CN&CC : Unit 1 Introduction to Cloud Computing Q.1. Define Computer Network? Explain benefits of Computer Network. Definition: A computer network is a set of interconnected computers that communicate with each other for the purpose of sharing resources, information, and services. It involves the use of various hardware and software components to establish connections and enable data exchange betwe different devices. Benefits: Resource Sharing: Computer networks facilitate the sharing of resources such as printers, files, and applications among connected devices. This leads to efficient utilization of resources and cost savings. Reliability: Networks provide redundancy and backup mechanisms, ensuring that if one part of the network fails, data can still be transmitted through alternate paths. This enhances overall system reliability. Communication: Networks enable seamless communication through, emails, instant messaging, and collaborative tools. This improves information flow, fostering bettér Coordination and decision-making. Cost Efficiency: By sharing resources and centralizing management, computer networks help in reducing costs associated with hardware, software, and maintenance. This is particularly beneficial for large organizations, Remote Access: Networks allow users to access resources and information remotely, promoting flexibility in work environments. This is crucial for businesses with Geographically dispersed teams. Scalability: As the s additional users and devices. This scalability is essential for adapting to changing business needs. ize of an organization grows, a well-designed network can easily accommodate Data Management: Centralized data management in a network ensures consistency, security, and ease of backup. This contributes to improved data integrity and protection against loss. Q.2 Drawand explain the ISO OSI Model. ° OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in another computer. OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function. 1. Application Layer: This layer provides network services to applications such as file transfer, email, and web browsing, Examples of protocols at this layer include HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and Telnet. The application layer is the layer that users interact with directly. It is responsible for provi 1g services to applications and users. 2. Presentation Layer: This layer is responsible for formatting data for presentation to applications. It handles tasks such as data encryption, decryption, compression, and decompression. Examples of protocols at this layer include XDR and ASN.1 The presentation layer ensures that data is exchanged a format that both systems understand,4, Transport Lay ‘ion Layer: This layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications. § Ey It provides services such as authentication, 3 “ authorization, and dialog control. 3 Examples of protocols at this layer include RPC |® and NetBIOS sot The session layer establishes and manages communication sessions between applications on | § different systems. 3 z i 5 a This layer provides reliable data transfer between |= applications on different hosts. ‘ Ithandles tasks such as segmenting and reassembling data, error checking, and flow control. Examples of protocols at this layer include TCP and UDP. The transport layer provides reliable and efficient data transfer between applications. 5, Network Layer: This layer provides routing and addressing for data packets deross networks. It deterr ines the best path for data to take from the source to the destination. Examples of protocols at this layer include IP, IPX, and AppleTalk. The network layer is responsible for routing data packets across a network 6. Data Link Layer: This layer provides error-free data transfer between devices on the same network It handles tasks such as error detection and correction, flow control, and media access control Examples of protocols at this layer include PPP and Ethernet. The data link layer provides reliable data transfer between devices on the same network segment. 7. Physical Layer: This layer deals with the physical transmission of data over a network medium, such as cables or wireless signals It defines the electrical, mechanical, and functional characteristics of the connections between devices Examples of protocols at this layer include Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI. The physical layer is responsible for transmitting and receiving raw data bits over a network medium, Benefits of the OSI Model: The OSI model provides a common framework for understanding network communication. Ithelps to identify and isolate problems in network communication It can be used to design and implement network protocols and devices. Limitations of the OSI Model: The OSI model is a conceptual model and does not always map directly to real-world implementations. Some protocols do not fit neatly into the seven layers of the OSI model.Q.3 Explain Different Types Networking Devices & its Use. Here are some of the most common types of networking devices and their uses: 1. Hub: ‘© A hub is a simple device that connects multiple devices together. © It acts as a central point for data transmission, rec 1g data from one device and rebroadcasting it to all other connected devices. ‘Hubs are commonly used in small, low-traffic networks, but they are not suitable for large or high-performance networks as they can create congestion. 2. Switeh: © A switch is a more intelligent device than a hub, It learns the MAC addresses of the devices connected to it and directs data traffic only to the intended recipient. ‘© This reduces network congestion and improves performance. © Switches are commonly used in modern networks of all sizes. 3. Router: © A router is a device that connects multiple networks together. © It determines the best path for data to take betiveen different networks and forwards data packets accordingly. © Router re essential for connecting networks of different sizes and types, such as home networks, business networks, and the internet. ge © A bridge is a device that connects two similar networks together. © It filters data traffic between the networks to improve performance and security. ‘© Bridges are typically used to connect networks that use the same protocol, such as Ethernet, 5. Gateway: © A gateway is a devieé that connects two dissimilar networks together. © It translates data between different protocols, allowing devices on different networks to communicate each other, © Gateways ate typically used to connect networks that use different protocols, such as Ethernet and Token Ring. 6. Access Point: ‘# Anaccess point is a device that connects wireless devices to a wired network © Itereates a wireless network that devices can connect to using Wi-Fi. ‘© Access points are essential for providing wireless internet access in homes, businesses, and other public places. 7. Firewalls ‘© A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and filters out unauthorized traffic. © Ithelps to protect networks from cyberattacks and other security threats, © Firewalls are essential for any network that is connected to the internet,Q.4. Explain Network Topology With Diagrams . ‘A network topology defines the physical or logical layout of a network. It describes how devices are connected to each other and how data flows through the network. There are several different types of network topologies, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Here are some of the most common network topologies, along with diagrams and explanations: 1. Bus Topology: Bus topology © Ina bus topology, all devices are connected to a single cil, known ate bstbone OoOoOgdd ‘© Data is transmitted in one direction on the cable, and all > T devices listen for data addressed to them. ‘® Bus topology is simple to implement and cost-effective, but it is susceptible to single points of failure. If the | [emir Terminator backbone cable breaks, the entire network will go down. ‘* Bus topology is commonly used in small networks, such as home networks, 2. Star Topology: © Ina star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch Nook’ _ © Data is transmitted between devices through the central deviee. © Star topology is more reliable than bus topology because HUB there is no single point of failure. If oné device fails, the rest of the network will still be able to function © Siar topology is also more sealable than bus topology, as NODE4 NODE2 itis easier to add new devices to the network. Tobe © Star topology is commonly. used in medium-sized networks, such as business networks. 3. Ring Topology: ‘© Ina ring topology, devices are connected in a loop, with each device eonneed wo other devices Agd © Data is transmitted in one direction around the ring, | a \ © Ring topology is reliable and fault-tolerant, as data can still flow even if one device fails. Ring Topology © However, ring topology can be difficult to troubleshoot and is nots scalable see polis. [=f Ag © Ring topology is commonly used in high-performance Neb networks, such as token ring networks.4, Mesh Topology: ‘© In a mesh topology, devices are connected to multiple other devices, creating a web-like network. © Data can flow between any two devices in the network, regardless of the path it takes. ‘© Mesh topology is highly reliable and fault-tolerant, as there are multiple paths for data to take, © However, mesh topology can be complex to implement and manage. ‘© Mesh topology is commonly used in wireless networks and mission-criti¢al networks, 5, Hybrid Topology: ‘© A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different topologies. | © This can be done to create a network that is tailored to as the specific needs of the organization. om ‘© For example, a network might use a bus topology for = = the backbone and a star topology for the individual workstations, ‘¢ Hybrid topology can provide the best of both worlds, = _=_— lo but it can also be more complex to design and, | implement. Q.5. Uses of Computer Networks » Computer networks have become an essential part of our lives, providing a vast array of benefits and opportunities. Here are some of the major uses of computer networks: Communication and Collaboration: ‘¢ Email: Networks allow for efficient and fast email communication between individuals and groups. ‘© Instant messaging: Networks facilitate real-time communication through instant messaging platforms like WhatsApp, Telegram, ete. @ Video conferencit : Networks enable video conferencing for remote