Lesson 4: Famous translation theories

Ⅰ-linguistic theory:

The relevance of Linguistics in the field of Translation is obvious. It is also a truism that
translation cannot be without language and that one cannot translate without knowing about the
source language and the target language.

Linguistics is concerned with the science and the theory of how languages work. The major tool of
translation is language.

A-A brief history of translation

The first period:

« immediate empirical focus »

Horace and Cicero,make an important distinction between word for word translation and sense for
sense translation

 Tytler introduces three „laws‟ :

1.The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.

2. The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of original.

3. The translation should have all the ease of original

The second period:

 It is characterized as a period of theory and hermeneutic inquiry with the development of a

vocabulary and methodology of approaching translation. „Hermeneutics‟ is an interpretive
approach developed by German Romantics, and named after the Greek word hermeneuein,
meaning „to understand‟.

The third period:

 The introduction of structural and applied linguistics, contrastive studies in morphology

and syntax among others

The fourth period:

 Shift from predominantly linguistic and rather formal theories to a more functionally and
socio-culturally oriented concept of translation.

B-How linguists define translation

1-Catford:

Catford‟s classic A Linguistic Theory of Translation was published nearly half a century ago
(1965). Its sub-heading is “An Essay in Applied Linguistics”, and it was based on a series of
lectures at the Edinburgh University School of Applied Linguistics. Translation was only one of
Catford‟s interests: he was also a phonetician and a general linguist. He defines translation as
follow: “Translation [is] the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent
textual material in another language (TL)”

Example

 The boy went to school

‫ذهب الولد الى المدرست‬

2-Nida:

According to him, translation is to find “The closest natural equivalent meaning of the SL in terms
of meaning then style”

Example

a-Formal equivalence ;

 ‫العين بصيرة و اليد قصيرة‬

 The eyes see but the hand cannot reach

b-Dynamique equivalence ;

A moneyless man goes fast through the market

3-Peter Newmark:

Translation is “Transferring the meaning of a text from one language to another”

 Example: ‫البيت الحرام‬

 The forbidden home

 The ka‟ba

C-From subbranch of linguistics to field

 In the beginning of the 20th century, translation was absorbed into the field of linguistics

 In the second half of the 20th century, linguistic aproach to translation was favorised

 In 1965 Catford maintains that translation is a branch of comparative linguistic

 Vinay and Darbelnet were the first to identify translation as a science

The relation between linguistic and translation:

 Different languages give different ways to look at the words, but translation provide us the
opportunity to explore and interact with different views of the word

Translation is as old as written language since all word of one language may or may not have a
corresponding word in the other language, linguistic become crucial for the purpose of translation
  Language has certain features like meaning, reference, truth verification, speech acts,
logical necessity.

 In the cartoon Asterix and Obelix asterix make a gesture that mean you are crazy this
gesture is meanless in portuguese

Catford translation theory:

We have to applaud Catford for setting up a typology that is explicitly justified by the underlying
theory with its categories of levels and ranks. He pointed out:

Formal correspondent

 I have left my keys on the table

J‟ai laissé mes clefs sur la table

Textual equivalent

 I have left my keys on the table

 ‫تركت مفاتيحي على الطاولت‬

Level shift :

 This text is attended for

 Le present manual s’adresse ...

His main concept was “the translation shift” (we‟ll tackle it in detail in the coming lessons)

Roman jackbson theory :

 According to Saussure, the linguistic sign butter is constituted by the relationship between
the signified (concept of butter) and the signifier (sound image of the word butter) and it is
part of a system of signs.

 Saussure also distinguishes between the syntagmatic relations that a word has with those
that surround it and the paradigmatic and associative relations it has with the system as a
whole.

 In English the word butter has a series of associations (purity, status, colour, spreading on
bread) that, for example, the Italian burro does not have. So there is a difference both
between the objects and between the function and value of those objects in their cultural
context.

