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WHAT IS NETWORKING?

Networking is the practice of connecting computers and

other devices together so they can communicate and
share resources. Imagine it like a group of friends
chatting and sharing their things with each other.

Networking allows multiple devices, like computers,

smartphones, and printers, to connect with each other and
exchange information. This could be sending emails,
sharing files, or accessing the internet.

The main goal of networking is to facilitate

communication and resource sharing. For example:

Sharing files: You can share documents with your

coworkers easily.
Accessing the internet: All devices in a home can
connect to the internet through a single router.
Playing online games: You can connect with friends
around the world.
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TYPES OF NETWORKS
1. Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a network that connects devices within a small geographic area, like
a home, office, or school.
For example, your home Wi-Fi network connects your smartphone, laptop,
and smart TV.
Features:
High speed: Typically very fast, as devices are close together.
Limited range: Covers a small area, usually within a few hundred
meters.
Common use: File sharing, gaming, and printer access.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN connects multiple LANs over a large geographic area, often using
leased telecommunication lines.

For example, the internet itself is the largest WAN, connecting millions
of networks globally.
Features:
Long distance: Covers large areas, even continents.
Lower speed: Generally slower than LANs due to the distance and
the technology used.
Common use: Connecting branch offices of a company or
providing internet access.
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TYPES OF NETWORKS
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN covers a larger geographic area than a LAN but is smaller than a
WAN, typically serving a city or a large campus.
For example the network used by a city to connect government
buildings and public services.
Features:
Medium range: Typically spans 5 to 50 kilometers.
Higher speed than WAN: Faster than WANs but slower than LANs.
Common use: Connecting local government offices, universities,
and business districts.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN)

A PAN is a very small network, typically used for connecting personal

devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops.
For example connecting your smartphone to a Bluetooth headset or
smart watch.
Features:
Very short range: Usually within a few meters.
Low power consumption: Often uses Bluetooth or infrared
connections.
Common use: Sharing data between personal devices, like files,
music, or internet access.
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NETWORKING DEVICES
Switch

A switch is a networking device that connects devices within a local area

network (LAN) and uses MAC addresses to forward data to the correct
device. Imagine you’re in a room with a few people and you want to give
a letter to just one specific person. A switch is like someone in the
middle, helping deliver the letter (data) directly to the right person based
on their MAC address. Switches work within local networks to forward
data to the correct device.

Router

A router is a networking device that connects different networks

together. It directs data packets between different networks, like a GPS
for your data, deciding which route the data needs to take to reach a
device that’s not in your immediate network (like over the internet).

Hub

A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a

network but is less efficient than switches. It sends data to all devices
on a network, regardless of which device it’s meant for. It’s like
shouting in a room and hoping the right person hears it. These are
being replaced by switches due to their inefficiency.
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SOME TYPES OF ADDRESSES IN NETWORKING
MAC Address

A MAC address (Media Access Control address) is like a unique serial

number assigned to the network hardware (like a Wi-Fi card) in your
device. It’s hardwired into the device and doesn't change, similar to how
every car has a unique VIN (Vehicle Identification Number).
A MAC address helps identify your device on a local network, such as
when your computer connects to your home Wi-Fi. It tells the router
which device is requesting data.
When devices on the same local network want to communicate, they
use MAC addresses to ensure the data goes to the right device.

Format: A MAC address usually looks like six pairs of letters and
numbers separated by colons (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).

