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Chapter 4 - Uniform Flow

This document discusses uniform flow in open channels. Uniform flow occurs when the depth, flow area, and velocity remain constant along the channel. The document describes how uniform flow is established and its key features. It then discusses several common equations used to calculate uniform flow, including the Chezy and Manning equations. The Manning equation is widely used in practice due to its empirical nature. The document explains how to determine the Manning roughness coefficient, which is critical but difficult to select accurately.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
32 views30 pages

Chapter 4 - Uniform Flow

This document discusses uniform flow in open channels. Uniform flow occurs when the depth, flow area, and velocity remain constant along the channel. The document describes how uniform flow is established and its key features. It then discusses several common equations used to calculate uniform flow, including the Chezy and Manning equations. The Manning equation is widely used in practice due to its empirical nature. The document explains how to determine the Manning roughness coefficient, which is critical but difficult to select accurately.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 4

UNIFORM FLOW
4.1. Concepts and Establishment of Uniform flow
Flow in an open channel is called uniform flow or normal flow if the depth, flow area, and
velocity remain constant at every cross-section along the channel. Strictly speaking, normal flow
is possible only in prismatic channels, and it rarely occurs naturally. Uniform flow in open
channels often is used as a design condition to determine the dimension of artificial channels.

In free-surface flow, the component of the weight of water in the downstream direction causes
acceleration of flow (it causes deceleration if the bottom slope is negative), whereas the shear
stress at the channel bottom and sides offers resistance to flow. Depending upon the relative
magnitude of these accelerating and decelerating forces, the flow may accelerate or decelerate.
For example, if the resistive force is more than the component of the weight, then the flow
velocity decreases and, to satisfy the continuity equation, the flow depth increases. The converse
is true if the component of the weight is more than the resistive force. However, if the channel is
long and prismatic (i.e., channel cross section and bottom slope do not change with distance),
then the flow accelerates or decelerates for a distance until the accelerating and resistive forces
are equal. From that point on, the flow velocity and flow depth remain constant (Fig. 4.1). Such a
flow, in which the flow depth does not change with distance, is called uniform flow, and the
corresponding flow depth is called the normal depth.

The uniform flow to be considered has the following main features:


(1) The depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the channel reach are
constant;
(2) The energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel; that is, their slopes are
all equal, or Sf = Sw = S0 = S.

Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is practically
nonexistent.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 1


(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4.1 Establishment of uniform flows in a long channel

In Fig. 4.1, the upstream reach that is required for the establishment of uniform flow is known as
the transitory zone. In this zone the flow is accelerating and varied. If the channel is shorter than
the transitory length required by the given conditions, uniform flow cannot be attained. Towards
the downstream end of the channel the resistance may again be exceeded by gravity forces, and
the flow may become varied again.

The length of the translator zone depends on the discharge and on the physical conditions of the
channel, such as entrance condition, shape, slope, and roughness.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 2


4.2. Flow Resistance Equations
For hydraulic computations the mean velocity of a turbulent uniform flow in open channels is
usually expressed approximately by the so-called uniform-flow formula. Most practical
uniform-flow formulas can be expressed in the following general form:
x y
V =C R S
Where V is the mean velocity (m/s), R is the hydraulic radius (m), S is the energy slope, x and y
are exponents, and C is a factor of flow resistance (varying with the mean velocity, hydraulic
radius, channel roughness, viscosity, etc.).

There have been developed and published a large number of practical uniform-flow formulas,
but none of these formulas meet the qualifications of a good formula. The best known and most
widely used formulas are the Chezy and Manning formulas.

4.3. Chezy Equation


The Chezy equation can be derived from the definition of uniform flow with an assumption
regarding the form of the flow resistance coefficient, with reference to Figure 4.2, the definition
of uniform flow requires that the forces resisting flow exactly equal the forces causing motion.
The force causing motion is

F = W sin =  A L sin 

Where: W = weight of fluid within control volume


γ = fluid specific weight
L = control volume length
 = Longitudinal slope angle of a channel
If  is small, which is usually the case, then sin   S0. Thus
F = AL So = gAL S0
For a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter p, the force of resistance is
Ff =  * P * L
Equating F = Ff ;   * P * L = g AL So
A
⇒ τ = ρg S = ρg R S0
P o

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 3


Figure 4.2 Forces on a column of flowing water

 is shear stress along the perimeter. If we let shear velocity V * = √ gRS0 the above equation
implies.
 =  V*2
V* is known as shear velocity.
From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel perimeter resisting
motion. Ff, is proportional to the square of the average velocity or

Ff  V2

Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of resistance can also be
written as
Ff = KLPV2

Where K = constant of proportionality. Setting the force casing motion equal to the force
resisting motion, i.e. F = Ff.