 The word butter describes a more or less identifiable product

 Gender : the word honey is neutral in English while it is masculin in French (le miel)
 Nida translation theory:

Sentence Formal equivalance Dynamic equivalance

‫الصديق وقت الضيق‬ A true friend is for the time of trouble A friend in need is a friend
indeed

‫أهل مكة أدرى بشعابها‬ The people of Mecah know their own Know something like the back
streets best of your hand

‫الصراحة راحة‬ Frankiness is a peace of mind Speak the truth and shame
the devil

Ⅱ-The Functional Translation Theory

The so-called functional translation theory dates from the 80s, when the main emphasis of
translation was shifted from the structural linguistics of a text to the pragmatic aspect of
linguistics, a new orientation towards the function of language (cf. Stolze )

The functional theory came as a criticism to the linguistic theory, this latter tells that translators
should concentrate on the Source Text during translation procces.

i.e. trying to find the appropriate equivalent to the words of the textual material.

Under this title, we have three main theories to develop:

. Katharina Reiss: Text Typology Theory

. Hans J Vermeer: The Skopos Theory Theory

. Holz-Mänttäri: The Translational action theory

Definition:

Functional means having a special activity, purpose or task.

fonctionnalism it is the theory that supports translating a textual material regarding the receiver of
the text and his culture.
A-KATHARINA REISS:

A German linguist and a translation scholar, she was born in 1923. She was famous for her work
in translation field.

Her theory represents the text typology. She divided the text into 3 types: informative, expressive
and operative also the audio-medial type.

Her work in the 1970s built on the concept of equivalence but viewed the text, rather than the word
or sentence, as the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be
sought; her functional approach borrows from the categorization of the three functions of language
by German psychologist and linguist Karl Bühler, above mentioned.

The main characteristics of each text type are summarized by Reiss (1977/1989: 108–9) as
follows.

(1) Informative text type. „Plain communication of facts‟: information, knowledge, opinions, etc.
The language dimension used to transmit the information is logical or referential, the content or
„topic‟ is the main focus of the communication.

(2) Expressive text type. „Creative composition‟: the author uses the aesthetic dimension of
language. The author or „sender‟ is foregrounded, as well as the form of the message.

(3) Operative text type. „Inducing behavioural responses‟: the aim of the appellative function is
to appeal to or persuade the reader or „receiver‟ of the text to act in a certain way, for example to
buy a product (if an advert), or to agree to an argument (if a political speech or a barrister‟s
concluding statement). The form of language is dialogic and the focus is appellative.

(4) Audio-medial texts, such as films and visual and spoken advertisements which supplement the
other three functions with visual images, music, etc. This is Reiss‟s fourth type, which is now
commonly called “multimodal text(s)”.

Despite the existence of hybrid types, Reiss states that „the transmission of the predominant
function of the ST is the determining factor by which the TT is judged‟. She suggests „specific
translation methods according to text type‟. These methods can be described as follows:

(1) The TT of an informative text should transmit the full referential or conceptual content of the ST.
(2) The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST, in addition
ensuring the accuracy of information.
(3) The TT of an operative text should produce the desired response in the TT receiver.
(4) Audio-medial texts require what Reiss calls the „supplementary‟ method, supplementing written
words with visual images and music.

B-HANS J VERMEER:

Skopos is a Greek word that means “aim” or “purpose”. This word introduced by Hans Vermeer in
late 70s as a technical term for the purpose of a translation or action of translating.
 Hans Vermeer was a functionalist and approaches translation from this view. He rejects
equivalence-based theories of translation and is against paying attention to effects and purposes of
the source language. He instead suggests that we should pay attention to target culture and
language. According to him, when we translate, we should have a purpose in mind, even before
beginning to translate. He suggests that this purpose should define our translation strategy to reach
a functionally adequate result, which is TT. In other words, in this framework knowing why an ST
is to be translated and what the function of the TT is, are crucial for the translator.

So according to Vermeer, if we consider every translation as “an action”, and each and every
action has “a purpose (skopos)”, so consequently the main feature of each translation will be its
“purpose”. Skopos theory tries to keep the equivalence between the source and the target text;
however, Skopos theory only regards a source text as an „offer of information‟ to which it will
eventually be simulated, as a whole or partially, into an offer of information in a target text by
taking into account the target language.

The basic „rules‟ of the theory (Reiss and Vermeer) are as follows:

(1) A translational action is determined by its skopos.

(2) It is an offer of information in a target culture and TL concerning an offer of information in a

source culture and SL.

(3) A TT does not initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way.

