Uniform Flow

Introduction:
A flow is said to be uniform if flow parameters (depth, velocity, discharge) are virtually same at all
cross sections, i.e., there is no spatial variation.
Although it is rare to find the completely uniform flows in nature, many flow situations may be
approximated as uniform flows. For example, flow in a long reach of a prismatic channel may be
considered uniform flow.
The depth of flow remains constant at all sections in a uniform flow.
There is no acceleration in uniform flow as velocity is constant through out the space.

Figure 1 Uniform Flow

CHEZY EQUATION
As per Newton’s second law
Δ𝑉
∑𝐹 = 𝑚
Δ𝑡
(V2 − 𝑉1 )
∑𝐹 = 𝜌 ⩝
Δ𝑡

∑ 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄(V2 − 𝑉1 )

∑ 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄𝑉2 − 𝜌𝑄𝑉1

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑀2 − 𝑀1 1.

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 𝑃1 + 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝐹𝑓 − 𝑃2 = 𝑀2 − 𝑀1 2.

𝑃1 = (1⁄2)𝜌𝑔𝑦02 ; 𝑃2 = (1⁄2)𝜌𝑔𝑦02 ; 𝑀1 = 𝜌𝑄𝑉; 𝑀1 = 𝜌𝑄𝑉; 𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔 ⩝

Substituting all the expression into Eq. (2):
𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐹𝑓

𝜌𝑔 ⩝ 𝑆0 = 𝜏0 𝑃𝐿
𝜌𝑔𝐴𝐿𝑆0 = 𝜏0 𝑃𝐿
𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑆0 = 𝜏0 𝑃
𝐴
𝜏0 = 𝜌𝑔𝑆0
𝑃
𝜏0 = 𝜌𝑔𝑆0 𝑅 3.

𝝉𝟎 = 𝜸𝑹𝑺𝟎 4.

Also,
𝝆𝑽𝟐
𝝉𝟎 ∝
𝟐
𝝆𝑽𝟐 5.
𝝉𝟎 = 𝒌
𝟐

𝑘 is the coefficient, which depends upon the nature of the surface and flow parameters.
Equating Eq. 4 and 5

𝜌𝑉 2
𝑘 = 𝛾𝑅𝑆0
2

2 𝛾𝑅𝑆0
𝑉=√
𝑘𝜌

2𝛾
𝑉=√ √𝑅𝑆0
𝑘𝜌

2|Page
 𝑽 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺𝟎 6.
Where V is the average velocity, R is the hydraulic radius, 𝑆0 is the bed slope, 𝐶 is the Chezy’s
Constant, which depends on nature of flow and nature of surface.
Eq. (6) is known as Chezy Formula.

Relation between 𝑪 and 𝒇

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆0

𝜋𝐷2
𝐴 𝐷 𝐷
For Pipe flow 𝑅 = 𝑃 = 4
= 4 , therefore, putting 𝑅 = into Eq. 6.
𝜋𝐷 4

7.
𝐷
𝑉 = 𝐶 √ 𝑆0
4

Darcy-Weisbach Equation for pipe flow is given by:

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 8.
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷

2𝑔𝐷ℎ𝑓
𝑉=√
𝑓𝐿
Since, 𝑆𝑜 =
ℎ𝑓 9.
2𝑔𝐷𝑆𝑜 𝐿
𝑉=√
𝑓

Equating Eq. 7. and 9

10.
𝐷 2𝑔𝐷𝑆𝑜
𝐶 √ 𝑆0 = √
4 𝑓
Squaring and rearranging, we get expression of C as follows:
11.
𝟖𝒈
𝑪=√
𝒇

3|Page
MANNING’S FORMULA:
A resistance formula proposed by Robert Manning, for uniform flow in open channel, is
𝟏 𝟐⁄𝟑 𝟏⁄𝟐 12.
𝑽= 𝑹 𝑺𝟎
𝒏

Where, 𝑉 is the average or mean flow velocity, 𝑛 is the Manning’s roughness coefficient, 𝑅 is the
hydraulic radius, 𝑆0 is the energy line slope, if not given in problem, then for uniform flow it is taken
as bed slope.