IP Address

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is like a home address for your

computer or any device connected to the internet or a network. It helps
other devices know where to send data. Just like your home address helps
the mailman deliver your letters, an IP address helps data find its way to
your device.When you send or receive data over the internet, IP
addresses help route that data from one place to another, ensuring it
reaches the correct destination. Types:

IPv4: This is the most common type of IP address, made up of four

numbers separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1). Each number can
be from 0 to 255.
IPv6: As we ran out of IPv4 addresses, IPv6 was introduced. It’s
(e.g., longer and uses a mix of numbers and letters
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
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NETWORK MODELS OR PROTOCOL MODELS

A network model or protocol model refers to a conceptual framework that
describes how data is transmitted and communicated across networks.
These models define the rules and procedures for how devices interact,
ensuring effective communication over various types of networks

OSI MODEL (Open Systems Interconnection )

The OSI model is a framework developed by the International Organization

for Standardization (ISO) to standardize network communication that helps
us understand how different networking technologies interact with each
other. It divides the complex process of communication over a network into
seven manageable layers, each with its own specific functions. Think of it
like a set of layers in a cake, where each layer has a distinct role in making
the whole cake (or network communication) work smoothly.
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The Seven Layers of the OSI Model

1.Physical Layer (Layer 1)

What it Does: This layer deals with the physical connection between
devices. It defines the hardware components like cables, switches,
and the electrical signals used to transmit data. Example: When you
plug an Ethernet cable into your computer, you are dealing with the
physical layer.

2.Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

What it Does: This layer is responsible for node-to-node data transfer
and error detection/correction. It ensures that data is packaged
correctly for transmission and helps devices on the same network
communicate.
Example: When your computer sends data over Wi-Fi, the data link
layer handles the communication with the router.

3.Network Layer (Layer 3)

What it Does: This layer manages data routing and forwarding
between different networks. It determines the best path for data to
travel across the network.
Example: When you access a website, the network layer helps route
your request from your computer to the server hosting the site.

4.Transport Layer (Layer 4)

What it Does: This layer ensures reliable data transfer between
devices. It manages data segmentation, flow control, and error
recovery. It makes sure that data arrives intact and in the correct
order.
Example: When you download a file, the transport layer checks that
all parts of the file arrive correctly.

5.Session Layer (Layer 5)

What it Does: This layer manages sessions or connections between
applications. It establishes, maintains, and terminates connections as
needed.
Example: When you log in to an online service, the session layer
keeps your session active until you log out.
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6.Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

What it Does: This layer formats and translates data between the
application layer and the network. It ensures that data is in a readable
format for the receiving application. Example: If you're viewing a
website, the presentation layer helps convert the data from the server
into a format your browser can display.

7.Application Layer (Layer 7)

What it Does: This is the topmost layer, where end-user applications
operate. It provides services for user applications and facilitates
communication between software applications. Example: When you
use a web browser or send an email, you’re interacting with the
application layer.
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TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol model)

The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol model)

is a foundational framework used to understand how data is transmitted
over the internet and other networks. It consists of four layers, each with
specific functions that work together to enable communication between
devices.
Why Was the TCP/IP Model Created?

Interoperability: The TCP/IP model was developed to ensure that

different types of computers and networks could communicate
effectively. It was created in the 1970s by the U.S. Department of
Defense to standardize networking protocols, allowing diverse systems
to work together.
Practical Use: Unlike the OSI model, which is more theoretical, the
TCP/IP model was designed with real-world applications in mind. It
focuses on how data is transmitted over the internet and is widely used
in everyday networking.
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The FourLayers of the TCP/IP Model

1.Link Layer (Network Interface Layer) , Network Acces

What it Does: This layer handles the physical connection between
devices on the same network. It deals with the hardware and protocols
that allow devices to communicate over a local network, including
Ethernet and Wi-Fi. Example: When your computer sends data over Wi-
Fi, this layer manages that communication.

2.Internet Layer
What it Does: This layer is responsible for routing data across different
networks. It uses the Internet Protocol (IP) to send packets of data
from the source device to the destination device, determining the best
path for that data. Example: When you visit a website, the Internet
layer helps direct your request to the correct server on the internet.

3.Transport Layer
What it Does: This layer ensures reliable data transfer between
devices. It uses protocols like Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) to manage data segmentation, flow
control, and error checking. Example: When you download a file, TCP
ensures that all pieces of the file arrive correctly and in order.