meetings, presentations, and online learning. © Social networking: Networks are the backbone of social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, conneeting people and communities. Resource Sharing: ‘© File sharing: Networks allow users to share files and data easily between computers. ‘© Printers and other peripherals: Networks enable sharing p nters, scanners, and other peripherals among multiple users. ‘© Software sharing: Networks allow for centralized software installation and updates, reducing costs and simplifying management,* Storage and backup: Networked storage solutions like NAS devices provide centralized storage and backup for important data. Access to Information: Internet access: Networks provide access to the vast world of information available on the internet, including websites, online databases, and educational resources. © Intranets: Organizations can create internal networks (intranets) to share information, resources, and applications within the organization ¢ Evleaming: Networks facilitate access to online courses, e-books, and other educational resources, enabling remote learning and professional development. Entertainment and Recreation ‘© Online gaming: Networks enable online multiplayer gaming, providing a platform for social and competitive play. ¢ Streaming services: Networks allow access to streaming serviees for music, movies, TV shows, and other forms of entertainment oS ial media: Networks provide platforms for social interaétion, entertainment, and sharing creative content, Business and Productivity: ‘© E-commerce: Networks facilitate online shopping and business transactions, enabling global reach and market expansion, © Telecommuting and remote work: Networks allow employees to work remotely, increasing flexibility and productivity. ‘© Enterprise resource planning (ERP): Networks enable the use of ERP systems for managing various business fimetions, such as finaneéyinventory, and customer relationships. © Customer service: Networks facilitate offline customer service through chatbots, email support, and online knowledge bases. Scientific Research and Education; © Collaboration: Networks enable researchers to collaborate on projects across different institutions and locations, ‘© Data sharing: Networks allow researchers to share data and findings easily, accelerating scientific progress. * Remote access to resource : Networks provide researchers with remote access to powerful computing resources and research facilitie: ‘© Online leaming: Networks facilitate online education and research, providing access to courses, materials, and virtual labs. @7Discuss various Legal and social issues of computer networks . Legal issues Some of the key legal issues associated with computer networks include: © Copyright and intellectual property: Computer networks can be used to easily share and distribute copyrighted material, such as music, movies, and software. This has raised concems about copyright infringement and the protection of intellectual property.© Defamation and privacy: Computer networks can be used to spread false or defamatory information about people. This can damage a person's reputation and lead to legal action. Computer networks can also be used to invade people's privacy by collecting personal information without their consent. © Cybercrime: Computer networks can be used to commit a variety of crimes, such as fraud, identity theft, and cyber-attacks. These crimes can have a significant financial and emotional impact on Social issues Some of the key social issues associated with computer networks include: ‘© Digital divide: The digital divide refers to the gap between people who have access to computer networks and those who do not. This can lead to social and economic inequality. ‘* Internet addiction: Some people become addicted to using the internet and computer networks. This can have a negative impact on their work, studies, and relationships. © Cyberbullying: Cyberbullying is the use of electronic communication to bully a person, typically by sending messages of an intimidating or threatening nature. Cyberbullying can have a devastating impact on vietims, leading to depression, anxiety, and even suicide,CN&CC : Unit 2 Data Link Layer and Network Layer Qu. Explain Data Link Layer in OSI Model ‘The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which is a conceptual framework used to understand and design computer networks. The main purpose of the Data Link Layer is to provide reliable and efficient communication between two directly connected nodes over a physical link, such as a cable or a wireless connection, Here are the key functions and responsibilities of the Data Link Layer: s a Error Detection and Correction: © The Data Link Layer uses error detection methods like Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) to identity corrupted data packets. ‘© If errors are detected, it employs error correction mechanisms like retransmission requests to ensure the integrity of the data, Flow Control: © The Data Link Layer regulates the flow of data between devices to prevent data loss and network congestion. © It uses protocols like stop-and-wait and sliding window to ensure that the receiving device can process the data efficiently. Media Access Control (MAC): © The Data Link Layer controls access to the shared network medium (e.g., Ethernet cable) using protocols like Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) and Token Ring. ‘© This prevents collisions and ensures that only one device transmits data at a time. Framing, The Data Link Layer divides the data received from the Network Layer into smaller units called frames. © Each frame contains header information, such as the source and destination MAC addresses, and the data payload, ‘© This facilitates efficient{data transnission and identification of the intended recipient. Addressing: © The Data Link Layer assigns unique MAC addresses to each device on the network © These addresses are used to identify the source and destination of data frames. Physical Addressing: © The Data Link Layer maps logical network addresses to physical addresses that identify specific devices on the network. © This allows for the physical delivery of data frames to the correct recipient, Protocols: Several protocols operate at the Data Link Layer, including: ‘© Ethernet: Widely used for LANs © Token Ring: Older LAN technology. ° Wi i: Wireless LAN technology. © PPP: Point-to-point protocol for dial-up connections. © Frame Relay: High-speed WAN protocol.Q2. Explain Error Correction techniques with examples. Ans: | Click Here | Q3. Explain traffic Management issue in network Layer. In the network layer of a computer network, one of the primary concerns is efficiently managing the flow of data between different devices and across the network. Traffic management involves controlling the flow of data to censure that network resources are utilized optimally and that data reaches its destination in a timely manner. Here are some key traffic management issues in the network layer: ‘© Congestion Control: This refers to the strategies and mechanisms used to prevent or alleviate congestion in the network. Congestion occurs when the demand for network resourges exegeds the available capacity. Effective congestion control mechanisms aim to avoid packet loss, delays, and inefficient use of network resources. © Quality of Service (QoS): Different applications and services may have varying requirements for network performance. QoS mechanisms in the network layer prioritize and manage the delivery of data based on factors such as latency, bandwidth, and reliability. This ensures that critical applications receive the necessary resources for optimal performance. © Routing Optimization: Efficient routing of data is crucial for minimizing delays and avoiding bottlenecks. Traffic management involves selecting the best paths for data to traverse the network, considering factors like link capacity, traffic load, and reliability, ‘© Packet Scheduling: When multiple packets are competing for transmission, packet scheduling algorithms determine the order in which packets are sent. Fair and efficient scheduling helps in utilizing the network resources effectively and preventing some flows from dominating others. ‘¢ Flow Control: Flow control mechanisms regulate the rate at which data is transmitted between devices to prevent overwhelming the receiving end. This is particularly important when data is transferred between devices with varying processing speeds Or network capabilities Q4. Explain different Network layer design issues The network layer or layer 3.of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is concerned delivery of data packets from the source to the destination across multiple hops or links. It is the lowest layer that is concerned with end-to-end transmit The designers who are concerned with designing this layer needs to cater to certain issues, These issues encompass the services provided to the upper layers as well as internal design of the layer. ‘The design issues can be elaborated under four heads: © Store-and-Forward Packet Switching: In store-and-forward packet switching, the network layer needs to decide how it handles incoming packets, The decision often involves storing the entire packet before forwarding it to the next hop in the network. This introduces considerations for buffering, queuing, and determining when to forward packets. The design must balance the trade-offs between latency and efficiency. © Services to Transport Layer The network layer provides services to the transport layer, such as end-to-end communication and addressing. Designers need to determine the type of services to offer, considering factors like reliability, error handling, andflow control. The design must align with the requirements of the transport layer protocols (e.g., TCP or UDP) that rely on the network layer for data delivery. © Providing Connection-Oriented Servi Some network layer protocols offer connection-oriented services, where a logical connection is established before data transfer. Designing this involves deciding how to establish, maintain, and terminate connections. Connection-oriented services often include features like acknowledgment, error correction, and flow control to ensure reliable end-to-end communication. * Providing Connectionless Service: Conversely, connectionless services in the network layer do not require a pre-established connection. Each packet is treated independently. Designers must address