Relation between 𝒇 and 𝒏:

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆0 13.
1 ⁄ 14.
𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅 2⁄3 𝑆01 2
Equating 13 and 14
1 2⁄3 1⁄2
𝐶√𝑅𝑆0 = 𝑅 𝑆0
𝑛
From Eq. 11. 15.
8𝑔 1 ⁄
√ √𝑅𝑆0 = 𝑅 2⁄3 𝑆01 2
𝑓 𝑛
After expanding for 𝑓
𝒏𝟐 16.
𝒇= 𝟖𝒈
𝑹𝟏/𝟑

For estimating 𝑛, Strickler formula is used:

𝟏 𝟔
𝒅𝟓𝟎
⁄ 17.
𝒏=
𝟐𝟏. 𝟏

Where, 𝑑50 is in meter, represents the particle size in which 50% of the bed material is finer.

Factors affecting Mannings roughness coefficient 𝒏:

(a) Surface roughness
(b) Vegetation
(c) Cross-section irregularities
(d) Irregular alignment of channel
(a) Surface roughness:
The texture and material of the channel bed and walls, such as gravel, sand, or concrete, significantly
affect n. Rougher surfaces increase resistance to flow.
(b) Vegetation:

4|Page
Presence of vegetation (e.g., grasses, shrubs, or aquatic plants) increases flow resistance by
obstructing water movement, especially in shallow flows.

(c) Cross-section irregularities:

Variations in the channel’s cross-sectional shape cause turbulence and non-uniform velocity
distribution, which raise the effective roughness coefficient.
(d) Irregular alignment of channel:
Meandering or abrupt changes in channel direction increase energy losses and flow resistance, leading
to a higher n value.

Resistance formula for practical use:

Since a majority of the open channel flow are in the rough turbulent range, the Manning’s formula is
the most convenient one for practical use. Since, it is simple in form and is also backed by
considerable amount of experience, it is the most preferred choice of hydraulic engineers. However,
it has a limitation in that it cannot adequately represent the resistance in situations where the Reynolds
number effect is predominant and this must be borne in mind. In the book, the Manning’s formula is
used as the resistance equation.
The Darcy–Weisbach coefficient fused with the Chezy formula is also an equally effective way of
representing the resistance in uniform flow. However, field engineers generally do not prefer this
approach, partly because of the inadequate information to assist in the estimation of εₛ and partly
because it is not sufficiently backed by experimental or field observational data. It should be realized
that for open channel flows with hydrodynamically smooth boundaries, it is perhaps the only
approach available to estimate the resistance.

Computation of Normal Depth:

Normal Depth: The constant depth of flow in uniform flow is called Normal depth. It is generally
denoted by 𝑦𝑜 .
Computation of normal depth can be understood using example problem:
Q. Estimate the normal depth for a rectangular channel of bed width of 4.0 m and the mean flow
velocity is found to be 1.12 𝑚/𝑠. If Manning’s coefficient 𝑛 = 0.015, bed slope of the channel is
𝑆0 = 0.0004.
Sol: given data:
𝐵 = 4.0 𝑚
𝑉 = 1.12 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛 = 0.015
𝑆0 = 0.0004

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 𝟏 𝟐⁄𝟑 𝟏⁄𝟐
𝑽= 𝑹 𝑺𝟎
𝒏
𝐴 𝐵×𝑦0 4×𝑦0
Calculating 𝑅 = = = substituting in above equation:
𝑃 2𝑦0 +𝐵 2𝑦0 +4

1 4 × 𝑦0 2⁄3
1.12 = ( ) 0.00041⁄2
0.015 2𝑦0 + 4

1.12 × 0.015 4 × 𝑦0 2⁄3

=( )
0.00041⁄2 2𝑦0 + 4
3
Applying power 2 both side

1.12 × 0.015 3/2 4 × 𝑦0

( ) = ( )
0.00041⁄2 2𝑦0 + 4

4 × 𝑦0
0.769 = ( )
2𝑦0 + 4
1.539𝑦0 + 3.076 = 4𝑦0
2.461𝑦0 = 3.076
𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟒𝟗 𝒎

