ELECTRIC VEHICLES (OPEN ELECTIVE- I)

Sem-VI
Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute,
Matunga, Mumbai

Dr. B. B. Pimple
b_pimple@spce.ac.in
Department of Electrical Engineering
Sardar Patel College of Engineering Andheri (West)
1
Energy Storage:

Energy storages are the devices that accept energy, store energy and deliver energy.

Ex: Chemical batteries, supercapacitors (ultracapacitors) and ultrahigh-speed

flywheels.

• Fuel Cell is a energy converter.

Main requirements for an energy storage of an EV:

1. Specific energy 2. Specific power 3. Efficiency

5. Cost 6. safety.
4. Maintenance requirement
7. Environmental adaptation and friendliness
2
 Electrochemical Batteries:

• Made of cells which convert chemical energy into electrical energy during
discharging and electrical energy into chemical energy during charging.

• The output voltage of a cell is usually in the range of 3.1 to 4.0 V.

• To meet the required ‘V’ and current ‘I’ ratings, cells are connected in series and
parallel to form a standard module

• Modules are connected in series and parallel, called as battery pack

• Various batteries that are used in EV’s are

1. Lead acid 2. Nickel based batteries 3. Lithium Ion 4. Lithium polymer

3
Battery Cell Components:

Negative electrode
Positive electrode
Ion
• A battery cell consists of five major components: immigration

1. Two Electrodes: Anode and cathode

Eletrolyte

2. Electrolyte 3. Separators 4. Terminals 5. Enclosure.

Basic battery cell
• The electrolyte may be liquid, gel, or solid material.

• Traditional batteries such as lead-acid and nickel cadmium use liquid electrolytes.

• Modern batteries such as lithium-ion batteries and nickel metal-hydride (NiMH) use gel, paste,
or resin as an electrolyte.

• Lithium-polymer batteries use a solid as electrolyte.

Separator: An insulating layer that physically separates electrodes of opposite polarity. 4

Battery Parameters:
• Cell and Battery Voltages: All electric cells have nominal voltages which give the approximate
voltage when the cell is delivering electrical power.

• When a current is given out, the voltage will fall; on charging, the voltage will rise.

• This is represented as internal resistance, R and the equivalent circuit of a battery voltage of E,
and terminal voltage of V.

• When battery discharges a current of I, V = E - IR

+ R +I
• When battery charges with a current of I, V = E + IR
E V Load

-
Equivalent circuit of a battery 5
Battery Capacity:

• It specifies the amount of electric charge a battery can supply before it is fully discharged.

• The SI unit for the charge is Coulomb.

• One Coulomb of charge is said to be transferred when 1A flows for 1 second.

• EV batteries require large amount of power and unit of Coulomb is small.

• Battery capacity is expressed in Amp-hour.

• A charge of 1 Amp-hour is said to be transferred when 1 Ampere flows for one hour.

• If a battery has a capacity of 10 Ah, it can provide 1A for 10 hours, or 2A for 5 hours, or, 10A
for 1 hour.
• 6
Energy Stored:

• The energy stored in a battery depends on its voltage and the amount charge stored.
E (Wh) = V × C

where V is the voltage and C is the capacity in Ah.

• The SI unit of energy is Joule which is small and expressed in Watthour (Wh).

• One Watthour is equivalent to 3600 J.

• The capacity of the battery changes with the discharge rate, and the associated discharging
current affects the voltage value.

• The energy stored is thus not a constant quantity and is a function voltage and capacity of the
battery.
7
State of Charge (SoC): It is a measure of the residual capacity of a battery.

• If the battery is charged with a charging current of i(t) during time t0 to t, a battery will hold an
electric charge of
t
Q =  i (t )dt
t0

• The total charge that the battery can hold is given by

t2

Qo =  i (t )dt
t0

where t2 is the cutoff time when the battery no longer takes any further charge.
t1

 i(t )dt
t0
SOC(t ) = *100
Q
• Typically, the battery SOC is maintained between 20 and 95%. 8
Depth of Discharge (DoD): It is the percentage of battery capacity to which a battery is
t1
discharged.
Qo −  I b (t )dt
t0
DOD(t ) = *100
Qo
A battery is prevented from having a low DOD.