( )
γ
√ A
1/2
ρ gALSo = KLPV 2 ⇒ γ ALS o = KLPV 2 ⇒ V = S
K P 0

( ) ( )
1/ 2
γ γ 1/2
V =
k √ RSo ⇒ V =
k
√ RS
Wh
ere the subscript associated with s has been dropped.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 4


()
1/2
γ
For convenience define, C = k

()
1/2
γ
The resistance coefficient, C, defined as k , is commonly known as the Chezy C and in
practice is determined by either measurement or estimate. The coefficient of resistance defined
by the above equation is found to vary with bed and flow characteristics.

Substituting this gives the famous Chezy Formula

V = C√ RS
Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of energy line
(m/m), and C is a factor of flow resistance, called Chezy’s C.

Let us compare the Chezy equation for open channel with Darcy-Weisbach friction formula for
pipes,
2
f LV
hf =
D2g
In which hf = head loss in a pipe of diameter D and Length L. The slope of the energy grade line,
S = hf/L. Therefore, we may write this equation as,

V=
√ 2g D S
f
Noting that the hydraulic radius, R, for a pipe is equal to D/4, Chezy’s equation will become

V =C
√ DS
4
It follows from the above two last equations that C=√ 8 g/f

A number of empirical formulae have been proposed for the determination of the values of C in
the Chezy formula. In 1869 Ganguillet and Kutter proposed the following formulae based on an
analysis of the behavior of rivers and open channels which, stated in SI units, is

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 5


Where S is the bed slope and n is a roughness coefficient, which increases with increasing
roughness of the channel boundary. Typical values are given in Table 4.1.

The Basin formula, published in 1897, and stated in SI units, is

Where k depends on the surface roughness. Typical values of k are given in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Typical values of k in Bazin’s formula

4.4. Manning Formula


The Manning equation is the result of a curve fitting process and thus is completely empirical in
nature. In application of the Manning equation, it is essential that the system of units being used
be identified and that the appropriate coefficient be used. In the SI system of units, the Manning
equation is
2
1
V = R 3 √S
n
Where n = Manning resistance coefficient.

If we equate Chezy’s and Manning formula, we get


1 1 2 1
1
C R 2 S 2 = R 3 S 02
2
1
R6
C=
n

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 6


4.5. Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
In applying the manning formula, the greatest difficulty lies in the determination of the
roughness coefficient n; for there is no exact method of selecting the n value. At present stage of
knowledge, to select a value of n actually means to estimate the resistance to flow in a given
channel, which is really a matter of intangibles. To experienced engineers, this means the
exercise of sound engineering judgment and experience; for beginners, it can be no more than a
guess, and different individuals will obtain different results.

In order to give guidance in the proper determination of the roughness coefficient, four general
approaches will be discussed; namely,
(1) To understand the factors that affect the value of n and thus to acquire a basic knowledge
of the problem and narrow the wide range of guesswork,
(2) To consult a table of typical n values for channels of various types,
(3) To examine and become acquainted with the appearance of some typical channels whose
roughness coefficient are known, and
(4) To determine the value of n by an analytical procedure based on the theoretical velocity
distribution in the channel cross section and on the data of either velocity or roughness
measurement.
Factors Affecting Manning’s Roughness Coefficient: It is not uncommon for engineers to
think of a channel as having a single value of n for all occasions. In reality, the value of n is
highly variable and depends on a number of factors. The factors that exert the greatest influence
upon the coefficient of roughness in both artificial and natural channels are therefore described
below.
a) Surface Roughness: The surface roughness is represented by the size and shape of the
grains of the material forming the wetted perimeter and producing a retarding effect on
the flow. Generally speaking, fine grains result in a relatively low value of n and coarse
grains, in a high value of n.
b) Vegetation: It may be regarded as a kind of surface roughness, but it also markedly
reduces the capacity of the channel and retards flow. This effect depends mainly on
height, density, distribution, and type of vegetation.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 7