4.Application Layer
What it Does: This is the top layer where user applications operate. It
provides the interface for applications to communicate over the
network. Protocols like HTTP (for web browsing) and FTP (for file
transfer) function at this layer. Example: When you use a web browser
to access a website, you're interacting with the Application layer.
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IP Address Classes (IPv4)

IPv4 addresses are grouped into classes (A, B, C, D, E), which help to allocate
addresses based on network sizes. The division of IP addresses into classes is
based on the value of the first octet (the first number in the address).

Class A:
Range: 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Used For: Large networks (e.g., internet service providers or large
corporations).
Number of Networks: Supports up to 128 networks.
Number of Hosts: Each network can support over 16 million hosts
(devices).
First Octet Range: 0 to 12

Class B:
Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Used For: Medium-sized networks (e.g., universities, large businesses).
Number of Networks: Supports up to 16,384 networks.
Number of Hosts: Each network can support up to 65,534 hosts.
First Octet Range: 128 to 191

Class C:
Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Used For: Small networks (e.g., home networks, small businesses).
Number of Networks: Supports up to 2 million networks.
Number of Hosts: Each network can support 254 hosts.
First Octet Range: 192 to 223

Class D (Multicast):
Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Used For: Multicast groups (sending data to multiple devices
simultaneously).
Not Used for Hosts: This class is reserved for special use.

Class E (Experimental):
Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
Used For: Reserved for research and experimental purposes.
Not Used for Hosts: This class is not for public use.
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IP Address Classes (IPv4)

https://notes.davidvarghese.dev

Why Is There a Limit of 255.255.255.255? In IPv4, each address is divided

into four parts, called octets, with each part representing 8 bits. An octet can
represent any number from 0 to 255, which is 8 bits in binary form.

why the limit is 255:

Each octet consists of 8 binary digits (bits). Since each bit can either be a
0 or a 1, an 8-bit number can represent 2^8 = 256 possible values (0 to
255). Therefore, each octet of the IP address can have a value ranging
from 0 to 255. This makes the maximum possible IPv4 address
255.255.255.255.
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How Devices Communicate in a Network

When devices like computers, smartphones, or printers want to exchange

information over a network, they use a system of packets. A packet is a
small chunk of data that gets sent across the network from one device to
another. Think of it like a digital postcard containing information like your
request to load a webpage or send a file.
Communication Within a Local Network (Using a Switch)

https://www.cbtnuggets.com/

When two devices are on the same network (e.g., in the same office or home),
they use a device called a switch to communicate. The switch forwards the
data packet to the correct device based on the MAC address.

MAC Address: This is like a device’s unique fingerprint on the network.

Every device, whether it’s a computer, smartphone, or printer, has a
MAC address. It is permanently assigned to the device and helps the
switch know where to deliver the data. Switch's Job: When a switch
receives a packet, it checks the destination MAC address and sends the
packet directly to that device, avoiding any confusion with other
devices on the network.
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How Devices Communicate in a Network

Communication Between Different Networks (Using a Router)

https://www.slideshare.net/

If the devices are on different networks (for example, one device is in your
home, and another is on the internet), then a router is used to handle the
communication.

IP Address: Each device on a network also has an IP address (like a mailing

address for devices). While the MAC address is used for communication
within the local network, the IP address is needed when data needs to
leave the local network and travel across the internet. Router's Job: The
router checks the destination IP address on the packet and decides how to
forward the data across multiple networks until it reaches its final
destination.

How Devices Find Each Other Using ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

Sometimes, a device may know the IP address of the device it wants to send
data to, but it doesn’t know the MAC address (which is needed for local
delivery). This is where ARP comes in.

