Memories refers to the continued process of information retention overtime.

It is an integral part of the human cognition, since it allows individuals to recall

and draw upon past events to frame their understanding of and behaviour within
present.

There are three main processes of that characterize how memory works. These
processes are encoding, storage, and retrival ( or recall).

Encoding - Information is learned usually encoded through one or more of the four
methods:

1. Visual encoding - How something looks

(https://helpfulprofessor.com/visual-encoding/)
2. Acoustic encoding - How something sound
(https://helpfulprofessor.com/acoustic-encoding/)
3. Semantic encoding - What something means
(https://helpfulprofessor.com/semantic-encoding/)
4. Tactile encoding - How something feels ()

Storage - Refers to how, where, how much, and how long encoded information is
retained within the memory system.

The modal model of memory highlights the two types of memory:

Encoded information is first store in the STM and then, if need be, is stored in the
LTM. (Roedigger & Mcdermott, 1995)

Short-term memory - lasts between 15 and 30 seconds and can only store between
five and nine items of information with seven items being the average number.
Long-term memory - Has immense storage capacity and the information store in
here can be stored indefinitely.

Retrieval - Process which through individuals access stored information. Due to

differences information stored in the STM and LTM are retrieved differently.

STM - retrieved in order in which it is stored

LTM - Retrieved through association

(Roediger & Mcdermott, 1995)

The Information-Processing Model: Three Memory Systems

-looks at how memory and other thought processes work, based its
model for human thought on the way that a computer functions
(Massaro & Cowan, 1993).

https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-40111-001

Divided up into different types of memory and so that the model we’re
going to start with is called the 3-box model (sensory memory, short-
term memory, and long-term memory) also called the Atkinson-Shiffin
model.

Information enters through the sensory system but may not make it to long-
term or even short-term memory.

Sensory Memory

-the first system in the process of memory, the point at which information
enters the nervous system through sensory systems.
Information is encoded into sensory memory as neutral messages in the
nervous system.

There are two kinds of sensory memory that have been studied extensively.

- Iconic (visual)

- Echoic (auditory)

Iconic Sensory Memory

(Icon is the Greek word for “image”)

It is a visual memory, and it only lasts for a fraction of a second

It serves a very important function in the visual system.

Iconic memory was studied in several classic experiments by George

Sperling (1960).

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Test

George Sperling had found in his early studies that if he presented a grid of
letters using a machine that allowed very fast presentation, his subject could
only remember about four or five of the letters, no matter how many had
been presented.

He then developed a technique called the partial report method, in which he

showed a grid of letters similar to this one but immediately sounded a high,
medium, or low tone just after the grid was shown.

(huwag na isali ang grid, ilalagay ko nalang sa board)

Echoic Sensory Memory

(The brief memory of something a person has heard)

It is the auditory sensory memory that lasts only 2-4 seconds.

Echoic memory is the sensory memory register for auditory information. It

allows us to briefly retain sounds after the original stimulus has ended.

Long-Term Memory | Overview, Examples & Types

What are the 3 features of long-term memory?

Long-term memory can be held onto by an individual for the rest of their life.
There is theoretically unlimited capacity for long-term memory in the brain.
Some long-term memories can be expressed verbally.
What are the types of long-term memory?
There are two types of long-term memory, procedural memory, and
declarative memory. In the group declarative memory, there are two
subgroups, semantic memory, and episodic memory.
What is considered long-term memory?
Long-term memory is a memory that tends to be stable and can last for a
long time, usually in terms of years. Long-term memory can last for a
lifetime while short-term (working) memory lasts for around 20-30 seconds.
What is an example of long-term memory?
There are many different types of long-term memories. A few common
examples include the memory of how to ride a bike, important life events,
and the knowledge that the sun on Earth rises in the East.