The withdrawal of at least 80% of battery capacity is regarded as a deep discharge.

A battery should never be discharged to zero voltage which will result in permanent damage.

Specific Energy: It is the amount of electrical energy stored per unit weight of a battery.
Energy source Specific energy (Wh/kg)
Lead acid battery 35
Nickel metal hydride battery 50
Lithium-ion battery 120
Lithium-polymer battery 200
Natural gas 9350
Gasoline 12500
Hydrogen 33000 9
• Energy Density: Amount of electrical energy stored per unit battery volume..

• Specific Power: Amount of power can be supplied per unit weight of battery.

• Higher specific power indicates that it can give and take energy quickly.

Electric charge given out during discharging

Amp-hour efficiency =
Electric charge needed to return to previous state

Electric energy supplied by battery

Energy efficiency =
Energy needed to return to previous state
10
Lead Acid Battery:
This type of battery is the earliest and the most widely used in automotive applications.

One of the plates is made of lead while the other plate is made of lead dioxide.

The electrolyte is composed of sulfuric acid.

These batteries can last a long time if they are charged and discharged properly.

Lead acid batteries have very high recyclability with good recycling infrastructure.

The chemical equation during discharge is

PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 → 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

During discharge, electrolyte and the active material on the battery plates are consumed and water
and lead sulphate are produced.
11
The chemical equation for a lead acid battery during charge is
2PbSO4 + 2H2O → PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4

During the charging process, electrical energy is absorbed by the battery, water and lead sulphate
are consumed and electrolyte and the active material at the plates are produced.

Nickel Metal Hydride Battery:

The NiMH battery is a new type of high-capacity battery.

The advantages include environmental friendliness, high specific energy and energy density, and a
long cycle life.

The NiMH battery has already occupied a good market share as energy storage in HEVs.

The overall reversible chemical reaction occurring in a NiMH cell is:

MH + NiOOH ⇔ M + Ni(OH)2
12
Lithium-Ion Battery:
In Li-ion batteries, Li ions alternatively move into and out of host lattices during charging and
discharging cycles.
Anode and cathode plates are made of lithium cobalt oxide (or lithium composites) and carbon.
These plates and the separator are immersed in a solvent which is most commonly ether.
This type of battery can be made with very high energy density.
The overall reversible chemical reaction occurring in a Li-ion cell is
LixC + Li1−xMyOz ⇔ C + LiMyOz
Comparison of energy storage technologies suitable for HEVs
Storage technology Cycle life Efficiency (%) Specific power Specific energy
(W/kg) (Wh/kg)
Lead acid battery 500–800 50–92 150–400 30–40
Li-ion battery 400–1200 80–90 300–1500 150–250
Nickel metal hydride 500–1000 66 250–1000 30–80
battery
Ultracapacitor 1 000 000 80 400 200 13
Fuel Cells:
Fuel Cell generates electrical energy using Hydrogen and oxygen by electrochemical process.

Hydrogen as a fuel has a specific energy of 33000.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell was invented in about 1840.

Research and development being carried out on fuel cells as possible alternative power sources for
a wide range of applications including distributed generation and EVs.

Yet fuel cells have not been successful as a popular Power Source.

The basic chemical reaction in fuel cell  2H 2 + O 2 → 2H 2 O + Energy

Main Limitations:
Hydrogen is very difficult to store and transport.
Hydrogen is not readily available as a raw fuel.
Components of Fuel Cell System:
• A complete fuel cell system is composed of following components:

1. Blowers 2. Fans 3. Ejectors 4. Pumps

5. Turbines 6. Compressors 7. Valves 8. Regulators.

• All these components work together to deliver and regulate the proper amounts of fuel and
ensure system safety.

• This management system is known as Balance of Plant (BoP).

Objectives of BoP:

1. Hydrogen fuel preparation 2. Air supply

3. Water management 4. Thermal management. 15

Operating Principles of Fuel Cell:
A fuel cell mainly consists of the following components:
1. Two plates act as anode and cathode 2. A polymeric membrane layer as an electrolyte
3. A catalyst to enable chemical reaction

Platinum catalyst and polymeric membrane layer are compressed between the plates.
The anode and cathode plates have channels to allow the reactant fuels. R
+ e -
When the reactant fuels flow through the channels and come
- Positive ions -
into contact with the catalyst, a chemical process takes place.

