Definition of Research

Research is sometimes referred to as a systematic inquiry. Research entails the ordered collection,
presentation and analysis of information based on a specific topic. This collection and presentation of data is
conducted in a sequenced manner, following a step-by-step procedure in order to identify the cause of or arrive at
a solution to a problem. Research usually shows the relationship between two variables, an independent, which is
the cause of the problem/issue and a dependent variable, which is the effect of the problem/issue.

Forms of Knowledge

Tradition: A young child learns the traditions of a family and a community has its own traditions that is
often transmitted from generation to generation. The Caribbean has a rich oral tradition where the indigenous
peoples passed on their culture to their descendants.

Experience: The value of knowledge formation by experience is well known in education and the “trial
and “error” approaches to learning. We have acquire knowledge through learning and we also learn from the
experiences of others. When someone has had an experience that provides him/her with specific knowledge.

Scientific: Scientific knowledge is acquired through the experiments and reports of scientists. It is based
on controlled experiments. A scientific research report follows very specific rules in purpose, implementation and
presentation. The best reports should be detailed enough to allow duplication to verify and validate the results.
This is on the basis on which medicines are declared safe for human consumption. It is also based on empirical
evidence and acquired through the scientific process, namely: making observations, formulating questions,
collecting applicable data, analysing the data and formulating conclusions.

Systematic Enquiry

It is systematic because it:

• Conceptualizes the research as a focused problem statement.

• Employs a literature review.
• Utilizes some kind of sampling procedure.
• Uses one or more data collection strategies.
• Analyses data statistically.
• Discusses findings to present justification for relevant factors.
• Employs reporting format which utilizes various modes for transparency of process.

In other words the research process follows a system/procedure of conceptualising, gathering data, analysing data
and presenting data that is coherent, logical and sequential.

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Reasons Why Research Is Conducted

• Research is undertaken to add to the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic. This will be your
main reason for conducting research in this subject. In this case you are simply adding additional
information to the bank of knowledge that already exist and established by previous writers.
• Research is conducted to either prove or disprove an existing theory or hypothesis. In this case a
researcher may undertake research to test the validity or truth behind a specific way of thinking or a body
of existing information.
• Research is initiated to generate new knowledge on a topic. In this case, research is conducted to create
a new theory or principle that may have never been established. This is ground breaking research that
will not challenge existing thought but will also produce new data on the topic of focus.
• Research is undertaken to generate recommendations that may be solutions to an existing issue/problem.
In this case, a research may seek to formulate solutions to problems facing society, and as such undertake
research to produce such solutions.

Reliability and Validity in Research

The concepts of reliability and degree of validity are at the heart of research. Lack of reliability or degree
of validity can make your research and its conclusion virtually useless. Reliability in research refers to the degree
to which an instrument is interpreted in the same way by all the subjects being interviewed. Also, the extent to
which the measurement tools used produce consistent and stable results in repeating testing. The reliability of an
instrument therefore depends on the consistency with which the questions are interpreted in a variety of places
and over time. Research is valid when questions asked and the methods used are likely to produce relevant answers
to the questions posed by the researcher. The questions must be about what is being studied. While this may seem
rather obvious, it is quite easy for a researcher to investigate issues which are only tangential to the research.
Validity data collected should be faithful to what the researchers are interested in finding out. It is also important
with respect to the absence of internal bias or manipulation of the results when the measurements are replicated.
If questions are used that yield data which are superficial, unhelpful and off target, then the research will have
serious problems of validity.

Problem Solving

Problem solving is where reasoning and decision skills are used to derive a solution. Once you are aware
of the problem five essential steps are taken to solve the problem. Firstly, you define the problem, secondly, select
the problem within a specific location, thirdly, come up with possible solutions, then evaluate all the solutions and
choose the most suitable one and finally devise a plan to implement the said solution.

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The Research Problem

From a general topic the researcher is expected to develop a narrower focus and isolate a problem or issue
which impacts on human development of Caribbean people in some way. A research problem can be a social
problem for example drug addiction, crime and homelessness. The problem statement must be a very clear and
brief sentence that describes the problem and objective of a research. Always construct the statement to show the
relationship between the cause (independent variable) and the effect (dependent variable). The problem can be
stated in the form of a statement or question.

The Research Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement which predicts the cause-and-effect relationship between two or more
variables. A hypothesis is a specific statement that relates to a problem, presenting the answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’
depending on the outcome of the research.

Types of Hypothesis

Descriptive hypothesis- describes a behaviour in terms of the specific characteristic so that it provides a goal
for observation. It seeks to measure the behaviour.