(4) A TT must be internally coherent.

(5) A TT must be coherent with the ST.

(6) The five rules above stand in hierarchical order, with the skopos rule predominating.

C-JUSTA HOLZ-MANTTARI:

She is a Finnish translation scholar, born 1936.

She developed the Translational Action theory. This theory aims to provide a model and to
produce guidelines to be applied to a wide range of professional translation situations.

It takes translation as a purpose-driven task and an outcome-oriented human interaction in order to

enable oriented communication over cultural barriers in a co-operational way.

Translational Action Theory focuses on producing a TT that is functionally communicative for the
receiver that is to say the form of the TT must be suitable for the TT culture and according to the
receiver‟s needs, rather than copying the ST profile. This has to be determined by the translator
who is in charge of the intercultural transfer.

Content: factual information and overall communicative strategy

Form: terminology and cohesive elements

It takes concepts from communication theory and action theory.

TRANSLATIONAL ACTION PROCESS (the process of translation)

The initiator: who needs the translation

The commissioner: who contacts the translator

The ST producer: who writes the ST

The TT producer: the translator

TT user: the person who uses the TT, a teacher for example, or seller

The TT receiver: the final recipient of the TT, e.g. students

Ⅲ-Philosophical theories :

What is the relationship between Translation and Philosophiy?

Anthony Pym (2007:42) refers to three ways in which these two disciplines, philosophy and
translation studies, are related to each other.

- First, there are the philosophers who have used translation as a case study for philosophical
issues.

-Second, there is the case of the translators and translation theorists who have referred to
philosophy in support for their ideas.

-Third, there are philosophers and translators who have commented on the translation of
philosophical discourses.

What is Hermeneutics?

-Hermeneutics is the study of interpretation. Hermeneutics plays a role in a number of

disciplines whose subject matter demands interpretative approaches, characteristically, because the
disciplinary subject matter concerns the meaning of human intentions, beliefs, and actions, or the
meaning of human experience as it is preserved in the arts and literature, historical testimony, and
other artifacts.

- Hermeneutics is the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially the interpretation of

biblical texts, wisdom literature, and philosophical texts.

- Hermeneutics is derived from the Greek word (hermēneuō, "translate, interpret").

Schleiermnchert: The Father of Modern hermeneutics:

Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (1768-1834) was a German philosopher, theologian and
biblical scholar. He was deeply involved in Romantic Movement (1800 to 1850), an artistic,
literary,
Also known as the father of modern theology, and recently the father of modern hermeneutics,
took the theory of interpretation onto a whole new level. He transformed the traditional
Biblical hermeneutics into a general hermeneutic which incorporated texts of all kinds.

By raising hermeneutical inquiry into a universal level, Schleiermacher opened up the problem of
interpretation to a new world of understanding and explanation.

He represents his theory of translation in his seminal essay On the Different Methods of

Translating. He emphasized on two methods of translation:

1- The TL text receiver should perceive and feel the artistry and brilliance of the SL. It means
that the reader of the TT would have a clear idea about how the ST reader receives the
original text and how the author has dealt with his mother tongue to write his text.

2- The translator ought to render the original text in a way that the original
author‟s thoughts and feelings are clearly transmitted to TT readers.

Schleiermacher proposes two possibilities to bring writer and his reader closer – without forcing
reader to leave bounds of his own native tongue behind him, to acquire as correct and complete an
understanding and take as much pleasure in the writer as possible:

1.Either the translator leaves the writer in peace as much as possible moves the reader towards
him: Foreignization

2.Or the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible and moves the writer towards
him. Domestication

He further warns that any attempt to combine, would certainly result in unreliable results and will
carry a danger that writer and reader might miss each other

Steiner: The Hermeneutic Motion (Movement)

It owes its origin to the eighteeth and nineteeth century German Romantics, however George
Steiner‟s After Babel was the key modern reference for the hermeneutics of translation.

Steiner defines hermeneutic approach: “ the investigation of what it means to understand a

piece of oral or written speech and the attempt to diagnose this process in terms of a general
model of meaning.”