Cathode electode
Fuel - + -

Anode electode
Oxidant
On the anode side, when the pressurized hydrogen flows through - + - (O2 or air)
small channels, react with catalyst and splits the Hydrogen into - + -
+
(positive) hydrogen ions and (negative) electrons. - Electrolyte -
Exhaust

Basic operation of fuel cell

• The polymer electrolytic membrane allows only hydrogen ions to flow through and
blocks the electrons.

Therefore, the electrons are forced to pass through the external electric circuit.
• On the cathode side, when the oxygen comes in contact with with the catalyst, the bonded
oxygen atoms split into two atoms.

• Once the hydrogen ions have passed through the membrane, they join up with the oxygen
atoms.
• Two hydrogen ions with one oxygen atom and two electrons pass through the cathode resulting
in water vapor and heat.

• Performance of Fuel cell depends on the following parameters:

1. Temperature 2. Reactant gas 3. Stoichiometric flow rates

4. Anode and cathode pressures 5. Anode and cathode humidification.

Fuel Cell Types:
• The six major types of fuel cells are as follows:

1. Alkaline 2. Proton exchange membrane 3. Direct methanol

4. Phosphoric acid 5. Molten carbonate 6. Solid oxide.

Fuel Cell Powered Vehicles:

• Fuel cell-powered vehicle has longer driving range without requiring high capacity battery.

• Due to direct conversion of energy into electric energy, fuel cell vehicles have high energy
efficiency and much lower emissions compared to IC engine vehicles.

• Similar to batteries, individual fuel cells are connected in series/parallel to form a fuel cell
stack to achieve the desired voltage and current ratings.
Fuel Cell based Electric Vehicle:
Main components of fuel cell EV
1. Fuel storage system including a fuel processor to reform raw fuel to hydrogen,
2. Fuel cell stack and its control unit,
3. Power electronic converter and controller
4. Motor and drive transmission.

• The fuel cell has current source characteristics and the output voltage of a cell is low.

• Fuel cells have to be stacked in series to obtain a higher voltage level

• The fuel cell controller using voltage and current feedback information regulates the flow of
hydrogen into the fuel cell stack to achieve a reaction rate that delivers the required electrical
power with minimum excess hydrogen vented.
19
• The output voltage needs to be boosted in order to interface with the DC/AC inverter driving
an AC motor
• The voltage and current values shown to give an idea about the typical voltage ratings at
different stages of the system.

• The time constant of the fuel cell stack is much slower than that of the electrical load dynamics.

• A battery storage system is necessary to supply the power during transient and overload
conditions and also to absorb the reverse flow of energy due to regenerative braking.

Fuel cell Thermal Waste heat

controller management Wheel
Fuel 72 V 300 V 220 V, 3-ph, AC
supply Fuel H2 Fuel cell DC/DC
Inverter Motor
processor stack converter
250 A Battery
Wheel

Fuel Cell based Electric Vehicle 20

Ultracapacitors:

• EV/ HEVs start and stop frequently.

• Discharging and charging profile of the energy storage of EV/HEVs is highly varied.

• Average power required from the energy storage is much lower than the peak power.

• A vehicle needs peak power of relatively short duration during acceleration and at the time
of climbing.

• The ratio of the peak power to the average power can be over 10:1.

• In the city driving, energy involved in the acceleration and deceleration is approximately two
thirds of the total amount of energy.
• A battery has the characteristics of high energy density and relatively low power density.

• In practise, it is difficult to obtain high values of specific energy, specific power, and cycle life
the battery design.

• Battery design has to carry out the trade-off among the specific energy and specific power and
cycle life.
To realize high specific power and high specific energy, the energy storage systems are hybridized
by combining the different energy storages.

The energy sources such as batteries and fuel cells have high specific energy.

The power sources such as ultracapacitor and flywheel have high specific power.

By combining the these two types of devices, the energy in the battery can be optimized.

The power sources can be recharged from the energy source during less demanding driving.

In practice, the power sources are charged during regenerative braking.