6|Page
HYDRAULICALLY EFFICIENT CHANNEL SECTION/ ECONOMICAL CHANNEL
SECTION
The conveyance of a channel section of a given area increases with a decrease in its perimeter.
Note: Conveyance in open channel hydraulics refers to the ability of a channel to carry water.
Hence a channel section having the minimum perimeter for a given area of flow provides the
maximum value of the conveyance.
With the slope, roughness coefficient and area of flow fixed, a minimum perimeter section will
represent the hydraulically efficient section as it conveys the maximum discharge. This channel
section is also called the best section.
Apart from the maximum discharge, for the minimum construction cost, minimum perimeter is
required.
Of all the various possible open channel sections, the semicircular shape has the least amount of
perimeter for a given area.
However, for any other selected geometrical shape, the relationship between the various geometric
elements to form an efficient section can be obtained for various channel section.
A. MOST EFFICIENT RETANGULAR SECTION:
𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 ; 𝐵 = 𝐴/𝑦
𝑃 = 2𝑦 + 𝐵
For perimeter to be minimum:
𝑑𝑃
=0 y
𝑑𝑦
𝑑
[2𝑦 + 𝐵] = 0
𝑑𝑦
𝑑
[2𝑦 + 𝐴/𝑦] = 0
𝑑𝑦
B
1
2 + 𝐴 (− )=0
𝑦2
1
2 + (𝐵𝑦) (− )=0
𝑦2
𝑩 18.
𝒚=
𝟐

Now, Hydraulic radius for efficient rectangular channel section is given by:

7|Page
 𝐴 𝐵𝑦 (2𝑦)𝑦 𝑦
𝑅= = = =
𝑃 2𝑦 + 𝐵 2𝑦 + 2𝑦 2
𝒚 19.
𝑹=
𝟐

B. MOST EFFICIENT TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION

Case 1: Side slope is fixed or given (𝒎 (𝑯): 𝟏(𝑽))

𝑇 = 𝐵 + 2𝑚𝑦

1 𝑦
𝑚

𝐵 𝑚𝑦

𝐴 = (𝐵 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝐴⁄𝑦 − 𝑚𝑦 ⇒ 𝐴⁄𝑦 = 𝐵 + 𝑚𝑦

𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1 ⇒ 𝑃 = 𝐴⁄𝑦 − 𝑚𝑦 + 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1

𝑇 = 𝐵 + 2𝑚𝑦

For perimeter to be minimum:

𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑦
𝑑
[𝐴⁄𝑦 − 𝑚𝑦 + 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1] = 0
𝑑𝑦
𝐴
− − 𝑚 + 2√𝑚2 + 1 = 0
𝑦2
𝐴
+ 𝑚 = 2√𝑚2 + 1
𝑦2
𝐴 1
⋅ + 𝑚 = 2√𝑚2 + 1
𝑦 𝑦
1
(𝐵 + 𝑚𝑦) ⋅ + 𝑚 = 2√𝑚2 + 1
𝑦
Multiply 𝑦 both side

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(𝐵 + 𝑚𝑦) + 𝑚𝑦 = 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1

𝑩 + 𝟐𝒎𝒚 = 𝟐𝒚√𝒎𝟐 + 𝟏 20.

𝑻 = 𝟐𝒚√𝒎𝟐 + 𝟏 21.

I. 𝑻𝒐𝒑 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 = 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 22.

II. Calculating Hydraulic Radius:

𝐴 (𝐵 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦 (𝐵 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦 (𝐵 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦 𝑦
𝑅= = = = =
𝑃 𝐵 + 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1 𝐵 + (𝐵 + 2𝑚𝑦) 2(𝐵 + 𝑚𝑦) 2
𝒚 23.
𝑹=
𝟐

III. A semicircle of radius 𝒚 shall be inscribed in the trapezoidal section.

𝑇 = 𝐵 + 2𝑚𝑦
𝑂
𝐴
𝜃
𝑥
𝑦
𝐾
𝜃 𝑆 𝑉
𝑄

𝑚𝑦 𝐵

From Δ𝐴𝑄𝑆
𝑦 𝑦 2𝑦 𝑇 24.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = = From Eq. (21.) = 𝑦√𝑚2 + 1
2
𝑦√𝑚2 +1 (𝑇⁄2) 𝑇
2 25.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑇
From 𝛥𝑂𝐴𝐾
𝑂𝐾 𝑥 2𝑥 26.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = =
𝑂𝐴 𝑇/2 𝑇

9|Page
Equating Eq. (25) and (26):

2𝑦 2𝑥 27.
=
𝑇 𝑇

𝒙=𝒚 28.