c) Channel Irregularity: This comprises irregularities in wetted perimeter and variations in
cross section, size, and shape along the channel length. In natural channels, such
irregularities are usually introduced by the presence of sand bars, sand waves, ridges and
depressions, and holes and humps on the channel bed.
d) Channel Alignment: Smooth curvature with large radius will give a relatively low value
of n, whereas sharp curvature with severe meandering will increase n.
e) Silting and Scouring: Generally speaking, silting may change a very irregular channel
into a comparatively uniform one and decrease n, whereas scouring may do the reverse
and increase n. However, the dominant effect of silting will depend on the nature of the
material deposited. Uneven deposits such as sand bars and sand waves are channel
irregularities and will increase the roughness.
f) Obstruction: The presence of log jams, bridge piers, etc. tends to increase n.
g) Size and Shape of Channel: There is no definite evidence about the size and shape of a
channel as an important factor affecting the value of n.
h) Stage and Discharge: The n value in most streams decreases with increase in stage and
in discharge. When the water is shallow, the irregularities of the channel bed are exposed
and their effects become pronounced. However, the n value may be large at high stages if
the banks are rough and grassy.
i) Seasonal change: Owing to the seasonal growth of aquatic plants and weeds in the
channel, the value of n may increase in the growing season and diminish in the dormant
season.

4.5.1 Determination of Manning’s Roughness Coefficient, n


All the above factors should be studied and evaluated with respect to conditions regarding type
of channel, state of flow, degree of maintenance, etc. They provide a basis for determining the
proper value of n for a given problem.

a) Cowan’s Method
Recognizing the various factors affecting the roughness coefficient, Cowan developed a
procedure for estimating the value of n as,

n = (n0 + n1 + n2 + n3 + n4) m5

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 8


where
n0 = a basisc n value for a straight, uniform, smooth channel in the natural materials involved,
n1 = a value added to n0 to correct for the effect of surface irregularities,
n2 = a value for variations in shape and size of the channel cross section,
n3 = a value for obstruction,
n4 = a value for vegetation and flow condition, and
m5 = a correction factor for meandering of channel.
Proper values of n0 to n4 and m5 may be selected from Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Values for the computation of roughness coefficient, n

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 9


b) Table for Estimation of n values
This method of estimating n for a channel involves use of table of values. Chow (1959)
presented an extensive table of n values for various types of channels. In this table, a minimum,
normal, and maximum value of n are stated for each type of channel. Refer this table from V.T.
Chow (1959) Open Channel Hydraulics.

c) Empirical Methods
A number of empirical methods have been advanced for estimating n. These methods relate n to
the bed particle size. Perhaps the best known of these methods is the one proposed by Strickler
in 1923. Subramanya (1982) gave the Strickler equation as
1
1 6
6
d50
n=0.047 d =
50
21.1
Where d50 = diameter of the bed material in meters such that 50% of the material by weight is
finer.
Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 10
For mixtures of bed materials with a significant proportion of coarse grained sizes, Meyer-Peter
and Mueller (1948) suggested the following equation.
1
d 690 1
6
n= ≅ 0.038 d 90
26
Where d90 = bed material size in meters such that 90% of material by weight is finer.

4.5.2 Flow in a Channel Section with Composite Roughness


In simple channels, the roughness along the wetted perimeter may be distinctly different from
part to part of the perimeter, but the mean velocity can still be computed by the uniform flow
formula without actually subdividing the section. For example, a rectangular channel built with a
metal bottom and glass walls must have different n values for the bottom and the walls. In
applying the Manning formula to such channels, it is sometimes necessary to compute an
equivalent n value for the entire perimeter and use this equivalent value for the computation of
the flow in the whole section.

Figure 4.3 Example of composite channel

For the determination of the equivalent roughness, the water area is divided imaginatively into
N parts of which the wetted perimeters P1, P 2, …, PN and the coefficients of roughness n 1, n2,…,
nN are known.

A number of formulae, based on different assumptions, are proposed by various investigators for
the calculation of equivalent roughness. Some of them are presented hereunder.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 11


i) Horton and Einstein assumed that each part of the area has the same mean velocity,
which at the same time is equal to the mean velocity of the whole section; that is V 1 = V2 = …
VN = V. On the basis of this assumption, the equivalent coefficient of roughness may be
obtained by the following equation:

[ ]
N 2

∑ (PN n ) 1.5 3 2

1
N
( P1 n
1.5
1
1.5
+ P2 n + …+ PN n
2 N )
1.5 3

n= = 2
P 3
P
ii) Pavlovskii and others assumed that the total force resisting the flow (that is KV 2PL) is equal
to the sum of the forces resisting the flow developed in the subdivided areas. By this assumption
the equivalent roughness coefficient is

[∑ ( ) ]
N 1
2 2 1
PN n
1
N
( P1 n21 + P2 n 22+ …+ PN n2N )2
n= 1
= 1
2
P P2
iii) Lotter assumed that the total discharge of the flow is equal to the sum of the discharges of the
subdivided areas. Thus, the equivalent roughness coefficient is

Where R1, R2, … , RN are hydraulic radii of the subdivided areas. For simple channel sections, it
may be assumed that
R 1 = R2 = … = R N = R

Example 4.1 An earthen trapezoidal channel (n = 0.025) has a bottom width of 5.0 m, side
slopes of 1.5 H: 1V and a uniform flow depth of 1.10 m. In an economic study to remedy
excessive seepage from the canal two proposals: (a) to line the sides only, and (b) to line the bed
only are considered. If the lining is of smooth concrete (n = 0.012), calculate the equivalent
roughness in the above two cases.

