughness Coefficient: It is not uncommon for engineers to
think of a channel as having a single value of n for all occasions. In reality, the value of n is
highly variable and depends on a number of factors. The factors that exert the greatest influence
upon the coefficient of roughness in both artificial and natural channels are therefore described
below.
a) Surface Roughness: The surface roughness is represented by the size and shape of the
grains of the material forming the wetted perimeter and producing a retarding effect on
the flow. Generally speaking, fine grains result in a relatively low value of n and coarse
grains, in a high value of n.
b) Vegetation: It may be regarded as a kind of surface roughness, but it also markedly
reduces the capacity of the channel and retards flow. This effect depends mainly on
height, density, distribution, and type of vegetation.
a) Cowan’s Method
Recognizing the various factors affecting the roughness coefficient, Cowan developed a
procedure for estimating the value of n as,
n = (n0 + n1 + n2 + n3 + n4) m5
c) Empirical Methods
A number of empirical methods have been advanced for estimating n. These methods relate n to
the bed particle size. Perhaps the best known of these methods is the one proposed by Strickler
in 1923. Subramanya (1982) gave the Strickler equation as
1
1 6
6
d50
n=0.047 d =
50
21.1
Where d50 = diameter of the bed material in meters such that 50% of the material by weight is
finer.
Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 10
For mixtures of bed materials with a significant proportion of coarse grained sizes, Meyer-Peter
and Mueller (1948) suggested the following equation.
1
d 690 1
6
n= ≅ 0.038 d 90
26
Where d90 = bed material size in meters such that 90% of material by weight is finer.
For the determination of the equivalent roughness, the water area is divided imaginatively into
N parts of which the wetted perimeters P1, P 2, …, PN and the coefficients of roughness n 1, n2,…,
nN are known.
A number of formulae, based on different assumptions, are proposed by various investigators for
the calculation of equivalent roughness. Some of them are presented hereunder.
[ ]
N 2
∑ (PN n ) 1.5 3 2
1
N
( P1 n
1.5
1
1.5
+ P2 n + …+ PN n
2 N )
1.5 3
n= = 2
P 3
P
ii) Pavlovskii and others assumed that the total force resisting the flow (that is KV 2PL) is equal
to the sum of the forces resisting the flow developed in the subdivided areas. By this assumption
the equivalent roughness coefficient is
[∑ ( ) ]
N 1
2 2 1
PN n
1
N
( P1 n21 + P2 n 22+ …+ PN n2N )2
n= 1
= 1
2
P P2
iii) Lotter assumed that the total discharge of the flow is equal to the sum of the discharges of the
subdivided areas. Thus, the equivalent roughness coefficient is
Where R1, R2, … , RN are hydraulic radii of the subdivided areas. For simple channel sections, it
may be assumed that
R 1 = R2 = … = R N = R
Example 4.1 An earthen trapezoidal channel (n = 0.025) has a bottom width of 5.0 m, side
slopes of 1.5 H: 1V and a uniform flow depth of 1.10 m. In an economic study to remedy
excessive seepage from the canal two proposals: (a) to line the sides only, and (b) to line the bed
only are considered. If the lining is of smooth concrete (n = 0.012), calculate the equivalent
roughness in the above two cases.
Solution
[ ][
N 2
∑ (PN n )
1.5 3
]
N 2
1 5.0 x 0.0251.5 +3.97 x 0.0121.5 3
n= = =0.020
P 8.97
b) Lining only the bed
P1 = 5.0 m, n1 = 0.012
P2 = 3.97 m, n2 = 0.025, P = 8.97 m
[ ][
N 2
∑ (PN n )
1.5 3
]
N 2
1 5.0 x 0.0121.5 +3.97 x 0.025 1.5 3
n= = =0.018
P 8.97
Thus, in the channel shown in Figure 4.4, assuming that the bed slope is the same for the three
sub-areas:
Example 4.2 Find the flow rate in the channel and overbank area that is shown in the following
figure. The slope of the channel is 0.001, and the depth in the overbank area is 2m. The
Manning’s n is 0.04 in the overbank area and 0.03 in the main channel. All the channel sides
have a 1:1 slope.
Solution
2
A
The discharge is calculated using Manning equation, Q= R 3 √ S
n
For the overbank area, A = 2 x (50 + y0/2) y0 = (100 + y0)y0
A = 2 x (50 + 2/2) x 2 = 204 m2
Where y0 = depth in the overbank area = 2.0 m
The wetted perimeter is P = 2 x ( 50+ √ 2 y 0 )
( )√
2 2
204 115
Q= x 1.93 3 + x 4.77 3 0.001=593.5 m3 /s
0.04 0.03
The term K is known as the conveyance of the channel section; it is a measure of the carrying
capacity of the channel section, since it is directly proportional to Q.