issues such as packet routing, addressing, and error handling in a connectionless environment. Connectionless services are often associated with protocols like IP (Internet Protocol) These design issues collectively shape the functionality and behavior of the network layer, They involve trade-offs between factors such as speed, reliability, and simplicity. Designers mustcarefully consider these issues to create a network layer that meets the requirements of both the upper layers and the internal workings of the network. The goal is to provide efficient and reliable end-to-end communigation agross the network while accommodating the diverse needs of different applications and services, Q.5. Explain TCP/IP Model with suitable diagram. The TCP/IP model, also known as the Internet protocol suite, is a conceptual framework used for designing and understanding network protocols. It is nota strict layered model like the OSI model, but it can be loosely mapped to the OSI layers. The TCP/IP model consists of four layers: Link, Internet, Transport, and Application, Link Layer (Network Interface Layer) This layer is responsible for the physical connection between devices on the same network, It deals with hardware addressing, such as MAC addresses in Ethernet, It also manages the transmission of frames over the local network Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) 2. Intemet Layer: The Internet layer is primarily concerned with logical addressing and routing of data between networks. It enables devices on different networks to communicate. IP (Internet Protocol) is the key protocol in this layer. IP (1Pv4 and IPv6), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) 3. Transport Layer: The transport layer ensures end-to-end communication and is responsible for error detection, flow control, and segmentation of data. It provides a reliable or unreliable data transport service to the upper layers. Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol)4. Application Layer: The application layer deals with network services Application Layer Layer-04 directly consumed by end-users or applications. It Layer-03 provides a platform for software applications to Transport Layer y communicate over the network. It includes various Internet Layer Layer-02 protocols for specific applications. Protocols: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP || Network Access Layer | Layer-01 (File Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), DNS (Domain Name System). Q6.Draw and explain classification of Multiple access protocols. Multiple Access Protocols are used in the Data Link Layer of the OSI model for data transmission between two nodes. These protocols are particularly useful when there is no dedicated link present, and multiple stations can access the channel simultaneously. They help to decrease collision and avoid ee crosstalk. Ranéem Cerrees Cy feo oe Protocols Multiple Access Protocols can be broadly classified into three categories: I. Random Access Protocol: In this protocoly"all-stations have equal priority. Any station can send data depending on the medium’s state (idle or busy). There is no fixed time for sending data and no fixed Sequence of stations sending data. The Random Access Protocols are further subdivided as: o ALOHA: It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable for shared medium. In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the same time and can hence lead to collision and data being garbled, © CSMA (Carrier Sensé Multiple Access): It ensures fewer collisions as the station is required to first sense the medium (for idle or busy) before transmitting datal.. Controlled Access; Controlled access protocols employ a central controller or a token-based mechanism to grant permission to) devices for transmitting data, eliminating collisions. This approach offers greater efficiency compared to random access protocols but introduces overhead for control messages. ‘© Polling:"A.centralized approach where the controller polls each device sequentially, allowing only the polled device to transmit. © Token Ring: A decentralized approach where a special token circulates among devices. Only the device holding the token can transmit data. ‘© Reservation ALOHA: A hybrid protocol where devices request permission to transmit by sending reservation messages during specific time slots. 3. Channelization: This includes protocols like: o FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access): The available bandwidth is divided into equal bands so that each station can send data without interference. © TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): The bandwidth is shared between multiple stations, To avoid collision, each station is assigned a specific time slot for data transmission, © CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): In this protocol, one channel carries several transmissions simultaneously. nQ7. Explain different Data Link layer design issues The Data Link Layer plays a crucial role in ensuring reliable and efficient data transmission within a network segment. It sits below the Network Layer and is responsible for the delivery of data packets between devices directly connected to the same physical medium. However, designing this layer involves careful consideration of various issues: Main Functions: 1, Providing Services to the Network Layer: a. The Data Link Layer offers services to the Network Layer above it, b. It transforms the raw transmission facility into a reliable link forthe network layer. 2. Framing: a, The process of breaking up a stream of bits into manageable frames. b. Frames include headers and trailers, containing information liké’source and destination addresses, error checking codes, and frame control. 3. Error Control: a. Ensures accurate and reliable data transmission by detecting and correcting errors. b. Techniques include error detection codes (¢.g., CRC) and error correction methods (e. Repeat reQuest - ARQ). 4, Flow Control: a. Regulates the flow of data between sender and receiver to prevent congestion. b. Techniques such as Stop-and-Wait, Sliding Window, and Credit-based flow control are used. Design Issues: 1) Error Detection and Correction: a) Designing mechanisms to detect and correct errors in the transmitted data. b) Involves selecting appropriate ertor detection codes and error correction methods. 2) Flow Control: a) Determining how to manage the flow of data between sender and receiver to avoid congestion. b) Selecting and implementing flow control mechanisms based on the network's characteristics. 3) Framing: a) Defining the frame structure, including header and trailer information, b) Ensuring synchronization, addressing, and error-checking information is embedded in the frame, 4) Addressing: a) Providing a mechanism for addressing devices on the same network. b) Typically involves the use of MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to uniquely identify network interface cards. 5) Media Access Control (MAC): a). Specifying protocols that govern access to the shared communi n medium, b) Different MAC protocols determine how devices on the same network share and access the transmission medium. 6) Frame Structure:a) Defi jon and reception of data, ing the structure of frames to facilitate proper transmi b) Frame structure includes fields for synchronization, addressing, control, data, and error checking, 7) Multiple Access Protocols: a) Resolving issues related to multiple devices attempting to access the communication medium simultaneously. b) Selecting appropriate multiple access protocols such as CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA, or token passing. 8) Error Recovery: a) Designing strategies for recovering from errors during data transmission. b). This may involve mechanisms for retransmitting lost or corrupted frames. Q8.Explain Routing Algorithm 1. Adaptive Algorithms © These are the algorithms that change their routing decisions whenever _ network Types of Routing Algorithm topology or traffic load changes. The changes in routing decisions are reflected in [ the topology as well as the traffic of the ‘opi Tena wa isoior Apr Agen network. me = = * It is Also known as dynamic routing, these ty 1 of | make use of dynamic information such as soi) mtg [osvtae} (rena] (Rpser| [ ak] [Paar] current topology, load, delay, ete, to select routes. Optimization parameters are distance, number of hops, and estimated transit time. Further, these are classified as follows © Isolated: In this method each node makes its routing decisions using the information it has without seeking formation from other nodes. The sending nodes don’t have formation about the status of a particular link. The disadvantage is that packets may be sent through a congested network which may result in delay. Examples: Hot potato routing, and backward learning. © Centralized: In this method, a centralized node has entire information about the network and makes all the routing decisions. The advantage of this is only one node is required to keep the information of the entire network and the disadvantage is that if the central node goes down the entire network is done. The link state algorithm is referred to as a centralized algorithm since it is aware of the cost of each link in the network. © Distributed: In this method, the node receives information from its neighbors and then takes the decision about routing the packets. A disadvantage is that the packet may be delayed if there is a change in between tervals in which it receives information and sends packets. It is also known as a decentralized algorithm as it computes the least-cost path between source and destination2. Non-Adaptive Algorithms © These are the algorithms that do not change their routing decisions once they have been selected. © This is also known as static routing as a route to be taken is computed in advance and downloaded to routers when a router is booted. Further, these are classified as follows: ‘* Flooding: This technique in which every incoming packet is sent on every outgoing line except from which it arrived. One problem with this is that packets may go in a loop and as a result of which a node may receive duplicate packets. These problems can be overcome with the help of sequence numbers, hop count, and spanning trees. ‘* Random walk: In this method, packets are sent host by host or nade by node to one of its neighbors randomly. This is a highly robust method that is usually implemiented by Sending packets onto the link which is