Solution

Given: Earthen trapezoidal channel, n = 0.025, B = 5.0 m, m = 1.5, y = 1.10 m.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 12


Required: Equivalent roughness; a) lining on sides only; b) lining on bed only.

a) Lining only the sides


n = 0.012 (lining roughness)
For the bed, n1 = 0.025 and P1 = 5.0 m
For the sides, n2 = 0.012 and P2 = 2 x 1.10 x √ 1+1.52 = 3.97 m
P = P1 + P2 = 5.0 + 3.97 = 8.97 m

[ ][
N 2

∑ (PN n )
1.5 3

]
N 2
1 5.0 x 0.0251.5 +3.97 x 0.0121.5 3
n= = =0.020
P 8.97
b) Lining only the bed
P1 = 5.0 m, n1 = 0.012
P2 = 3.97 m, n2 = 0.025, P = 8.97 m

[ ][
N 2

∑ (PN n )
1.5 3

]
N 2
1 5.0 x 0.0121.5 +3.97 x 0.025 1.5 3
n= = =0.018
P 8.97

4.6. Channels of Compound Sections


The cross section of a channel may be composed of several distinct subsections with each
subsection different in roughness from the others. For example, an alluvial channel subject to
seasonal floods generally consists of a main channel and two side channels. The side channels
are usually found to be rougher than the main channel; so the mean velocity in the main channel
is greater than the mean velocities in the side channels. In such cases, the Manning formula may
be applied separately to each subsection in determining the mean velocity of the subsection.
Then the discharges in the subsections can be computed. The total discharge is, therefore, equal
to the sum of these discharges.

Thus, in the channel shown in Figure 4.4, assuming that the bed slope is the same for the three
sub-areas:

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 13


Figure 4.4 Compound channel section

Example 4.2 Find the flow rate in the channel and overbank area that is shown in the following
figure. The slope of the channel is 0.001, and the depth in the overbank area is 2m. The
Manning’s n is 0.04 in the overbank area and 0.03 in the main channel. All the channel sides
have a 1:1 slope.

Solution
2
A
The discharge is calculated using Manning equation, Q= R 3 √ S
n
For the overbank area, A = 2 x (50 + y0/2) y0 = (100 + y0)y0
A = 2 x (50 + 2/2) x 2 = 204 m2
Where y0 = depth in the overbank area = 2.0 m
The wetted perimeter is P = 2 x ( 50+ √ 2 y 0 )

P=2 x ( 50+ √ 2 x 2.0 )=105.6 m


The hydraulic radius for the overbank area is R = A/P = 204/105.6 = 1.93 m
For the main channel,
5
A=10 y mc +2 x 5 ( y mc −5 ) +2 x 5 x
2
2
¿ 20 y mc −25=20 x 7−25=115 m
The wetted perimeter is P = 10 + 2 x (2.0)0.5 x 5.0 = 24.1 m

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 14


So the hydraulic radius of the main channel is
R = A/P = 115/24.1 = 4.77m
The flow rate (discharge) in the entire area is,

( )√
2 2
204 115
Q= x 1.93 3 + x 4.77 3 0.001=593.5 m3 /s
0.04 0.03

4.7. Uniform Flow Computation


The discharge of uniform flow in a channel may be expressed as the product of the velocity and
the water area
x y y
Q=V A=C A R S =K S
Where K=C A R
x

The term K is known as the conveyance of the channel section; it is a measure of the carrying
capacity of the channel section, since it is directly proportional to Q.

When either the Chezy or the Manning formula is used as a uniform-flow formula, i.e. when y =
½ in the above formula, the discharge becomes,
Q=K √ S
And the conveyance is
Q
K=
√S
This equation can be used to compute the conveyance when the discharge and slope of the
channel are given.
When the Chezy formula is used the conveyance becomes
2
3
K=C A R
Where C is Chezy’s resistance factor. Similarly, when Manning formula is used,
2
3
AR
K=
n
The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the geometry of the water
area and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient are given.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 15


4.7.1 The Section Factor for Uniform Flow Computation

The expression A R2/3 is called the section factor for uniform flow computation; it is an
2
3
important element in the computation of uniform flow. From the previous equations ( K= A R
n
Q
and K= ), this factor may be expressed as
√S
2
A R 3 =nK
and
2
nQ
A R3=
√S
Primarily, this equation applies to a channel section when the flow is uniform. The right side of
the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side depends only on the geometry of
the water area. Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n, Q, and S, there is only one
possible depth for maintaining a uniform flow, provided that the value of AR 2/3 always increases
with increase in depth. This depth is the normal depth. When n and S are known at a channel
section, it can be seen from the equation that there can be only one discharge for maintaining a
uniform flow through the section, provided that AR2/3always increases with depth. This discharge
is the normal discharge.