Long-Term Memory Overview

Long-term memory (LTM) refers to the brain’s ability to store vast amounts
of information for extended periods, sometimes even for a lifetime. Unlike
short-term memory, which can only hold limited information for a short
period, long-term memory is more stable and can be retrieved later through
various cues.

Types of Long-Term Memory

1. Explicit (Declarative) Memory
This type of memory involves information that can be consciously recalled,
such as facts and personal experiences. It is further divided into:
- Semantic Memory
This stores general knowledge and facts about the world. For example,
knowing that Paris is the capital of France is an example of semantic
memory.
- Episodic Memory
This involves personal experiences and events. For instance, remembering
your last birthday celebration is an example of episodic memory.

2. Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory

This type of memory involves skills and habits that are performed
automatically, without conscious recall. It includes:
- Procedural Memory
This involves memory for skills and actions, like riding a bike or typing on a
keyboard.
- Priming
This occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a
subsequent stimulus, such as filling in a word that you’ve recently
encountered.

Examples of Long-Term Memory in Action

- Remembering the plot of a book you read last year( episodic memory).
- Recalling the capital cities of countries (semantic memory).
- Riding a bicycle without having to think about the process(procedural
memory).

Long-term memory plays a crucial role in shaping our knowledge, skills, and
even our identity. Understanding how it works can help in improving study
habits and daily functioning.
(https://study.com/learn/lesson/long-term-memory-
types-examples.html)

What is short term memory?

Short-term memory is the capacity to store a small amount of information in the mind and keep it
readily available for a short period of time. It is also known as primary or active memory.
 o Short-term memory is very brief.
o Short-term memory is limited.

How Long Is Short-Term Memory For?

Most of the information kept in short-term memory will be stored for approximately 20 to 30
seconds, or even less. Some information can last in short-term memory for up to a minute.

However, the information in short-term memory is also highly susceptible to interference. Any
new information that enters short-term memory will quickly displace old information. Similar
items in the environment can also interfere with short-term memories.

Capacity

The amount of information that can be stored in short-term memory can vary. In 1956, in an
influential paper titled "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two," psychologist George
Miller suggested that people can store between five and nine items in short-term memory.

More recent research suggests that people are capable of storing approximately four chunks or
pieces of information in short-term memory.

How Short-Term Memory Becomes Long-Term Memory

 Maintenance Rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal (or rehearsal) can help move memories from short-term to long-term
memory.

 Chunking

Chunking is one memorization technique that can facilitate the transfer of information into long-
term memory. This approach involves organizing information into more easily learned groups,
phrases, words, or numbers.

 Mnemonics

Easily remembered mnemonic phrases, abbreviations, or rhymes can help move short-term
memories into long-term storage.

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-short-term-memory-2795348
MEMORY DISORDERS

A memory disorder is any change in your brain structures that interferes with your ability to
make, keep, or recall memories.

Memory disorders are often classified according to how long they last. Memory loss could be:

o temporary, such as the kind of amnesia a person experiences after a mild

brain injury
o permanent, such as memory loss that follows a stroke
o progressive, such as the gradual memory loss associated with dementia

DEMENTIA AND MEMORY LOSS

Dementia is a progressive loss of cognitive function, most commonly caused by Alzheimer's

disease but also by a number of other conditions. Memory loss is a major part of this functional
decline, typically emerging as a mild impairment and growing more severe as dementia worsens.

AMNESIA

Amnesia is a substantial loss of memory, including diminished ability to remember the past, to
create new memories, or both. Amnesia can have many possible causes and encompasses various
manifestations of memory loss, including sudden and temporary forms as well as gradual and
permanent losses, as in dementia.

TWO TYPES OF AMNESIA

 Retrograde amnesia is a difficulty with remembering information acquired in

the past, including facts and the details of personal experiences.
 Anterograde amnesia is a difficulty with storing new information in memory.
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/memory/disorders-of-memory

https://www.healthline.com/health/memory-disorders#symptoms

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-causes-memory-loss-4123636