Working hypothesis- is subject to adjustment and alteration as the investigation progresses.

Null hypothesis-makes a prediction of no relationship or no significant difference existing between groups

or variables.

Alternative hypothesis- a prediction about the anticipated result, which is based on previous literature and
studies about the topic. It is usually the hypothesis that the researcher wants to prove to be correct.

Research Objectives

Research objectives are clear, relevant sub-questions linked to problem and sources. They are the specific
sub- questions that your research statement will answer. They are also reformulated after the literature review has
been written, and are often directly informed by the literature review. They are essential because they narrow the
focus of the study and prevents the researcher from collecting data that is not relevant to the problem being studied.
Research objectives are used to summarise what the study is expected to achieve.

Research objectives should be:

• Relevant and directly linked to the research problem

• Informed by the sources you have selected;
• Clearly written.

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 It is important to be clear about your research objectives because they are then used to compose your
research questions and the ways in which you state the problem. These are sometimes refer to as sub-problems
which are smaller research problems that describe the problem on a micro-scale. They are narrow in focus in
relation to the overall problem. These research sub-problems delimit the investigation and the researcher must
stay within the confines of the sub-problems created. The sub-problems can be individually researched on their
own and collectively answer the overall problem statement. You are required to generate (3) sub-problems based
on your problem statement.

Sources of Information

Sources of information refer to materials/documents already in existence (secondary sources) that can
guide your study and offer suggestions as to how your study can be structured and executed. These sources are
reviewed and analysed to create your Literature Review. These sources of information give general knowledge on
the topic and describe the methods of data collection used by previous researchers and the conclusions that they
arrived at during the course of their studies. There are different types of secondary sources that can be used during
the course of your research. These include the following:

• Book sources: books, journals, encyclopaedias, magazines, biographies

• Internet sources: online articles, online journals, e-books, online government or non-government
organization websites
• Newspaper articles: both printed and online which include local news, national news, international
news and Epaper
• Government and non-governmental documents: reports, laws, treaties, minutes of meetings,
pamphlets, booklets, archives
• Personal documents: diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, letters, oral histories

Literature Review

A Literature review is a summary of information derived from books, journals, newspapers and other print
sources. The literature review is important because:

• It summarises important information on the problem

• It reports on studies done on the same or related topics
• It locates the present study in relation to others studying the same or related problems
• It identifies the strength of the studies and ‘gaps’ which this study should be able to address
• It emphasises the methods used by other studies, comments on them and compares them
• It pinpoints any challenges in investigating the issue and how the researcher deals with it
• It criticises the existing literature by agreeing or contradict each other

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 • It reflects on what has already been done and said and gives personal opinions and insights
• It uses the most recent information
• It is selective of resources for example newspapers, journals etc.

Criteria for Evaluation

The criteria for evaluation of information is relevance, degree of validity and adequacy.

Relevance

Whatever secondary source you choose to use, it must be clear and related to the topic under study. You
must consider the age validity of the source, so as to ensure that the information provided is the most up-to-date,
as new theories may be established with changing times. Therefore you must ensure that your source is pertinent,
accurate and current.

Degree of Validity

Validity in research refers to methods, questions or sources used in conducting research, which will
produce the most relevant answers, information or facts required by the research. It would ensure that the findings
or data yield are valid.

Adequacy

When choosing a topic for research, one must also take in account whether there will be sufficient sources
of information that would guide your study. When deciding on sources, one considers a source adequate if it is
supported by a number of other sources, and hence this source, if adequate can be used.

Methods of Enquiry

Survey

A survey is an approach to data collection where a researcher asks questions and where a respondent answers.
This approach covers all types of questionnaires and interviews. This is a very popular form of social science
research.

Questionnaire

A questionnaire is both a technique and an instrument of data collection, mainly used in survey research. The
questionnaire is given out for others to complete or it can be administered over the telephone. Questionnaires
are mainly used in quantitative research. It is a set of questions generated by the researcher from the sub-
problems, which are answered by the respondent. These questions can either be structured/close –ended,
where the respondent is presented with fixed answer alternatives. They can be unstructured/open-ended
where the respondents are encouraged to give free responses.
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Advantages of using a Questionnaire

Questionnaires provide a quick and efficient way to collect data; they can be mailed, used over the telephone
or face to face. Using a questionnaire guarantees anonymity and can be used to reach a large number of
persons. It allows data to be sorted and summarized quickly for reporting and analysis.