The equation given above is very useful tool for the computation and analysis of uniform flow.
When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation gives the section factor AR 2/3
and hence the normal depth, yn. On the other hand, when n, S, and the dept, hence the section
factor, are given, the normal discharge Qn can be computed.

In order to smplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing the relation between depth
and section factor AR2/3, have been prepared for rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular channel
sections (Figure 4.5). These curves will help to determine the depth for a given section factor
AR2/3, and vice versa.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 16


Figure 4.5 Curves for determining the normal depth

Example 4.3 Compute the normal depth in a trapezoidal channel having a bottom-width of 10 m,
side slopes of 2H:1V and carrying a discharge of 30 m 3/s. The slope of the channel bottom is
0.001 and n = 0.013.

Solution: Q = 30 m3/s, B = 10 m, n = 0.013, m = 2, yn = ?


2
nQ 0.013 x 30
A R3= = =12.33
√ S √ 0.001
A = yn (B + m yn) = yn (10 + 2yn)
P=B+2 y n √ 1+ m2=10+ 4.47 y n
A y n(10+2 y n)
R= =
P 10 +4.47 y n
Now substituting the expressions for A and R into AR 2/3 = 12.33 and simplifying the
resulting equation, we get
5 2

[ y n ( 20+2 y n ) ] 3 −12.33 ( 10+ 4.47 y n ) 3 =0

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 17


Solving by trial-and-error, yn = 1.09 m
The problem can also be solved as follows:
2
nQ 0.013 x 30
A R3= = =12.33
√ S √ 0.001
y (m) A (m2) P (m) R (m) AR2/3 Remark
0.5 5.5 12.235 0.45 3.23 y too small
1.5 19.5 16.71 1.167 21.62 y too large
1.0 12.0 14.47 0.829 10.59
1.1 13.42 14.92 0.8996 12.51
1.09 13.28 14.87 0.893 12.314 Closest

Using Design Curves


2
nQ 0.013 x 30
A R3= = =12.33
√ S √ 0.001
2
3
AR 12.33
Thus, 8
= 8
=0.026
3 3
B 0 10
For m = 2 and the section factor, AR2/3/B08/3 = 0.026, from Figure 4.5, yn = 1.10 m.

4.7.2 The Hydraulic Exponent for Uniform-flow Computation


Since the conveyance K is a function of the depth of flow y, it may be assumed that
K2 = CyN
Where C is a coefficient and N is a parameter called the hydraulic exponent for uniform-flow
computation.

From the above equation, taking the logarithm and differentiating, the hydraulic exponent at
depth y is
d ( ln K )
N=2 (i)
d ( ln y )
Now, taking the logarithms on both sides of K = AR2/3/n, and then differentiating with respect to
ln y under the assumption that n is independent of y,
d ( ln K ) y dA 2 y dR
= +
d ( ln y ) A dy 3 R dy

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 18


Since dA/dy = T and R = A/P, the above equation becomes
d ( ln K )
d ( ln y )
=
3
y
(
A
5 T −2 R
dP
dy ) (ii)

Equating the right sides of equations (i) and (ii) and solving for N,

N=
2y
3A (
5 T −2 R
dP
dy )
This is the general equation for the hydraulic exponent N. For a trapezoidal channel section
having a bottom width b and side slope z, after substituting the expressions for A, T, P and R and
simplifying, the resulting equation is
10 1+2 z ( y /b ) 8 √1+ z ( y /b )
2
N= −
3 y 3 1+2 √ 1+ z 2 ( y /b )
1+ z ( )
b
This equation indicates that the value of N for trapezoidal channel section is a function of z and
y/b. For values of z = 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 4.0, a family of curves for N versus y/b
can be constructed (figure 4.6). These curves indicate that the value of N varies within a range of
2.0 to 5.3. The curve for a circular section shows that the value of N decreases rapidly as the
depth of flow approaches the top of the channel.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 19