ARP’s Job: ARP helps find the MAC address of the device by essentially
asking, “Who has this IP address?” When the correct device responds
with its MAC address, the sending device can now send the data directly
using the switch.
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Networking Protocols
Networking protocols are sets of rules and standards that allow devices
(computers, servers, routers, etc.) to communicate with each other across
networks like the internet or local networks. These protocols define how data
is transmitted, routed, and received between devices.
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

Purpose: Provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked data transmission

between devices.
How It Works: TCP breaks data into packets and ensures all packets
arrive at the destination in the correct order. If packets are lost, TCP
handles re-transmission.
Example: Used in web browsing (HTTP/HTTPS), file transfer (FTP), and
email (SMTP, IMAP).

2. IP (Internet Protocol)
Purpose: Responsible for addressing and routing packets of data so that
they can travel across networks and reach the correct destination.
How It Works: Every device has an IP address, and IP protocols help
guide data from one IP address to another.
Example: IP is part of the foundational TCP/IP model used on the
internet.

3. UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Purpose: Provides faster data transmission without the error-checking
and re-transmission features of TCP.
How It Works: Unlike TCP, UDP sends packets without ensuring they are
received in order, making it faster but less reliable.
Example: Used in real-time applications like video streaming, online
gaming, and VoIP (Voice over IP).

4. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

Purpose: The protocol used for transferring web pages over the internet.
How It Works: When you visit a website, HTTP sends requests from your
browser to the web server and receives the web pages back.
Example: Used in almost all web communications. HTTPS (secure HTTP)
encrypts the data for secure transmission.

5. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

Purpose: Used for transferring files between devices over a network.
How It Works: FTP allows users to upload and download files to/from a
remote server.
Example: Commonly used in website management to upload files to web
servers.
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Networking Protocols
6. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

Purpose: Used for sending emails from a client to a mail server and
between mail servers.
How It Works: SMTP handles the outbound emails, while protocols like
IMAP and POP3 are used for retrieving emails.
Example: Every time you send an email, it's transmitted via SMTP.

7. DNS (Domain Name System)

Purpose: Translates human-readable domain names (like google.com) into
IP addresses that computers can understand. How It Works: DNS servers
store directories of domain names and their corresponding IP addresses,
allowing devices to locate websites and services. Example: When you type
a website’s name, DNS translates it into the IP address of the server
hosting the website.

8. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

Purpose: Assigns IP addresses to devices automatically on a network.
How It Works: When a device connects to a network, DHCP assigns it a
unique IP address for communication.
Example: Every time you connect your laptop or phone to a Wi-Fi
network, DHCP is working behind the scenes to give it an IP address.

9. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

Purpose: Used to manage and monitor network devices like routers,
switches, and servers. How It Works: SNMP collects and organizes data
about devices on a network, helping network administrators track
performance or identify issues. Example: Used by IT administrators to
check the status and health of network devices.

10. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

Purpose: Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses on a local network. How It
Works: When a device knows another device's IP address but not its MAC
address, ARP helps discover the MAC address for local communication.
Example: Used in local area networks (LANs) to ensure data is delivered to
the right device.
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Networking Protocols

11. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

Purpose: Used by network devices to send error messages and operational
information. How It Works: ICMP is most commonly known for the ping
command, which tests connectivity between devices by sending a request
and waiting for a response. Example: When troubleshooting network
issues, the ping command checks if a server is reachable.

12. TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security/Secure Sockets Layer)

Purpose: Encrypts data to provide secure communication over a
network.
How It Works: SSL (now replaced by TLS) secures connections, like those
between a browser and a website, by encrypting the data exchanged.
Example: Used in HTTPS to secure web traffic and protect sensitive
information like credit card details during online transactions.
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Packet and Frame Packet

A packet is a unit of data used at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI
model. It contains both the data being sent and important information,
such as the source and destination IP addresses.
Packets are created and used primarily by routers for transferring data
between different networks. When a packet is sent across the internet,
routers use the information in the packet to determine where it should go.

Structure: A packet contains:

Header (including source and destination IP addresses)

Data (the actual payload)
Trailer (optional, depending on the protocol)

Example: If you send a message over the internet, it will be broken into
packets, which will be routed to the destination through different networks.