least queued,CN&CC : Unit 3 Transport and Application Layer Q.1. Differentiate between TCP and UDP protocol. ‘TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) UDP (User Datagram Protocol) Connection-oriented protocol. Conneetionless protocol. Establishes a connection before data transfer. Does not establish a connection before sending data. Provides reliable and ordered delivery of data. Does not guarantee delivery or order of packets. Includes features such as error checking, acknowledgment, and flow control No error checking or acknowledgment mechanism. Suited for applications requiring high reliability and | Suited for real-time applications where low latency is data integrity, such as file transfer and web browsing. | crucial, such a8 online gaming and streaming. Slower compared to UDP due to the overhead of Faster than TCPyas it lacks the overhead of connection connection setup and error recovery mechanisms. setup/and error recovery. Used in applications where low latency and faster data transmission are more important than guaranteed delivery. Used in applications where data integrity and accuracy are critical Examples of applications: HTTP, FTP, SMTP. Examples of applications: DNS, VolP, online gaming. Q.2. Explain Elements of transport protocols. Transport protocols are a fundamental part of the network stack, responsible for ensuring reliable communication and data exchange between devices. Here are the key elements of transport protocols: © Addressing: © Description: Transport protocols use port numbers to identify specific applications on a device. This allows multiple applications to run simultaneously on the same device, each having a unique identifier. © Example: Port 80 for HTTP, 21 for FTP. © Service Types: © Description: Transport protocols offer different service types to meet diverse application requirements, © Connection-oriented services: Establish a virtual connection before data transfer for reliable and ordered delivery (e.g., TCP, SCTP). © Connectionless services: Send data independently without prior connection setup, sacrificing reliability for speed (e.g., UDP, DCCP). © Segmentation and Reassembly: © Description: Large data streams are divided into smaller units called segments for efficient transmission, At the receiving end, these segments are reassembled to reconstruct the original data stream.Flow Control: © Description: Transport protocols implement flow control mechanisms to manage the rate of data exchange between sender and receiver. This prevents overwhelming the receiver and ensures smooth transmission = Error Control: © Description: Error detection and correction mechanisms are employed to maintain data integrity. Checksums, sequence numbers, and acknowledgment mechanisms help identify and correct errors. © Congestion Control: © Description: To prevent network congestion, transport protocols adjust the rate of data transmission based on network conditions. This ensures efficient data flow and avoids performance degradation, © Security: © Description: Transport protocols can incorporate security features such as encryption and authentication to protect data from unauthorized access.and tampering. This is crucial for secure communication, © Multiplexing and Demuttiplexing: © Description: Transport protocols enable multiple applications on a device to share a single network connection simultaneously. Multiplexing interleaves data from different applications, and demultiplexing separates and directs the data streams to the correct applications. Q.3. Write a short note on DNS. © DNS stands for Domain Name System. © DNS is a directory service that provides'a mapping between the name of a host on the network and its numerical address, © DNS is required for the functioning of the internet © Bach node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of symbols specified by dots, © DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead of remembering the IP addresses. What is the Need of DNS? Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very difficult for people also the IP addresses are not static therefore a mapping is required to change the domain name to the IP address. So DNS is, used to convert the domain name of the websites to their numerical IP address Types of Domain There are various kinds of doma 1. Generic domains: .com(commercial), .edu(educational), .mil(military), .org(nonprofit organization), .net(similar to commercial) all these are generic domains. 2. Country domain: .in (India) .us .uk3. Inverse domain: if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. Ip to domain name mapping. So DNS can provide both the mapping for example to find the IP addresses of geeksforgeeks.org then we have to type nslookup www.geeksforgeeks.ong Q.4. Explain Transport layer Protocol. The transport layer in the OSI model plays a crucial role in ensuring reliable and efficient communication between applications on different computers. It sits between the network layer, responsible for routing data packets across networks, and the application layer, where user applications reside. While often unnoticed, the transport layer provides several key services that are essential for smooth and secure data exchange: 1. Data transfer: ‘© The transport layer provides two types of data transfer services: © Reliable data transfer: This ensures that data is delivered accurately and in the correct order. Thi achieved through mechanisms like sequence numbers, acknowledgments, and retransmissions. © Unreliable data transfer: This prioritizes speed over ‘liability and transmits data packets independently without guarantees for delivery or order. This is suitable for applications where speed is crucial, such as online gaming or video streaming. Multiplexing and demultiplexing: © The transport layer allows multiple applications on.a single device to share a single network connection. This is achieved through multiplexing, where data from different applications is interleaved and sent over the network. At the receiving end, demultiplexing, separates the data streams and delivers them to the appropriate applications. 3. Error detection and correction: ‘© The transport layer uses various mechanisms to detect and correct errors that may occur during data transmission, This ensures that data is delivered accurately and without corruption. 4. Flow control. ‘© The transport layer Fegulates the ‘low of data between applications to prevent buffer overflow at the receiver. This ensures smooth data transmission and avoids situ: ions where the receiver cannot process data fast enough, leading to data loss. . Congestion control? ‘© Network congestion can significantly impact data transmission performance, The transport layer uses congestion control mechanisms to adapt data transmission rates based on network conditions, preventing congestion and ensuring efficient data flow. 6. Security: ‘© The transport layer can incorporate security features like encryption and authentication to protect data from unauthorized access and modification. This is crucial for ensuring secure communication, especially for sensitive applications, 7, Addres 2: © The transport layer uses unique identifiers, known as ports, to identify specific applications within a device. This allows multiple applications on the same device to communicate with different applications on other devices simultaneously.Q.5. Explain a)electronic mail b)world wide web c)Audio streaming a) Electronic Mail (Email Electronic mail, commonly known as email, is a digital communication method allowing users to send and receive messages over the Internet. It uses unique identifiers called email addresses (e.g., user@example.com) for routing messages. Key components include email addresses, mail servers (which store and manage messages), and client software (like Outlook or Gmail). Email supports asynchronous communication, meaning users can send and receive messages at different times, b) World Wide Web (WWW): ‘The World Wide Web (WWW) is a vast online space of interconnected webpages and resources accessible through web browsers, Users explore this space using hyperlinks, which are clickable links that lead to other webpages. Key components include web browsers (like Chrome or Firefox), web servers (which host websites), hyperlinks, and HTML (Hypertext Markup Language). The WWW offers multimedia content, enables e-commerce, and serves as a platform for various online activities. ©) Audio Streaming: Audio streaming is a technology that allows users to listen to audio content in real-time over the Internet without downloading the entire file. It involves streaming servers (which host audio files), client devices (like computers or smartphones), and network connections. Users can start listeningimmediately, pause and resume playback, create playlists, and receive content recommendations. Audio streaming has revolutionized how people access and enjoy music, podeasts, and other audio content, providing an on-demand and personalized listening experience. Q. 6. Reliable delivery in transport layer explain in detail. Reliable delivery in the transport layer refers to the assurance that data sent from one system to another arrives accurately, completely, and in the correct order. This reliability is crucial for applications that require the precise transmission of information, such as file transfers, email, and web browsing. The most common protocol that provides reliable delivery is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Here's a detailed explanation of the mechanisms that ensure reliable delivery in the transport layer: # Acknowledgments: © Description: When a sender transmits data to a receiver using TCP, the receiver acknowledges the receipt of each segment. This acknowledgment is a signal that the data has been successfully received. © Significance: Acknowledgments help the sender know that the data reached the destination, allowing for the identification of potential issues and ensuring reliable delivery. Sequence Numbers: © Description: TCP assigns a unique sequence number to each segment it sends. The receiver uses these sequence numbers to reassemble the segments in the correct order. © Significance: Sequence numbers facilitate the reconstruction of the original data stream, ensuring that data is delivered in the intended order. © Retransmission: © Description: If a sender does not receive an acknowledgment within a specified time (indicating that a segment may be lost or corrupted), it retransmits the data, This ensures that missing or damaged