Figure 4.6 Curves for N values

4.7.3 Flow Characteristics in Closed Conduit with Open Channel Flow


For a circular section, the dimensionless curves for AR 2/3/A0R02/3 and R2/3/R02/3 are shown by solid
lines in Figure 4.7. A0 and R0 indicate the full flow condition. If the n value is assumed to be
independent of the depth variation, these two curves will represent the variation of the ratios of
the discharge and velocity to their corresponding full-flow values (i.e., Q/Q 0 and V/V0). Both the
discharge and velocity curves show maximum values, which occur at about 0.938d 0 and 0.81d0
respectively. Mathematically, the depth for maximum discharge, 0.938d 0, can be obtained by
equating to zero the first derivative of AR 2/3 with respect to y, since Q computed by Manning
formula is proportional to AR2/3 for constant n and S. Similarly, as the velocity is proportional to
R2/3, the depth for maximum velocity, 0.81d 0, can be obtained by equating the first derivative of
R2/3 to zero. Further, the dimensionless curve of Q/Q0 shows that, when the depth is greater than
about 0.82d0, it is possible to have two different depths for the same discharge, one above and
one below the value of 0.938d0. Similarly, the curve of V/V0 shows that, when the depth is

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 20


greater than the half-depth, it is possible to have two different depths for the same velocity, one
above and one below the value of 0.81d0.

Figure 4.7 Flow characteristics of a circular section

4.7.4 Problems of Uniform-flow Computation


The computation of uniform flow may be performed by the use of two equations: the continuity
equation and a uniform-flow formula. When the Manning formula is used, the computation will
involve the following six variables.
1. The normal discharge, Q
2. The mean velocity of flow, V
3. The normal depth, y
4. The coefficient of roughness, n
5. The channel slope, S
6. The geometric elements that depend on the shape of the channel section, such as A, R, etc.
When any four of the above six variables are given, the remaining two unknowns can be
determined by the two equations.
Table 4.3 Some types of problems of uniform flow computation
Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 21
Note:
- The known variables are indicated by (√) and unknowns required in the problem by (?).
- The unknown variables that can be determined from the known variables are indicated by (-).

4.8. The Hydraulically Efficient Channel Section


A typical uniform flow problem in the design of artificial canals is economical proportioning of
the cross section. A section that gives maximum section factor, AR2/3, for a specified flow area,
A, is called the most efficient hydraulic section or best hydraulic section. Since Q is proportional
to AR2/3 for a given channel (i.e., n and So are specified) and R = A/P, we can say that the most
efficient hydraulic section is the one that yields the minimum wetted perimeter, P for a given A.

The most efficient hydraulic section yields the most economical channel since lining and
maintenance expenses will reduce substantially. Furthermore, the best hydraulic cross-section for
a given A, n, and S0 is the cross-section that conveys maximum discharge. The proportions for
common cross sections so that they are the most efficient are derived in the following
paragraphs.

Rectangular Section: For a rectangular channel, A = By and P = B + 2y. For the best hydraulic
section, we want to determine the ratio of B and y such that P is minimum for constant A. Now,
P can be written in terms of A and y as
A
P= +2 y
y
Differentiating this expression for P with respect to y and then equating the resulting expression
to zero, we obtain

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 22


dP −A
= 2 + 2=0
dy y
A
2
=2
y
By
But A = By. Therefore, 2
=2
y
B
y=
2
Thus, a rectangular cross section is the most efficient when the flow depth is one-half the
channel width.

Triangular Section: Let us consider a symmetrical triangular section having side slope mH:1V.
Then,
A = my2

P=2 ( √ 1+m ) y
2

Substituting the expression for y in terms of m and A (i.e. y = (A/m)1/2), we obtain

( )
1
A
P=2 √ 1+m
2 2
m

Taking the square of both sides, this equation becomes

P2=4 m+ ( 1
m
A )
As we discussed previously, P should be minimum for a given A for the most efficient hydraulic
section. For this condition, dP/dm = 0. By differentiating the above equation, we obtain

2P
dP
dm (
1
=4 1− 2 A=0
m )
Hence, it follows from the last equation that m = 1. Thus, a triangular section with the sides
inclined at 45o is the most efficient triangular section.