Frame
A frame is a unit of data used at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI
model. It is the packet's next form when it's transmitted across the
local network (like through Ethernet or Wi-Fi). It contains the source
and destination MAC addresses.
Frames are used by switches and Network Interface Cards (NICs) to move
data within a local network. While packets carry data between different
networks, frames are responsible for getting data from one device to
another within the same network.
Structure: A frame contains:

Header (with source and destination MAC addresses)

Data (the payload, which may contain a packet)
Trailer (includes error-checking information like a CRC or checksum)

Example: When a packet arrives at your local network, your router or switch
will encapsulate it into a frame for delivery to your specific device.
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Some Basic Networking tools

1. Ping

Purpose: Ping checks if another device (like a server or another computer)

is reachable on the network. Example: If you type "ping google.com," your
computer will send small packets of data to Google's server. If Google is
reachable, it will respond, and you’ll see how long each packet took to
make the round trip. This is useful for checking if your internet connection
is working.

2. Traceroute (Linux/Unix) / Tracert (Windows)

Purpose: Traceroute shows the path data takes to get from your computer
to a server on the internet, listing each router it passes through along the
way. Example: By typing "traceroute google.com" (on Linux) or "tracert
google.com" (on Windows), you can see all the routers your data goes
through to reach Google's server. Each router is a "hop," and the
command will display how long each hop takes.

3. IPconfig (Windows) / Ifconfig (Linux)

Purpose: These commands display your computer’s
network
configuration, showing your IP address, subnet mask, and default
gateway.
Example: On Windows, "ipconfig" will show you your current network
settings, including your IP address. On Linux, "ifconfig" gives you similar
information about your network interfaces and their IP addresses.
4. Netstat
Purpose: Netstat shows network connections, listening ports, and
statistics, helping you identify which applications are using network
connections. Example: Typing "netstat" will list all current network
connections on your system, including IP addresses and port numbers.
You can use this to check which services are running or if any suspicious
connections are active.

5. Nslookup
Purpose: Nslookup is used to query DNS servers and find IP addresses
associated with domain names. Example: If you type "nslookup
google.com," it will return the IP address for Google's domain name,
showing which IP address your computer will use when contacting
Google.
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Some Basic Networking tools

6. Wireshark

Purpose: Wireshark captures and analyzes network packets, allowing you

to see all traffic going to and from your device in real time. Example: You
can open Wireshark, select your network interface, and start capturing
packets. This will show detailed information about every data packet being
transmitted, such as its source, destination, and contents.

7. Nmap
Purpose: Nmap is a network scanning tool used to discover devices and
services on a network by scanning for open ports. Example: By running
"nmap 192.168.1.1", you can scan a device on your local network to see
which ports are open, revealing what services are running on that device
(like a web server or an FTP server).

8. Netcat (NC)
Purpose: Netcat reads and writes data across network connections using
TCP or UDP protocols, often used for testing. Example: Typing "nc
192.168.1.1 80" will try to open a connection to a device with the IP
address 192.168.1.1 on port 80, which is typically used by web servers.
This is helpful for checking if a port is open.

9. Dig
Purpose: Similar to nslookup, Dig queries DNS servers but provides more
detailed information. Example: By typing "dig google.com," you'll get a
detailed report of DNS queries, including the domain's IP address and
other DNS records like mail servers.

10. FTP
Purpose: FTP transfers files between two devices over a network. Example:
You can connect to an FTP server with a command like "ftp example.com,"
log in, and transfer files between your computer and the server.
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Some Basic Networking tools

Cisco Packet Tracer

Purpose: A simulation tool used to design, configure, and troubleshoot

complex networks. How It Works: Allows users to simulate various
networking devices (routers, switches, PCs, etc.) and test different
network topologies and configurations. Example Use Case: You can
create virtual networks with routers, switches, and computers, then
configure protocols like RIP, OSPF, and EIGRP, or simulate packet flows
to observe how devices communicate in different scenarios.

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