Therefore, various perpendicular lines can be drawn from point 𝑂, whose length would be equal to
𝑦, and finally while drawing perpendicular lines, a situation will come where perpendicular line will
coincide with 𝑂𝑉, which is already equal to 𝑦.
Therefore, we can conclude that a semi-circle of radius 𝒚 shall be inscribed in the trapezoidal
section.

Case 2: Side slope is not fixed or not given:

In this case, we shall assume side slope 𝑚: 1, where, now, 𝑚 is treated as variable. Therefore, here
perimeter shall be the function of both 𝑦 and 𝑚. i.e., 𝑃 = 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑚).
So, we have to differentiate 𝑃 with respect to both 𝑦 and 𝑚 individually.

For perimeter to be minimum with respect to 𝑦:

𝜕𝑃
=0
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
[𝐴⁄𝑦 − 𝑚𝑦 + 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1] = 0
𝜕𝑦
𝐴
− − 𝑚 + 2√𝑚2 + 1 = 0
𝑦2
𝐴
+ 𝑚 = 2√𝑚2 + 1
𝑦2

𝐴 = 𝑦 2 (2√𝑚2 + 1 − 𝑚) 29.

Now, perimeter has become:

𝑃 = (𝐴⁄𝑦 − 𝑚𝑦 + 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1)

𝑃 = [𝑦 2 (2√𝑚2 + 1 − 𝑚)⁄𝑦 − 𝑚𝑦 + 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1]

𝑃 = 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1 − 𝑚𝑦 − 𝑚𝑦 + 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1

𝑃 = 4𝑦√𝑚2 + 1 − 2𝑚𝑦 30.

10 | P a g e
Now, differentiating 𝑃 with respect to 𝑚
𝜕𝑃
=0
𝜕𝑚
𝑑
[4𝑦√𝑚2 + 1 − 2𝑚𝑦] = 0
𝑑𝑚
𝑇 = 𝐵 + 2𝑚𝑦
1
4𝑦 ⋅ ⋅ 2𝑚 − 2𝑦 = 0
2√𝑚2 + 1 𝐴
𝜃
4𝑚𝑦 𝑥
= 2𝑦
√𝑚2 +1 𝑦 1 𝜃
𝑚
2𝑚 = √𝑚2 + 1 𝜃 𝑆 𝑉
𝑄
Squaring,
𝑚𝑦 𝐵
4𝑚2 = 𝑚2 + 1
3𝑚2 = 1

𝒎=±
𝟏 31.
√𝟑
Also, we know from small triangle constructed on the side slope:
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 1/𝑚
𝑚 = 1/𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 putting into Eq. 31
1 1
=±
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 √3

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ±√3
𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
1 1 1
Since, 𝜃 is acute angle (from figure), therefore, adopting 𝜃 = 600 and 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛600 =
√3

𝟏
Therefore, for efficient trapezoidal channel section, side slope must be :𝟏
√𝟑

C. MOST EFFICIENT TRIANGULAR SECTION

𝑇 = 2𝑚𝑦 𝑚𝑦
1
𝐴 = 2 (2𝑚𝑦)𝑦 𝐴 𝐵

𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑚𝑦 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = √𝑚
1
𝑃= 2𝑦√𝑚2 +1 𝑚
𝐴
𝑃 = 2√𝑚 √𝑚2 + 1 𝜃
𝑂

11 | P a g e
𝑑𝑃 32.
=0
𝑑𝑚

𝑑 𝐴
[2√ √𝑚2 + 1] = 0
𝑑𝑚 𝑚

𝑑 √𝑚2 + 1
2√𝐴 ⋅ [ ]=0
𝑑𝑚 √𝑚
1 1
√𝑚 ⋅ ⋅ 2𝑚 − √𝑚2 + 1
2
2√𝑚 + 1 2 √𝑚 0
2 =
(√𝑚) 2√𝐴

𝑚 √𝑚 √𝑚2 + 1
=
√𝑚2 + 1 2 √𝑚
2𝑚2 = 𝑚2 + 1
𝑚2 = 1
𝑚 = ±1 33.