When either the Chezy or the Manning formula is used as a uniform-flow formula, i.e. when y =
½ in the above formula, the discharge becomes,
Q=K √ S
And the conveyance is
Q
K=
√S
This equation can be used to compute the conveyance when the discharge and slope of the
channel are given.
When the Chezy formula is used the conveyance becomes
2
3
K=C A R
Where C is Chezy’s resistance factor. Similarly, when Manning formula is used,
2
3
AR
K=
n
The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the geometry of the water
area and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient are given.
The expression A R2/3 is called the section factor for uniform flow computation; it is an
2
3
important element in the computation of uniform flow. From the previous equations ( K= A R
n
Q
and K= ), this factor may be expressed as
√S
2
A R 3 =nK
and
2
nQ
A R3=
√S
Primarily, this equation applies to a channel section when the flow is uniform. The right side of
the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side depends only on the geometry of
the water area. Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n, Q, and S, there is only one
possible depth for maintaining a uniform flow, provided that the value of AR 2/3 always increases
with increase in depth. This depth is the normal depth. When n and S are known at a channel
section, it can be seen from the equation that there can be only one discharge for maintaining a
uniform flow through the section, provided that AR2/3always increases with depth. This discharge
is the normal discharge.
The equation given above is very useful tool for the computation and analysis of uniform flow.
When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation gives the section factor AR 2/3
and hence the normal depth, yn. On the other hand, when n, S, and the dept, hence the section
factor, are given, the normal discharge Qn can be computed.
In order to smplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing the relation between depth
and section factor AR2/3, have been prepared for rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular channel
sections (Figure 4.5). These curves will help to determine the depth for a given section factor
AR2/3, and vice versa.
Example 4.3 Compute the normal depth in a trapezoidal channel having a bottom-width of 10 m,
side slopes of 2H:1V and carrying a discharge of 30 m 3/s. The slope of the channel bottom is
0.001 and n = 0.013.
From the above equation, taking the logarithm and differentiating, the hydraulic exponent at
depth y is
d ( ln K )
N=2 (i)
d ( ln y )
Now, taking the logarithms on both sides of K = AR2/3/n, and then differentiating with respect to
ln y under the assumption that n is independent of y,
d ( ln K ) y dA 2 y dR
= +
d ( ln y ) A dy 3 R dy
Equating the right sides of equations (i) and (ii) and solving for N,
N=
2y
3A (
5 T −2 R
dP
dy )
This is the general equation for the hydraulic exponent N. For a trapezoidal channel section
having a bottom width b and side slope z, after substituting the expressions for A, T, P and R and
simplifying, the resulting equation is
10 1+2 z ( y /b ) 8 √1+ z ( y /b )
2
N= −
3 y 3 1+2 √ 1+ z 2 ( y /b )
1+ z ( )
b
This equation indicates that the value of N for trapezoidal channel section is a function of z and
y/b. For values of z = 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 4.0, a family of curves for N versus y/b
can be constructed (figure 4.6). These curves indicate that the value of N varies within a range of
2.0 to 5.3. The curve for a circular section shows that the value of N decreases rapidly as the
depth of flow approaches the top of the channel.
The most efficient hydraulic section yields the most economical channel since lining and
maintenance expenses will reduce substantially. Furthermore, the best hydraulic cross-section for
a given A, n, and S0 is the cross-section that conveys maximum discharge. The proportions for
common cross sections so that they are the most efficient are derived in the following
paragraphs.
Rectangular Section: For a rectangular channel, A = By and P = B + 2y. For the best hydraulic
section, we want to determine the ratio of B and y such that P is minimum for constant A. Now,
P can be written in terms of A and y as
A
P= +2 y
y
Differentiating this expression for P with respect to y and then equating the resulting expression
to zero, we obtain
Triangular Section: Let us consider a symmetrical triangular section having side slope mH:1V.
Then,
A = my2
P=2 ( √ 1+m ) y
2
( )
1
A
P=2 √ 1+m
2 2
m
P2=4 m+ ( 1
m
A )
As we discussed previously, P should be minimum for a given A for the most efficient hydraulic
section. For this condition, dP/dm = 0. By differentiating the above equation, we obtain
2P
dP
dm (
1
=4 1− 2 A=0
m )
Hence, it follows from the last equation that m = 1. Thus, a triangular section with the sides
inclined at 45o is the most efficient triangular section.