Trapezoidal section: For a trapezoidal section (Fig. 4.8)

P=B0 +2 √ 1+m2 y

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 23


A=( B 0 +m y ) y

The elimination of Bo from the above two equations and the simplification of the resulting
equation yield

A
+ y ( 2 √ 1+m −m )
2
P=
y

Figure 4.8 Trapezoidal channel section

If both A and y are constants and m is variable, then the condition for the most efficient section is
dPdm = 0. Hence, differentiating the last equation with respect to m, equating the resulting
equation to zero and simplifying, we obtain
1
m= or
√3
Now, let us consider A and m to be constants and y to be variable. Then, the condition for the
most efficient section is dP/dy = 0. Differentiating the equation for P with respect to y, equating
the resulting equation to zero, and simplifying, we obtain
B0=2 ( √ m +1−m ) y
2

Based on this equation, the top water-surface width is


T =B0 +2 m y=2 y √ m2+1
Thus, the top water-surface width is twice the length of the sloping side. In other words, these
derivations show that the most efficient section is one-half of a hexagon.

Referring to triangle OCD in Fig. 4.8, and substituting the above expression for T, we obtain

OC = OD sin Θ
Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 24
= ½ T sinΘ
=y
Thus, a circle with radius y and with center at O is tangential to the channel bottom and sides.

Table 4.4 Geometric parameters in best (efficient) hydraulic sections

Channel shape B A P R T

Rectangular (half square) 2y 2 y2 4y y/2 2y

Trapezoidal (half regular hexagon) 2


y √ 3 y2 2 √ 3 y = 3B y/2 4
y
√3 √3
Circular (semi-circle) - (π/2) y2 πy y/2 2y

Triangular (vertex angle= 900) - y2 2 √2 y y 2y


2 √2

Example 4.4 An open channel of most economical section, having the form of a half-hexagon
with horizontal bottom is required to give a maximum discharge of 20.2 m 3/s. The slope of the
channel bottom is 1 in 2500. Taking Chezy’s coefficient C = 60, determine the dimensions of the
section.

Answer
y = 2.853 m
B = 3.294m

4.9. Design of Irrigation Channels


Open channels are designed to carry a design discharge in a safe and economical way. For
irrigation and water supply projects, the design discharge is determined on the basis of total
delivery requirements. Open channels are usually designed for uniform or normal flow
conditions.

Designing an open channel involves the selection of channel alignment, size and shape of the
channel, longitudinal slope, and the type of lining material. Normally, we consider several
hydraulically feasible alternatives, and compare them to determine the most cost-effective
alternative.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 25


General Design Considerations: Selection of channel alignment is the first step in designing an
open channel. Generally, the topography of the area, and planned adjacent structures control the
channel alignment. The topography also controls the invert elevations and bottom slope of the
channel.

Most manmade surface channels are trapezoidal in cross-section, although triangular and
rectangular channels are also used. The primary concern in selecting a cross-sectional shape and
size is the section’s hydraulic capacity to accommodate the design discharge. Steep side slopes
can cause slope stability problems as well as high erosion rates in earthen channels. The steepest
recommended side slopes for different types of channel materials are given in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Steepest slope recommended side slopes for channels


Material Side slope, m
Rock 0 – 0.25
Earth with concrete lining 0.50
Stiff clay or earth 1.0
Soft clay 1.5
Loose sandy soil 2.0
Light sand, sandy loam 3.0

For the most part, open channels are designed for subcritical flow. It is important to keep the
Froude number sufficiently lower than the critical value of 1.0 under the design conditions. We
must remember that the design discharge is only a single estimated value; the actual discharge
occurring in a channel will vary possibly above and below the design discharge. Therefore, if the
design Froude number is close to 1.0, there is a possibility that the actual flow might be
fluctuating between subcritical and supercritical conditions. This fluctuation would be an
unstable flow situation, and it should be avoided.

Channels are often lined to prevent the sides and the bottom of the channel from suffering
erosion due to the shear stresses caused by the flow. The types of channel linings can be
categorized into two broad groups: rigid and flexible. Rigid lining materials include cast-in-place
concrete, cast-in-place asphaltic concrete, stone masonry, soil cement, and grouted riprap. Rigid
linings can resist high shear stresses and provide a much higher conveyance capacity for the

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 26


same cross-sectional size and channel slope than can a flexible lining. They also reduce losses of
water from the channel due to seepage.

Flexible linings can be further classified into permanent and temporary linings. Permanent
flexible linings include riprap, wire-enclosed riprap (although wire may corrode and break),
vegetation lining, and gravel. Temporary linings are used for temporary protection against
erosion until vegetation is established. Temporary linings include straw with net, curled wood
mat, synthetic mat, etc.

Freeboard is the vertical distance between the top of the channel and the water surface that
prevails under the design flow conditions. This distance should be sufficient to allow variations
in the water surface due to wind-driven waves, tidal action, occurrence of flows exceeding the
design discharge, and other causes. For preliminary estimates, the US Bureau of Reclamation
recommends that the unlined channel freeboard be computed as

where F = freeboard, y = flow depth, and C = a coefficient. With F and y in meters, C varies
from 0.5 m for a flow capacity of 0.6 m3/s to 0.76 m for a capacity of 85 m3/s or more.