Also, we know from small triangle constructed on the side slope:

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 1/𝑚
𝑚 = 1/𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 putting into Eq. 33
1
= ±1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ±1
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝑜𝑟 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎
1
Since, 𝜃 is acute angle (from figure), therefore, adopting 𝜃 = 450 and corresponding 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
1 1
= 1 = 1.
𝑡𝑎𝑛450

Therefore, for efficient triangular channel section, side slope must be 𝟏: 𝟏.

𝑚𝑦
𝐴 𝐵

1
450 450 𝑚
𝜃 = 450
𝑂
12 | P a g e
It can be seen that most efficient triangular channel section represents a half of the square.

C. MOST EFFICIENT CIRCULAR SECTION

𝑅2
𝐴= (2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)
2
𝑃 = 𝑅 × 2𝜃
𝜃 𝜃 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐷
1 1/2
𝑄 = 𝑅 2/3 𝑆𝑜 𝐴
𝑛
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2/3
1 𝐴 1/2 𝑑
𝑄= ( ) 𝑆𝑜 𝐴
𝑛 𝑃
1 𝐴5/3 1/2
𝑄 = ⋅ 2/3 ⋅ 𝑆𝑜
𝑛 𝑃
𝑑𝑄
=0
𝑑𝜃
𝑑 1 𝐴5/3 1/2
( ⋅ ⋅𝑆 )=0
𝑑𝜃 𝑛 𝑃2/3 𝑜

𝑑 𝐴5/3
( )=0
𝑑𝜃 𝑃2/3
1/3
𝑑 𝐴5
( ) =0
𝑑𝜃 𝑃2
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
5𝐴4 𝑃−2 ⋅ − 2𝐴5 𝑃−3 ⋅ =0
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃 34.
5𝑃 − 2𝐴 =0
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝐴
= 𝑅 2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑃
= 2𝑅
𝑑𝜃

13 | P a g e
Putting into Eq. (34)
We get
𝑅2
5𝑅(2𝜃)𝑅 2 − 2 ⋅ (2𝜃 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝜃)2𝑅 = 0
2

10𝑅 3 𝜃(1 − cos(2𝜃)) = 2𝑅 3 (2𝜃 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝜃)

6𝜃 − 10𝜃 cos(2𝜃) + 2 sin(2𝜃) = 0
Using hit and trial method,
𝜃 = 2.636 𝑟𝑎𝑑 or 151.030
2𝜃 = 3020 22′ or 302.060
Therefore, water depth can be written as:
𝑑 = 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑 = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑑
= 1.876
𝑅
𝑑
= 0.938
𝐷

Similarly for maximum velocity,

1
𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑑𝑉
=0
𝑑𝜃

𝑑 𝐴 2/3
( ) =0
𝑑𝜃 𝑃

After differentiating and reducing,

2𝜃 = 2570 27′56′′
𝑑
= 1.626
𝑅
𝑑
= 0.810
𝐷

Examples:
1. A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 3H to 4V and side slope of its bed is 1
in 2000. Determine the optimum dimensions of the channel, if it has to carry
water at 0.5 m³/s. [C = 80] [BEU 2023]

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 2. A trapezoidal channel is 6.0 𝑚 wide and has side slope of 0.5 𝐻: 1𝑉. If the bed
slope of the channel is 0.0004 and the Manning’s 𝑛 = 0.02, find the discharge
which can make the channel a hydraulically efficient secion.

3. Determine the normal depth, bed width, and side slopes of a most efficient
trapezoidal channel section to carry a discharge of 25 𝑚3 /𝑠. The longitudinal
slope is to be 0.0009 and Manning’s 𝑛 can be taken as 0.015.

4. What should be the cross section of most efficient trapezoidal shape for a
concrete lined canal to carry a discharge of 250 𝑚3 /𝑠. The channel slope is
0.0004 and the Manning’s 𝑛 = 0.014. Use the side slopes as 1: 1.

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