segments are resent for reliable delivery.ignificance: Retransmission compensates for potential packet loss, ensuring that all data reaches the destination. © Flow Control: © Description: Flow control mechanisms in TCP manage the rate at which data is transmitted, preventing the sender from overwhelming the receiver. This helps ensure that the rec process the data at a pace suitable for reliable delivery. ignificance: Flow control prevents congestion and ensures that the network and the receiving system can handle the data being transmitted © Windowing: © Description: TCP uses a concept called "windowing," where the sender ean transmit multiple segments before waiting for acknowledgments. The window size adapts to the network conditions. © Significance: Windowing optimizes data transfer by allowing the sender to transmit a certain amount of data without waiting for individual acknowledgments, improving efficiency while Connection Establishment and Termination: © Description: TCP establishes a connection before data exchange and terminates it when the communication is complete, This process involyes a handshake to set up parameters for reliable communication, ignificance: y of nection establishment and termination procedures contribute to the reliabilit data transfer, ensuring orderly communication between the sender and receiver. Q. 7. Explain Electronic mail with its limitations. Explanation: Electronic mail, commonly known as email, is widely used digital communication method that enables users to exchange messages, files, and other content over the Internet. It operates on a system of unique email addresses, allowing individuals and organizations to Send and receive messages using email clients or web-based email services. Email supports both personal and professional communication, offering features such as attachments, formatting, and organizational tools, Li tation: ‘© Security Concems: © Emails can be vulnerable to security threats such as phishing, malware, and unauthorized access. Users need to be ci ious about clicking on links or downloading attachments from unknown or suspicious sources, © Spam and Unsolicited Emails: © Inboxes often receive a significant amount of spam or unsolicited emails. Filtering mechanisms ‘may not catch all spam, requiring users to manage and filter their emails manually. e@ Email Overload: Users may experience email overload due to a high volume of messages, making it challenging to prioritize and manage important communications. This can lead to information fatigue and reduced efficiency.Attachments and File ize Limits: © While email allows attachments, there are often limitations on file sizes. Sending large files may require additional steps or the use of alternative methods for file sharing. Dependency on Internet Access: © Email requires a reliable internet connection for sending and receiving messages. Lack of intemet access can hinder communication, especially in remote or offline environments. Lack of Standardization: © Different email clients and services may interpret formatting differently, leading to inconsistencies in the appearance of emails. This lack of standardization can affect the visual presentation of messages. Storage and Archiving Challenges: © Managing large volumes of emails over time can lead to storage challenges, Users may need to regularly archive or delete old emails to free up space, impacting long-term accessibility. Phishing and Social Engineering: © Email is a common vector for phishing attacks and social engineering schemes. Users must be vigilant to avoid falling victim to deceptive tactics aimed at obtaining sensitive information. Limited Interactivity: © While email supports rich text and multimedia, it has limitations in terms of interactivity. It is not suitable for real-time collaboration or dynamic interactions that are possible with otherCN&CC : Unit 4 Introduction to Cloud Computing Q.1. Explain deployment Models of Cloud computing. Public cloud: This is the most popular model, where resources like compute, storage, and network are shared by multiple users over the internet, Public cloud providers like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform (GCP) offer a vast array of services, from infrastructure as a service (laa) and platform as a service (PaaS) to software as a service (SaaS). Public clouds are ideal for organizations seeking scalability, cost-effectiveness, and rapid deployment. However, they offer less control and customization compared to other models. © Key Characteristics: Shared resources among multiple users. Cost-effective with a pay-as-you-go model Easily sealable and flexible ‘© Use Case: Public clouds are suitable for applications with variable workloads, development and t ing environments, and services that don’t require stringent security and compliance measures. Private cloud: This model offers ded ed resources within @ firewall for a Single organization, Private clouds can be hosted on-premises or managed by a third-party provider. They provide greater control, security, and privacy compared to public clouds but often require higher upfront costs and ongoing management. © Key Characteristics: © Exclusive use by a single organization, Greater control over infrastructure and security. © Customization to meet specific business needs. ‘© Use Case: Private clouds are ideal for organizations with striet security and compliance requirements, sensitive data, and mission-critieal applications Hybrid cloud: This model combines elements of both public and private clouds. A hybrid cloud allows an organization to utilize the benefits 6f gach model, such as using the public cloud for burstable workloads and the private cloud for sensitive data, Hybrid (clouds offer flexibility and scalability while maintaining control and security. © Key Characteristics: ‘© Integfation of on-premises infrastructure with cloud services. ‘© Scamless data and application portability. ‘© Balancing cost-effectiveness and security. ‘© Use Case: Hybrid clouds are suitable for businesses with fluctuating workloads, data sensitivity concerns, and a need for both scalability and control, Q.2. Explain Cloud Computing Architecture . Cloud computing architecture is divided into the following two parts - © Front End ‘The front end is used by the client. It contains client-side interfaces and applications that are required to access the cloud computing platforms. The front end includes web servers (including Chrome, Firefox, internet explorer, etc.), thin & fat clients, tablets, and mobile devices,@ Back End Client Side Inffastructure The back end is used by the service provider. It manages all the resources that are required to provide l cloud computing services. It includes a huge amount Internet) Front end of data storage, security mechanism, virtual machines, deploying models, servers, traffic control mechanisms, ete. Appiction Components of Cloud Computing Architecture Management Rn seorty || pacuend There are the following components of cloud computing architecture - > 1. Client Infrastructure Client Infrastructure is a Front end component. It provides GUI (Graphical User Interface) to interact with the cloud, 2, Application The application may be any software or platform that a client wants 10 access. 3. Service ‘A Cloud Services manages that which type of service you aeeess aécording to the client’s requirement. Cloud computing offers the following three type of services: i, Software as a Service (SaaS) ~ It is also known as cloud application services. Mostly, SaaS applications run directly through the web browser means we do not require to download and install these applications. Some important example of SaaS is given below Example: Google Apps, Salesforce Dropbox, Slack, Hubspot, Cisco WebEx. ii, Platform as a Service (PaaS) — It is‘also known as cloud platform services. It is quite similar to SaaS, but the difference is that PaaS provides a platform for software creation, but using SaaS, we can access software over the internet without the need of any platform. Example: Windows Azure, Foree.com, Magento Commerce Cloud, OpenShif iii, Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) ~ It is also known as cloud infrastructure services. It is responsible for managing applications data; middleware, and runtime environments. Example: Amazon Web Services (AWS) EC2, Google Compute Engine (GCE), Cisco Metapod. 4, Runtime Cloud Runtime Cloud provides the execution and runtime environment to the virtual machines. 5. Storage Storage is one of the most important components of cloud computing. It provides a huge amount of storage capacity in the cloud to store and manage data. 6. Infrastructure It provides services on the host level, application level, and network level. Cloud infrastructure includes hardware and software components such as servers, storage, network devices, virtualization software, and other storage resources that are needed to support the cloud computing model.7. Management ‘Management is used to manage components such as application, service, runtime cloud, storage, infrastructure, and other security issues in the backend and establish coordination between them. 8, Security Security is an in-built back end component of cloud computing. It implements a security mechanism in the back end. 9. Internet The Internet is a medium through which the front end and back end can interact and communicate with each other. Q.3. Explain Risks & benefits of Cloud Computing. Benefits: Accessibili Access files and software from anywhere with an internet Connection, making collaboration and remote work easier. Cost-effecti : Use resources on-demand, paying only for what you use, eliminating the need for expensive hardware and software upfront. Scalability: Easily scale resources up or down as your projeét needs change, allowing you to handle large datasets and complex simulations. Flexibility: Choose from a wide variety of cloud services, including virtual machines, storage, databases, and software applications, to meet your specific needs. Collaboration: Share data and applications with teammates seamlessly, facilitating teamwork and project completion. Security: Cloud providers often offer robust security measures, keeping your data safe and protected. Up-to-date software: Cloud serviées are automatically updated with the latest features and bug. fixes, ensuring you always have'access to the latest technology. Security: Data breaches andisecurity vulnerabilities are a concern, requiring careful selection of cloud providers and strong