Disadvantages of using a Questionnaire

It is difficult however to assess the motivation of the respondents; they may be trying to please you and
therefore not be objective (truthful). There is a low rate of return when mailed. It is very difficult to clarify
ambiguous responses. They are limited in the kinds of information they can elicit; they have only short spaces
for responses and most items tend to be of forced-choice.

Focus Groups

This is where 3 or 4 respondents are brought together for discussion on an issue led by the researcher. The
researcher may have a list of questions but the group decides where the discussion goes. The interviewer can
have an interview protocol to follow but the respondent can comment freely as the interview progresses or
there can be a conversational interview where you do not have a written protocol. The point of a focus group
interview is to unearth the perspectives of the respondents as they respond to and comment on a discussion
among their peers, which may yield data which might not emerge in an interview between one member and
the researcher. The advantages of this type of interview are that it allows the researcher to gain varied
perspectives of the respondents in a discussions among peers. It may lead to different/unexpected responses
as opposed to an interview between one member and a researcher. Some disadvantages occur when
participants maybe self-conscious and their reactions maybe different, also the discussion maybe dominated
by one or two members of the group and unnecessary information, which bears no relation to the topic maybe
provided.

In-depth Interviews

Interviews are widely used in survey, ethnography and case study research. Interviews can be highly
structured (formal) or informal, more of a casual dialogue. When the interview questions are open-ended,
they allow the person being interviewed to respond freely to questions phrased in a general way. They can
either be a formal or structured interview, informal, semi-structured or unstructured interview or a focus
group interview.

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Advantages of an Interview

Interviews have the advantage of allowing individuals to contribute their own views of the topic being
studied. Due to the direct contact, they can explain what is important to them, and immediately correct any
possible misinterpretations of a situation that you may have developed.

Disadvantages of an Interview

A significant weakness of this method is that this method is susceptible to a self-presentation bias.
Respondents may wish to please you, or appear to you in a favourable light. Many of their responses therefore
may not reflect their true thoughts and behaviours. It does not allow for anonymity and questions asked may
make the respondent uncomfortable or even embarrassed.

Participant and Non-Participant Observation

An observation is a research instrument used to investigate about a social issue or problem, in a social context,
through the way in which people interact, their behavioural patterns and relationships. Observations provide
a means to verify the accuracy of the responses to questionnaires and interviews.

Observations can either be done overtly that is letting the respondents know that you are observing them and
covertly that is not letting the respondents know that you are observing them. There are three levels of
observations, firstly an unfocused observation is what you do when you first go into the field. Survey the
general landscape to get a picture of the main feature of the physical environment and then look at individuals
in the setting. Secondly, there is focused observation where you gradually become aware of certain patterns,
people, events, zoning in on significant or important relationships/interactions related to your study. Finally,
there is participant observation that involves actually living or actively participating in the research
environment. Advantages include the observation of natural behaviour, provides direct information and
immersion in the group allows for a better understanding of the respondents’ feelings. Disadvantages include
the researcher can become biased and attached and losing his objectivity, the researcher faces the challenge
of simultaneously collecting data and participating and finally it is very time intensive.

Sampling

A sample is a part of a larger population (target) and is usually selected to be represented of the target
population. Sampling is the procedure used to select the sample population under study to represent the entire
population. Selecting a sample saves time and money for the researcher as often times it is not possible to
survey the entire target population. The data collected can then be generalized to the target population.
Sampling can be of the probability or non-probability type.

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 Probability

Sampling where subjects are drawn from a population in known probabilities. In this case all members of the
target population have an equal chance of being selected in the sample. Examples of probability sampling
include:

• Random: This is a process of selecting a sample in such a way that all individuals have a fair chance
of being selected (pulling names from a hat)
• Systematic: One of the simplest ways to select from a large population. Here every person has an
equal chance of being in the research. Subjects are selected by a determined number pattern, like
every 10th name on the list/ every 3rd house on the street
• Stratified random sampling: This involves the division of the sampling population into groups to
ensure that the sample is representative of the group

Non-Probability

Here the researcher uses subjects who happen to be accessible/who may represent certain types of
characteristics or are information-rich. In this case sampling is by choice of the researcher. Examples of non-
probability sampling include:

• Convenience sampling: using subjects that are accessible or convenient such as students in your
class, members of your church youth group
• Purposeful: this is where researcher uses particular members from the target population
• Quota sampling: predetermined how many respondents with particular characteristics are to be
questioned. This is ideal when the study is based on a simple comparison of two groups.
• Multistage sampling: involves selecting a sample from another sample
• Snowballing: involves using personal contacts to build up a sample of the group

Data Presentation

The data must be presented thoroughly and accurately. They may be organized into tables, figures, and
other appropriate format. A table is usually an arrangement of words, numbers, signs, or combination of them in
parallel columns for the purpose of exhibiting certain information in compact and comprehensive form. A table is
often used for statistical data but some may be used to illustrate simple relationships or to show characteristics of
the sample. Any calculations you wish to draw can be easily followed by the reader.