Steiner surmises that translation is a hermeneutical task, not a science, but an exact art. Thus, the
theory Steiner produces attempts to be at once a chronological summary of the stages of translation
and a view of the ideal balance that every good translation must achieve. Steiner divides
translation into four separate "motions": initiative trust, aggression, incorporation, and retribution.
The first and last motions pay respect to the source text or its author „s intentions, while
aggression and incorporation benefit the translator himself and, likely, his audience. Ideally,
translation must balance these four motions to achieve a kind of stasis.
2)Initiative trust : A belief and trust that there is something there in the source text that can be
understood. Translator considers the source text to stand for something in the world, a coherent
“something” that can be translated even if the meaning might not be apparent immediately.

2)Aggression: means the translator's perception and understanding of the text, which as Steiner
says "is always partial. translator, at this point, is a reader, He is different because he has to
understand, if not the deepest, he must be much deeper than an average reader.

3-Incorporation: (or Embodiment):it refers to the ST meaning, extracted by the translator in the
second movement, being brought into the TL, which is already full of its own words and
meanings. (Different type of assimilation can occur) In this step, the translator realizes and tries to
convey what he or she understands in his or her own language.

4-Compensation: Compensation: The translator tries to achieve a balance by trying to be as

faithful as he can and as freely as he must. The translator must be willing to give back to the SL as
much as he has taken. Steiner emphasizes the fidelity in this stage.

Ⅳ-Interpretive theory: (theory of meaning)

The interpretive theory is sometimes called „Interpretive approach‟ or „theory of sense‟. This
theory on interpreting and translating is adopted by the personnel of the academy of translation and
interpretation of Paris.

What is interpretation ?

Interpretation can be universally defined as understanding speech and rewording that

understanding into another language.

The interpretive theory of translation (the theory of sense) was developed by Danica
Seleskovitch, Marianne Lederer (researchers at the Ecole Supérieure des Interprètes
Traducteurs ESIT at the university of Paris). And jean Delisle.

Danica Seleskovitch:

A French translation scholar and former head of the Paris school of interpreters and
translators. She challenged the view prevailing at the time that translation was no more than a
linguistics activity, one language being merely transcoded into another, she described
translation as a triangular process:
And she coined the name interpretive theory of translation and even before translation studies
become a field in its own right interduce the process of translation into the West area of cognitive
research.

Danica has based in her study on three stages the translator has to passing on it in translation
process: interpretation, abstraction and the redrafting.

The meaning can only be understood if the following conditions are met:

- Ability to understand the context.

- Ability to understand writer‟s intent.

- Large knowledge.

Marianne Lederer:

Marianne Lederer was born in Paris (1934), she is a French translator that thorough the
interpretive theory of translation.

“La traduction interprétative est une traduction par équivalences, la traduction linguistique est une
traduction par correspondances…la différence existentielle entre équivalences et correspondances :
les premières s‟établissent enter textes, les secondes enter des éléments linguistiques ».

Jean Delisle :

Jean Delisle, translation: an interpretive approach. University of Ottawa ,1998. He developed the
following model of interpreting:

Language and thought are separate entities. according to Delisle, interpreters decode the discourse
at the participation of their cognitive knowledge, flay the meaning they acquire from its original
linguistics form, and store it their brain in a non-verbal form. He divided This process into three
stages:

1-Understanding (‫)مرحلة الفهم‬

The interpretation of discourse in SL:

On the whole, the writer does not explicitly express what she/he wants to transmit since situation
or context play major role in the interpretation of the implicit. Translators differ from the ordinary
reader. for they have this skill of capturing the meaning embodied between the lines by reference
to the contextual value of each word which makes them able to collect the full meaning without
any shortage.

2-Deverbalization (‫)االنسالخ اللغوي‬

In this stage sense is freed from all linguistic structures SL, the interpreter is than in the quest for
new linguistic structures matching the TL‟s. This is a very important step, in view of the fact that it
enables its user to avoid overlap between the two language during the re-expression stage, hence,
resulting with a smooth and fair translation that does not smell like one.
 3-Reformulation (‫)إعادة الصياغة‬

One may ask what is re-expressed exactly. Is it a reformulation of the cultural component? or is it
a reformulation of the linguistic one? well the answer is simple. The interpreter may enclose more
than what was originally said in the text and explain if necessary, but without adding anything new
to the core meaning.