password practices. Vendor lock-in: Switching cloud providers can be difficult and time-consuming, potentially making you dependent on a specifie provider. Limited control: You have less control over the underlying infrastructure and software compared to on-premises solutions. Intemet dependence: Constant internet connectivity is crucial for accessing cloud resources, making you vulnerable to outages or disconnections. Cost management: Cloud costs can escalate quickly if not managed properly, requiring careful budgeting and monitoring. Privacy concerns: Cloud providers collect and store user data, raising privacy concerns that need to be considered.Q.4,Enlist different advantages and disadvantages of Cloud Computing. Advantages: © Cost-effective: Pay-as-you-go model eliminates upfront hardware costs and maintenance expenses. Scalability: Easily adapt resources up or down to meet changing needs. Accessibility: Access data and applications from anywhere with an internet connection. Security: Cloud providers offer robust security measures. Flexibility: Choose from a wide range of services and configurations. Collaboration: Team members can work on projects together seamlessly. © Disaster recovery: Cloud-based backups ensure data availability in case of disasters. ‘© Up-to-date software: Cloud services automatically update with the latest features and fixes. Disadvantages: © Security concerns: Data breaches and vulnerabilities are risks. Vendor lock-in: Switching cloud providers can be difficult and time-consuming. Limited control: You have less control over the underlying infrastructure Intemet dependence: Constant internet connectivity is essential, Cost management: Cloud costs can escalate quickly if not monitored. © Privacy concems: Cloud providers may collect and store user data. Performance limitations: Network latency cam impact perforinance for some applications. ‘Compliance considerations: May not meet all regulatory compliance requirements, Q.5. Describe Risks and Challenges of Cloud Computing. Cloud computing offers remarkable benefits, but it also presents inherent risks and challenges. Recognizing and proactively addressing these concerns is cruial for suecessful cloud adoption, Security Concems: © Data breaches and yulnerabilities pose a significant threat, as cloud providers manage sensitive information. ‘© Careful selection of providers with robust security measures and data protection protocols is paramount. ¢ Implementing encryption, aecess controls, and robust authentication procedures further mitigates risks. ‘Vendor Lock-in: ‘© Switching cloud providers can be complex and costly due to data migration difficulties and platform dependencies. © This can limit flexibility and potentially lead to higher costs over time. ‘© Carefully considering vendor lock-in potential and negotiating flexible contracts are crucial Limited Control: © Cloud users cede some control over the underlying infrastructure and software to the provider. ‘© This can restrict customization capabilities and complicate troubleshooting. ‘© Establishing clear service level agreements (SLAs) and maintaining open communication with the provider can mitigate this challenge.Internet Dependence: © Continuous internet connectivity is essential for accessing cloud resources. ‘© Outages or disconnections can disrupt operations, leading to data loss and productivity declines. © Investing in reliable internet infrastructure and implementing backup solutions are critical. ‘Cost Management: © Cloud costs can escalate quickly if not monitored and managed proactively. ‘© Implementing comprehensive cost management strategies, including budget controls and usage monitoring, is essential. ‘© Utilizing cloud cost optimization tools and negotiating cost-effective contracts ean also help. Privacy Concerns ‘© Cloud providers collect and store user data, raising privacy concerns, ‘© Understanding provider data privacy policies and implementing strong data govemance practices is crucial. ‘© Ensuring compliance with relevant data privacy regulations is also essential. Performance Limitations: ‘* Network latency can impact the performance of some appli¢ations hosted in the cloud, particularly those requiring low latency or high bandwidth. © Choosing geographically appropriate cloud regions and utilizing content delivery networks (CDNs) can mitigate these limitations. Q.6. Write a Note on Data Center Components. ‘A data center is a centralized facility that houses computing and networking equipment for the storage, processing, management, and dissemination of data>It comprises various components working in harmony to ensure reliability, efficiency, and scalability. Here is an overview of key data center components: 1. Servers: ‘© Servers, whether hardware or software, provide essential functionality to the data center. They enable the processing and storage of data, typically housed in server racks. 2. Networking: ‘* Networking equipment facilitates the storage and processing of applications and data by handling tasks such as switching, routing, load balancing, and analytics. 3. Storage: ‘© Data center storage encompasses technologies, software, and devices crucial for storing data and applications within the data center infrastructure. 4, Software: ‘© Software, the non-physical component of a computer system, includes programs and routines essential for the efficient operation of the data center. 5. Cabling Infrastructure: © The foundation of data centers lies in the cabling infrastructure, enabling critical power and data transmissions, Proper management is vital to prevent issues like downtime and excessive expenses.6. Power Infrastructure: ‘© Physical infrastructure components, such as rack PDUs, remote power panels, busways, floor PDUs, and. UPSS, provide the necessary power to IT equipment. Backup power, often from a fuel generator, mini izes downtime risks. 7. Cooling Infrastructure: ‘© Cooling equipment, like computer room air conditioning (CRAC) and computer room air handler (CRAH) units, ensures the data center maintains an optimal temperature, preventing critical IT equipment from overheating, 8. Physical Security: ‘© Data center security includes measures like alarms, electronic door locks, biometric scanners, and other safety features. These are essential for safeguarding the data and assets stored within the facility. Q.7. How to maintain Security in the Cloud . Here are several key strategies for maintaining robust security in the cloud: I. Identity and Access Management (IAM), ‘¢ Implement robust [AM solutions to control user access and permis © Utilize mull factor authentication (MFA) for an added layer of securit ‘© Implement the principle of least privilege, granting users access only to the resources they need to perform their tasks © Regularly monitor and review user access logs to identify potential anomalies. 2. Data Security: ‘© Encrypt data at rest and in transit to protect it against unauthorized access. ‘© Utilize strong encryption algorithms and key management practices. ‘© Implement data loss prevention (DLP) solutions to prevent sensitive data from being exfiltrated. © Regularly back up your data to a secure location for 3. System Hardening and Updates: © Regularly update your software, operat isaster recovery purposes. 1g systems, and cloud platform to address known vulnerabilities, * Harden your cloud instances by disabling unnecessary services and configuring security settings appropriately ‘© Monitor system logs for suspicious activity and take immediate action when necessary. 4, Network Security: ‘© Implement firewalls and other network security controls to restrict access to your cloud resources. ‘© Utilize intrusion detection and prevention systems (IDS/IPS) to identify and mitigate potential threats. ‘© Regularly monitor network traffic for anomalies and investigate any suspicious activity. 5. Cloud Provider Selecti © Choose a reputable cloud provider with a strong track record of security. ‘¢ Review the provider's security policies and procedures to ensure they meet your requirements, ‘© Understand the shared responsibility model and your responsibilities for data security. 6. Risk Management and Compliance: © Conduct regular risk assessments to identify and prioritize potential threats.‘© Develop a comprehensive security incident and response plan (IRP) to address security incidents effectively. ¢ Implement data privacy controls and comply with relevant regulations. 7. Sceurity Awareness and Training: © Provide regular security awareness training for all employees who access cloud resources. ‘© Educate employees on best practices for secure cloud usage, including password hygiene and phishing awareness. ‘© Encourage employees to report any suspicious a 8. Continuous Monitoring and Improvement: vity they may encounter, ‘* Regularly monitor your cloud environment for potential security risks ‘© Use security logging and analyties tools to gain insights into user aetivity and identity potential threats. © Conduct vulnerability scans and penetration tests to identify and address weaknesses in your cloud infrastructure. © Continuously review and update your security posture based on evolving threats and best practices Q.8. What is SLA? Explain life of SLA? ‘A Service Level Agreement (SLA) is the bond for performance negotiated between the cloud services provider and the client. Earlier, in cloud computing all Service Level Agreements were negotiated between a client and the service a consumer. Nowadays, with the initiation of large utility-like cloud (7 Provider ™ computing providers, most Service Level Agreements are a standardized until a client becomes a large consumer of cloud su services. SLA Steps in SLA Lifecycle Lifecycle 1. Discover service provider: This step involves identifying a [5 yerminate sestablsh service provider that can meet the needs of the organization sta [Agreement and has the capability to provide the required service. This wy “amonkor J can be done through research, requesting proposals, or vVistion reaching out to vendorss 2, Define SLA: In this step, the service level requirements are defined and agreed upon between the service provider and the organization. This includes defining the service level objectives, metrics, and targets that will be used to measure the performance of the service provider, 3. Establish Agreement: After the service level requirements have been defined, an agreement is established between the organization and the service provider outlining the terms and conditions of the service. This agreement should include the SLA, any penalties for non-compliance, and the process for monitoring and reporting on the service level objectives. 