A figure on the other hand is any kind of graphic illustration other than a table: a chart, photograph, schematic,
drawing, sketch, or other device to convey an idea, often in a nonverbal way. Other examples of graphs include
Line Graphs, Histograms, Pie Charts, Bar Graphs, and Pictograms etc.

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Maps can also be used in presenting your research data. A map can be used for a geographical or historical project.
It can also be used to illustrate climate change, changes in land use or population density/distribution.

Most qualitative studies are heavily dependent on the written word. Text introduces a type of presentation where
the writer wants to put forward so as to persuade the reader to his or her point of view. In qualitative research, text
is what the researcher has to present, analyse and report on the data. Qualitative researchers create a narrative as
a means of presenting and analysing the data. The different textual styles and formats help to break up the smooth,
bland flow of the conventional monologue or author’s voice.

Analysing Data

After creating and presenting your graphs, charts, tables, text, diagrams etc. you are then required to
explain all that you have presented in the previous section. This section of research analyses all the trends and
patterns that you came across when examining your results from the questionnaires you previously distributed.
Data interpretation is an important aspect of the research process, as it makes sense of numerical data and explains
in greater detail what was presented. In addition to explaining what was presented in the Presentation of Data, you
will also have to give some explanation as to why the trends may be the way they are, that is, give some reason as
to why respondents may have answered in the manner that they did. This explanation may be found upon analysis
of open-ended questions that you would have asked in your questionnaire. From these open-ended questions, you
can gauge the opinion or beliefs of respondents that may explain why the trends are the way they are presented.
The categorisation and comparison of data are important because they allow the researcher to organize and reduce
the data while keeping the meaning of the results. Categorisation is the process of dismantling the data into groups
or categories before compiling them to find the answer to the research questions. Categorisation aids in identifying
patterns and themes in the data. Comparison deals with comparing data, to derive the average and the range, we
use measures of central tendency that is the mean, the mode and the median.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The report should end by bringing closure to the interpretation of data. The conclusions should be entirely
supported by the data presented. It should state whether the hypothesis was supported or not, identify possible
implications of the study, make recommendations for additional study, and make practical suggestions to solve
the problem studied. The study may also suggest lines for further research by other researchers to deepen our
knowledge of this phenomenon. Some factors that considered to be limitations are mentioned in this part of the
study. The conclusion ends with some recommendations which the researcher believes are appropriate and could
have a significant impact on the problem.

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Referencing in Research

Essential to a trustworthy and credible research study is a bibliography. This reference list gives validity
and credibility to the research conducted, while also respecting the authorship of secondary sources that were used
during the course of the research study. There are different formatting styles that academics use to reference their
secondary sources. The choice of referencing style used by a researcher is dependent on the field/ discipline of
study which the researcher operates. (Humanities, Education, Social Sciences or Natural Sciences). For Caribbean
Studies you are expected to use the American Psychological Association (APA) style.

Principles of Ethical Conduct

When conducting research, a researcher is required to adhere to certain codes of conduct or ethical
standards that have been agreed upon by the academic community and society at large. These conventions or best
practices have been established to ensure research is conducted in a truthful manner, while respecting the rights
of those under study and the work of other researchers. Ethical considerations must be made throughout the entire
research process from data collection to presentation and analysis of one’s findings. The researcher must be
considerate to the needs of the persons being questioned, interviewed or observed, as well as exercise honesty in
reporting the data that is found. Ethical considerations in research include the following:

• Consent: Whether qualitative or quantitative research is being carried out, a researcher must obtain prior
informed consent by those under study
• Privacy and Confidentiality: Protecting the identity of an informant or respondent, especially if this is the
explicit wish of the respondent it must be considered when conducting any type of research. Information
that is provided by a respondent should not be shared with others unless the identity of the respondent is
fully preserved.
• Integrity/Honesty and Transparency: When conducting a study, the researcher must avoid biases,
inaccuracies and fabrication of any data. They must be honest in reporting information and open to others
who may criticise their findings.
• Issues regarding Plagiarism

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