Design of Unlined Channels


The sides and bottoms of earthen channels are both erodible. The main criterion for earthen
channel design is that the channel is not eroded under the design flow conditions. There are two
approaches to erodible channel design, namely the maximum permissible velocity method and the
tractive force method. Only the first method is discussed in the following sections.

Maximum Permissible Velocity Method


This method is based on the assumption that a channel will not be eroded if the average cross-
sectional velocity in the channel does not exceed the maximum permissible velocity. Therefore,
a channel cross-section is designed so that, under the design flow conditions, the cross-sectional
average velocity remains below the maximum permissible value. The magnitude of the
maximum permissible velocity depends on the type of the material into which the channel is
excavated, as well as the channel alignment. The maximum permissible velocities presented in
Table 4.5 are adopted from the USACE (1991). These values are usually considered to be valid
for straight channels having a flow depth of up to 1.0 m. According to Lane, the values given in

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 27


Table 4.5 can be reduced by 13% for moderately sinuous and by 22% for very sinuous channels.
Also, for flow depths exceeding 1.0 m, the maximum permissible velocities can be increased by
about 0.15 m/s.

Table 4.5 Suggested maximum permissible channel velocities


Channel Material Vmax (m/s)
Fine sand 0.6
Coarse sand 1.2
Fine gravel 1.8
Sandy silt 0.6
Silty clay 1.0
Clay 1.8
Sedimentary rock 3.0
Soft sandstone 2.4
Soft slake 1.0
Igneous or hard metamorphic rock 6.0

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 28


In a typical problem regarding sizing a channel section, the channel bottom slope, S 0, the design
discharge, Q, and the type of the channel material would be known. The procedure to size the
channel section consists of the following steps:
1. For a specified channel material, determine the Manning roughness coefficient, n, the
side slope, m, and the maximum permissible velocity, Vmax;
2. Compute the corresponding hydraulic radius, R, from the Manning formula, arranged as

( )
3
n V max 2
R=
√ S0
3. Compute the required flow area as A = Q/Vmax;
4. Compute the wetted perimeter as P = A/R;
5. Knowing the magnitudes of A and P and using the expressions for A and P, solve for the
flow depth y and the bottom width B simultaneously;
6. Check the Froude number to ensure that it is not close to critical value of 1.0;
7. Add a freeboard and modify the section for practical purposes.

Example 4.5 An unlined channel to be excavated in stiff clay will convey a discharge of
Q=13.15m3/s over a slope of S0 = 0.002. Proportion the section dimensions using the maximum
permissible velocity method.

Solution
Using table 4.4, we pick m = 1.5 (milder than the steepest recommended slope) for stiff clay, and
n = 0.020 (V.T. Chow). From Table 4.5, Vmax = 1.8 m/s.

( ) (
3

)
n V max 2 0.02 x 1.8 32
Then, R= = =0.72 m
√ S0 √ 0.002

Also, A = Q/Vmax = 13.15/1.8 = 7.32 m2. Hence P = A/R = 7.32/0.72 = 10.17 m


Now, from the expressions for A and P, using m = 1.5
A = (B + my)y = (B + 1.5 y)y = 7.32 m2
P = B + 2 y (1 + m)0.5 = B + 3.61 y = 10.17 m
We now have two equations with two unknowns – y and B. From the second equation,
B = 10.17 – 3.61y
Substituting this in the first equation and simplifying,
Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 29
2.11 y2 – 10.17 y + 7.32 = 0
This equation has two roots: y = 0.88 m and 3.94 m. The first root results in a channel width of
B = 10.17 – 3.61 x 0.88 = 7.00 m; the second results in
B = 10.17 – 3.61 x 3.94 = - 4.05 m.
Obviously a negative channel width has no physical meaning, therefore, y = 0.88 m will be used.
Also there is no need to modify the value of V max obtained from Table 4.5, because y = 0.88 m <
1.0 m.
Then,
D = A/T = 7.32/9.64 = 0.76 m, and
V 1.8
F r= = =0.66
√ gD √ 9.81 x 0.76
This value indicates that under the design flow conditions the flow will not be near the critical
states.

Finally, we will determine a freeboard. Assuming the variation of C linear, by interpolation, C =


0.54 m for Q = 13.15 m3/s. Thus,
F=√ C y= √ 0.54 x 0.88=0.69 m
The total depth of the channel I 0.88 + 0.69 = 1.57 m. The result is shown in the figure below.

Open Channel Hydraulics – Lecture Note Page 30

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