4, Monitor SLA violation: This step involves regularly monitoring the service level objectives to ensure that the service provider is meeting their commitments. If any violations are identified, they should be reported and addressed in a timely manner,5, Terminate SLA: If the service provider is unable to meet the service level objectives, or if the organization is not satisfied with the service provided, the SLA can be terminated. This can be done through mutual agreement or through the enforcement of penalties for non-compliance 6. Enforce penalties for SLA Violation: If the service provider is found to be in violation of the SLA, penalties can be imposed as outlined in the agreement. These penalties can include financial penalties, reduced service level objectives, or termination of the agreement. Q.9. Give details of Economic models in cloud computing. Economies of Cloud Computing is based on the PAY AS YOU GO method. Users/Customers must have to pay only for their way of the usage of the cloud services. It is definitely benefigial for the tisers. So the Cloud is economically very convenient for all, Another side is to eliminate sonte indirect €osts which are generated by assets such as license of the software and their support. In the cloud, users cause software applications on a subscription basis without any cost because the property of the software providing service remains to the cloud provider. Key Economic Models: 1. Pay-As-You-Go (PAYG): This widely adopted model charges users based on their actual consumption of resources, including CPU, storage, and network bandwidth. It offers flexibility and scalability, making it ideal for applications with fluctuating workloads. Examples inelude Amazon EC2, Microsoft Azure VMs, and Google Compute Engine, 2. Flat Rate: This model provides a fixed monthly fee for a predetermined set of resources, offering predictable costs and suitability for applications with consistent resource needs. Examples include Amazon RDS, Microsoft Azure App Service, and Google Cloud SQL. 3. Reserved Instances: Users can purchase reserved instances of resources for a specific period at discounted rates compared to PAYG. This model offers significant cost savings for long-term, predictable workloads. Examples include Amazon EC2 Reserved Instances, Microsoft Azure Reserved VM Instances, and Google Committed Use Discounts. 4, Spot Instances: This model provides access to unused or spare resources at significantly lower prices than PAYG. However, these resources are available on an interruptible basis and can be terminated at any time by the cloud provider. This model is suitable for fault-tolerant applications and batch jobs. Examples include Amazon EC2 Spot Instances, Microsoft Azure Spot VMs, and Google Preemptible VMs. 5. Hybrid Model: This model combines elements of different pricing models to offer a customized solution. For example, a business might combine PAYG and reserved instances to accommodate both predictable and unpredictable workloads. This provides flexibility and cost optimization based on specific needs.6, Subscription-Based: This model charges a recurring monthly fee for access to a cloud service or platform. It is suitable for SaaS (Software as a Service) offerings where users don't need to manage infrastructure, Examples include Salesforce, Microsoft Office 365, and Google Workspace. 7. Usage-Based: This model charges users based on their specific feature or function usage within a cloud service: Examples include Amazon $3 storage charges based on the amount of data stored and Google Cloud Functions charges based on the number of invocations. Q.10. Write a Short Note on Cloud Stack . The cloud stack is a comprehensive term encompassing the various layers and services that make up the cloud computing infrastructure. It's essentially a multi-layered architecture that provides businesses and individuals with on-demand aceess to computing resources, platforms, and software applications. Infrastructure as a Service (laaS): © At the base of the cloud stack, IaaS provides fundamental computing resources such as virtual machines, storage, and networking. Users have control over the operating system, applications, and configurations, offering flexibility and scalability. Populat'laaS providers include Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform (GCP), Platform as a Service (PaaS): ‘© The middle layer of the stack, PaaS abstracts away the complexities of infrastructure management, focusing on providing a platform for application development and deployment. Developers can concentrate on coding without dealing with underlying infrastructure concerns. Examples of PaaS offerings include Heroku, Google App Engine, and Microsoft Azure App Service. Software as a Service (SaaS): © Positioned at the top of the stack, SaaS delivers ready-to-use software applications over the internet. Users access, applications without worrying about installation, maintenance, or infrastructure management. Common SaaS examples encompass email services like Gmail. collaboration tools like Microsoft 365, and customer relationship management (CRM) solutions like Salesforce. Q.11. Define Cloud and Explain Evolution of Cloud Computing. Cloud computing refers to the delivery of computing services, including storage, processing power, and applications, over the internet. Users can access and utilize these resources without the need for physical infrastructure, and services are often provided on a pay-as-you-go basis by cloud service providers. The evolution of cloud computing can be bifurcated into three basic phases: © The Idea Phase: This phase began in the early 1960s with the emergence of utility and grid computing and lasted till pre-internet bubble era. Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider was the founder of cloud computing. ‘© The Pre-cloud Phase: The pre-cloud phase originated in 1999 and extended to 2006, In this phase the internet is the mechanism to provide Application as Service. ‘© The Cloud Phase: The much talked about real cloud phase started in the year 2007 when the classification of IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS development got formalized. The history of cloud computing has witnessed some very interesting breakthroughs launched by some of the leading computer/web organizations of the world,Q.12. Define Cloud Computing with Service Providers . Cloud Computing Definition: Cloud computing is a model for delivering computing services over the internet, allowing users to access and utilize resources like storage, processing power, and applications on a pay-as-you-go basis. It eliminates the need for organizations to invest in and manage physical infrastructure, providing scalability, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness. Example of Service Providers: Amazon Web Services (AWS): © Offers a wide range of cloud services, including computing power, storage, databases, machine learning, and more. © Example Service: Amazon EC2 (Elastic Compute Cloud) provides sealable virtual servers. Microsoft Azure: © Provides a comprehensive set of cloud services, such as virtual machines, databases, Al, and analytics, ‘© Example Service: Azure Virtual Machines for scalable computing resources, Google Cloud Platform (GCP): © Offers cloud services for computing, storage, machine learning, and data analytics. © Example Service: Google Cloud Storage for scalable object storage. TBM Cloud: ‘* Provides cloud solutions for computing, data Storage, and AL © Example Service: IBM Cloud Virtual Servers for scalable computing resources. Oracle Cloud: © Offers cloud services for computing, databases, and applications ‘© Example Service: Oracle Autonomous Database for self-driving, self-securing databases.CN&CC : Unit 5 Virtualization and Cloud Services Qa. Explain Communication as a Service Communication-as-a-Service (CaaS) is a cloud-based service that provides various communication features such ‘communication ee as voice, video, text, and conferencing to customers. CaaS o ho vendors own, manage, and colocate the communication voce a assets that enable these features. Customers can access these features through the inteet without investing in or maintaining the communication infrastructure. CaaS is a type of Software as a Service (SaaS), which is one of the three basic services delivered by cloud computing technology. Some of the benefits of CaaS are: CAINE as a Service (Cas) © It offers integrated and unified communication in Cloud Computing features that can enhance collaboration and productivity among users. © It reduces the cost and risk of obsolescence for eustomers, as they only pay for the features they use and the vendors are responsible for updating and maintaining the communication assets. © It provides flexibility and scalability for customiers, as they can adjust their communication needs according to their business requirements and demand fluctuations. Some of the challenges of CaaS are: # It depends on the availability and reliability of the internet connection, which may affect the quality and security of the communication Services. © It may require compatibility and integration with the existing communication systems and applications of the customers. © It may face regulatory and compliance issues in different regions and countries, especially regarding data privacy and protection. Q.2. Explain Infrastructure as a Service . Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)jis a type of cloud computing service that offers essential compute, storage, and networking resources on demand, on a pay-as-you-go basis. IaaS is one of the four types of cloud services, along with software as a service (SaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and serverless. JaaS eliminates the need for enterprises to procure, configure, or manage infrastructure themselves, and they only pay for what they use, A cloud computing service provider like Azure, Google Cloud, or Oracle manages the infrastructure, while you purchase, install, configure, and manage your own software—including operating systems, middleware, and applications. IaaS helps you reduce maintenance of on-premises data centers, save money on hardware costs, and gain real-time business insights. laaS solutions give you the flexibility to scale your IT resources up and down with demand, They also help you quickly provision new applications and increase the reliability of your underlying infrastructure,IaaS provider provides the following services - 1, Compute: Computing as a Service includes virtual om central processing units and virtual main memory for the Vins that is provisioned to the end- users 2) 2. Storage: IaaS provider provides back-end storage for storing files. 