P=B0 +2 √ 1+m2 y
The elimination of Bo from the above two equations and the simplification of the resulting
equation yield
A
+ y ( 2 √ 1+m −m )
2
P=
y
If both A and y are constants and m is variable, then the condition for the most efficient section is
dPdm = 0. Hence, differentiating the last equation with respect to m, equating the resulting
equation to zero and simplifying, we obtain
1
m= or
√3
Now, let us consider A and m to be constants and y to be variable. Then, the condition for the
most efficient section is dP/dy = 0. Differentiating the equation for P with respect to y, equating
the resulting equation to zero, and simplifying, we obtain
B0=2 ( √ m +1−m ) y
2
Referring to triangle OCD in Fig. 4.8, and substituting the above expression for T, we obtain
OC = OD sin Θ
Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 24
= ½ T sinΘ
=y
Thus, a circle with radius y and with center at O is tangential to the channel bottom and sides.
Channel shape B A P R T
Example 4.4 An open channel of most economical section, having the form of a half-hexagon
with horizontal bottom is required to give a maximum discharge of 20.2 m 3/s. The slope of the
channel bottom is 1 in 2500. Taking Chezy’s coefficient C = 60, determine the dimensions of the
section.
Answer
y = 2.853 m
B = 3.294m
Designing an open channel involves the selection of channel alignment, size and shape of the
channel, longitudinal slope, and the type of lining material. Normally, we consider several
hydraulically feasible alternatives, and compare them to determine the most cost-effective
alternative.
Most manmade surface channels are trapezoidal in cross-section, although triangular and
rectangular channels are also used. The primary concern in selecting a cross-sectional shape and
size is the section’s hydraulic capacity to accommodate the design discharge. Steep side slopes
can cause slope stability problems as well as high erosion rates in earthen channels. The steepest
recommended side slopes for different types of channel materials are given in Table 4.4.
For the most part, open channels are designed for subcritical flow. It is important to keep the
Froude number sufficiently lower than the critical value of 1.0 under the design conditions. We
must remember that the design discharge is only a single estimated value; the actual discharge
occurring in a channel will vary possibly above and below the design discharge. Therefore, if the
design Froude number is close to 1.0, there is a possibility that the actual flow might be
fluctuating between subcritical and supercritical conditions. This fluctuation would be an
unstable flow situation, and it should be avoided.
Channels are often lined to prevent the sides and the bottom of the channel from suffering
erosion due to the shear stresses caused by the flow. The types of channel linings can be
categorized into two broad groups: rigid and flexible. Rigid lining materials include cast-in-place
concrete, cast-in-place asphaltic concrete, stone masonry, soil cement, and grouted riprap. Rigid
linings can resist high shear stresses and provide a much higher conveyance capacity for the
Flexible linings can be further classified into permanent and temporary linings. Permanent
flexible linings include riprap, wire-enclosed riprap (although wire may corrode and break),
vegetation lining, and gravel. Temporary linings are used for temporary protection against
erosion until vegetation is established. Temporary linings include straw with net, curled wood
mat, synthetic mat, etc.
Freeboard is the vertical distance between the top of the channel and the water surface that
prevails under the design flow conditions. This distance should be sufficient to allow variations
in the water surface due to wind-driven waves, tidal action, occurrence of flows exceeding the
design discharge, and other causes. For preliminary estimates, the US Bureau of Reclamation
recommends that the unlined channel freeboard be computed as
where F = freeboard, y = flow depth, and C = a coefficient. With F and y in meters, C varies
from 0.5 m for a flow capacity of 0.6 m3/s to 0.76 m for a capacity of 85 m3/s or more.
( )
3
n V max 2
R=
√ S0
3. Compute the required flow area as A = Q/Vmax;
4. Compute the wetted perimeter as P = A/R;
5. Knowing the magnitudes of A and P and using the expressions for A and P, solve for the
flow depth y and the bottom width B simultaneously;
6. Check the Froude number to ensure that it is not close to critical value of 1.0;
7. Add a freeboard and modify the section for practical purposes.
Example 4.5 An unlined channel to be excavated in stiff clay will convey a discharge of
Q=13.15m3/s over a slope of S0 = 0.002. Proportion the section dimensions using the maximum
permissible velocity method.
Solution
Using table 4.4, we pick m = 1.5 (milder than the steepest recommended slope) for stiff clay, and
n = 0.020 (V.T. Chow). From Table 4.5, Vmax = 1.8 m/s.
( ) (
3
)
n V max 2 0.02 x 1.8 32
Then, R= = =0.72 m
√ S0 √ 0.002