3. Network: Network as a Service (NaaS) provides networking components such as routers, switches, and bridges for the Vs, 4, Load balancers: It provides load balancing capability at the infrastructure layer. Q3. Monitoring asa Service. Monitoring as @ Service (MaaS) is a cloud-based service that offers comprehensive monitoring and management of IT infrastructure, applications, and systems over the internet. This model provides organizations with the capability to monitor various aspeets of their technology environment, including servers, networks, databases, and applications, without the need for esting in dedicated monitoring tools or infrastructure. MaaS platforms typically employ advanced monitoring tools and analytics to collect, analyze, and visualize data related to the performance, availability, and security. of the monitored resources. These services often offer customizable dashboards, real-time alerts, and reports, enabling organizations to gain insights into the health and performance of their systems. By outsourcing monitoring functions to MaaS providers, businesses can benefit from proactive identification of potential issues, early detection of anomalies, and predictive analysis to prevent downtime and optimize performance. Additionally, MaaS allows for scalability, as organizations can easily adjust monitoring resources based on evolving needs and dynamic workloads, ensuring efficient operations across their IT landscape. Monitoring as a Service conttibutes to cost-effectiveness by eliminating the need for in-house monitoring infrastructure and éxpertisepIt offers a convenient and centralized approach to monitoring, allowing organizations to focus on their core operations while relying on specialized service providers to ensure the reliability and performance of their IT infrastructure and applications. Monitoring as a service examples ‘* Website monitoring. A company may use MaaS to offload the management of their websites, which may include monitoring website uptime and page load times. © Security monitoring. monitoring a network for security threats, such as unauthorized access attempts, malware activities, and other potential security breaches, and then alerting the IT security team. © Cloud infrastructure monitoring. For businesses operating in the cloud, MaaS can offer monitoring of cloud resources, such as virtual machines, storage, and databases, ensuring optimal use of cloud services and quick response to issues.Q.4. Explain Platform as a Service . Platform as a Service (PaaS) provides a runtime environment. It allows programmers to easily create, test, run, and deploy web applications. You can purchase these applications from a cloud service provider on a pay-as-per use basis and access them using the Internet connection. In PaaS, back end scalability is managed by the cloud service provider, so end- users do not need to worry about managing the infrastructure. PaaS includes infrastructure (servers, storage, and networking) and platform (middleware, development tools, database management systems, business intelligence, and more) to support the web application life cycle. Example: Google App Engine, Force.com, Joyent, Azure. PaaS providers provide the Programming languages, Application frameworks, Databases, and Other tools 1. Programming languages PaaS providers provide various programming languages for the developers to develop the applications. Some popular programming languages provided by PaaS providers are Java, PHP, Ruby, Perl, and Go. 2. Application frameworks PaaS providers provide application frameworks to easily understand the application development. Some popular application frameworks provided by PaaS providers are Node,js, Drupal, Joomla, WordPress, Spring, Play, Rack, and Zend, 3. Databases PaaS providers provide various databases such as ClearDB, PostgreSQL, MongoDB, and Redis to communicate with the applications. 4, Other tools PaaS providers provide various other tools that are required to develop, test, and deploy the applications. Q.5. Explain Software as a Service . SaaS is also known as "On-Demand Software". It is a software distribution model in which services are hosted by a cloud service provider. These services ate available to end-users over the internet ‘SaaS so, the end-users do not need to install any software on their devices to access these services. There are the following services provided by SaaS providers - ‘© Business Services - SaaS Provider provides various business services to start-up the business. The SaaS business services include ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), CRM (Customer Relationship Management), billing, and sal© Document Management - saa$ document management is a software application offered by a third party (SaaS providers) to create, manage, and track electronic documents, Example: Slack, Samepage, Box, and Zoho Forms. Social Networks - As we all know, social networking sites are used by the general public, so social networking service providers use SaaS for their convenience and handle the general public's information. Mail Services - To handle the unpredictable number of users and load on e-mail services, many e-mail providers offering their services using SaaS. Q.6. Case Study of Amazon EC2. Amazon EC2, or Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud, is a cloud computing service proyided by Amazon Web Services (AWS). It allows users to rent virtual servers, known as instanees, in the cloud. EC2 provides s lable computing capacity, enabling users to run applications and services without the need to invest in physical hardware, Key features of Amazon EC2 include: L Instances: Users can choose from various types of instances based on their computing needs, such as ‘general-purpose, memory-optimized, and GPU instances Scalability: EC2 offers the flexibility to scale computing resources up or down based on demand, Users can easily add or remove instances to match their application's requirements. Configurability: Users have control over the operating system, instance type, storage, and networking configurations of their EC2 instances. his allows for customization to meet specific application requirements. ing Model: EC2 follows a pay-as-you-go pricing model, where users pay for the compute capacity they consume. There are various pricing options, including On-Demand Instances, Reserved Instances, and Spot Instances. Security: EC2 instances can be launched within a Virtual Private Cloud (VPC), providing network isolation, Users can configure security groups and network access control s (ACLs) to control inbound and outbound traffic, Storage Options: EC2 instances can be attached to different types of storage, such as Amazon EBS (Elastic Block Store) for persistent block storage and instance store for temporary storage, Global Availability: EC2 is available in multiple regions globally, allowing users to deploy instances close to their end-users for improved performance and reliability. Integration with Other AWS Services: EC2 integrates seamlessly with other AWS services, such as Amazon $3 for storage, AWS Lambda for serverless computing, and Amazon RDS for managed databases. Amazon EC2 is widely used by businesses and developers to run applications, host websites, and perform various computing tasks in a scalable and cost-effective manner. It provides the foundation for building and deploying a wide range of cloud-based solutions,Q.7. Explain Amazon AWS. What is AWS? © AWS stands for Amazon Web Services. © The AWS service is provided by Amazon that uses distributed IT infrastructure to provide different IT resources available on demand, It provides different services such as infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS) and packaged software as a service (SaaS). © Amazon launched AWS, a cloud computing platform to allow the different organizations to take advantage of reliable IT infrastructure Uses of AWS. © A small manufacturing organization uses thi expertise to expand their business by leaving their IT management to the AWS. © A large enterprise spread across the globe can | 3 utilize the AWS to deliver the training to the distributed workforce. © An architecture consulting company can use AWS to get the high-compute rendering of a Sas construction prototype © A media company can use the AWS to provide different types of content such as ebox or audio files to the worldwide files. Pay-As-You-Go Based on the concept of Pay-As-You-Go, AWS provides the services to the customers. AWS provides services to customers when required without any prior commitment or upfront investment. Pay-As-You-Go enables the customers to procure services from AWS. © Computing © Programming models © Database storage Compating Programming Models © Networking Q.8. Explain Different Cloud Services with Suitable Examples . 1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): ‘© Definition: laa’ provides virtualized computing resources over the internet, allowing users to rent virtual machines, storage, and networking, © Examples: © Amazon EC2 (Elastic Compute Cloud): Offers sealable virtual servers. ‘© Microsoft Azure Virtual Machines: Provides on-demand computing resources. ‘® Google Compute Engine: Allows users to run virtual machines on Google's infrastructure. 2. Platform as a Service (PaaS): © Definition: PaaS delivers a platform that includes operating systems, development frameworks, databases, and other tools for application development and deployment. © Examples: © Heroku: Offers a platform for building, deploying, and scaling applications. © Google App Engine: Provides a platform for developing and hosting applications. © Microsoft Azure App Service: Supports building, deploying, and sealing web apps.3. Software as a Service (SaaS): © Definition: SaaS delivers software applications over the internet, eliminating the need for users to install, manage, and maintain the applications locally. © Examples: ‘© Salesforce: A cloud-based customer relationship management (CRM) platform. * Microsoft 365 (formerly Office 365): Offers cloud-based productivity tools like Word and Excel * Google Workspace: Includes cloud-based collaboration and productivity tools like Gmail and Google Docs