Comparison of energy storage technologies suitable for HEVs
Storage technology Cycle life Efficiency (%) Specific power Specific energy
(W/kg) (Wh/kg)
Lead acid battery 500–800 50–92 150–400 30–40
Li-ion battery 400–1200 80–90 300–1500 150–250
Nickel metal 500–1000 66 250–1000 30–80
hydride battery
Ultracapacitor 1 000 000 90 1000-9000 0.5-3.0
Main Features of Ultra Capacitors

• An Ultra Capacitor (UC) is also known as a supercapacitor

• UC can store and release electrical energy faster than a battery.

• UC is an Double Layer Capacitor.

Compared to normal Solid State Capacitor: UC has long-lasting energy storage.

UC has large capacitance
UC has lower voltage limits.

• Ultracapacitors have a very long shelf life, with much lower maintenance requirements,
enhanced performance at low temperature, and environmental friendliness.

• The only drawback of UC is initial cost and relatively low energy density.
Basic Principle of Ultracapacitors
• Ultra Capacitor is an Electronic capacitor and mainly consists of
1. Current collectors 2. Electrodes 3. Electrolytes 4. Separators.

• UCs are made using double-layer capacitor technology.

• The separator isolates the two electrodes to prevent short circuit between the electrodes and
allows ions to pass through.

Collector Charger Collector

Polarizing electrodes
+ -
-
Ele
+
Se
+ - + -
par
-
ctr

+ - +
+ - -
ato
oly

+ - - + -
-
+ - +
r -
te

+ - -
- + + +
+ -
+ - + -
+ -
Electric double layers
+ -

Structure of UC
• UC stores electrical energy through the electric double-layer capacitance formed by the charge
separation on the interface between the electrolyte and the bath solution.

• Two carbon rods, are immersed in a thin sulfuric acid solution.

• If the applied voltage exceeds decomposition voltage 1.2 V, bubbles appear on the surface of
both the electrodes, indicating the charge accumulation.

• An electric double layer occurs at the boundary of

i +
Rs
electrode and electrolyte. iL

+ ic
RL Vt
C
-
• The electrons are charged across the double layer.
-
Equivalent circuit
The ultracapacitor’s SOC is easier to estimate than that of a battery because the voltage is the only
measurement needed (SOC is proportional to V2).

Also, ultracapacitors can be charged to a specific value and, due to their shelf life and charging
mechanism, they can hold that charge with virtually no loss.
Ultracapacitors provide more freedom in the DC link voltage or wherever else they are used
because their charge does not depend on a certain voltage.

2.5

Cell terminal voltage (V)

1.0
0.9 2.0
64% of energy

0.8
State of charge

available

0.7 1.5 50
0.6 A
0.5 1.0
0.4 100
0.3 0.5
40% of V
0.2 400 300200
0 600
0.1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Discharge time (sec)
2.5
Cell voltage (V) Discharge characteristics of 2600 F
SoC vs cell voltage of an UC Maxwell technologies ultra capacitor 27
 Technical specifications of Maxwell Technologies ultracapacitor cell and integrated modules
BCAP0010 BMOD0115 (Module) BMOD0117 (Module)
(cell)
Capacitance (F, ±20%) 2600 145 435
Max series resistance ESR at 25oC (mΩ) 0.7 10 4
Voltage (V) continuous peak 2.5 (2.8) 42 (50) 14 (17)
Specific power at rated voltage (W/kg) 4300 2900 1900
Specific energy at rated voltage (Wh/kg) 4.3 2.22 1.82
Max current (A) 600 600 600
Dimensions (mm) 60*172 195*165*415 (box) 195*265*145 (box)
(cylinder)
Weight (kg) 0.525 16 6.5
Volume (l) 0.42 22 7.5
Operating temperature (oC) -35 to +65 -35 to +65 -35 to +65
Storage temperature (oC) -35 to +65 -35 to +65 -35 to +65
Leakage current (mA), 12h, 25oC 5 10 10
Fly Wheel:

• Flywheel is a mechanical device which stores rotational energy (kinetic energy).

• Flywheel stores in a wheel which is made of composite materials.

• Flywheels are preferred in HEVs due to

• 1. Decouple specific power and specific energy requirements from the battery which optimizes
battery performance.

• 2. High power demand and high current discharge from battery are greatly reduced saving the
energy and increasing cycle life of battery.

• 3. Can allow rapid short recharges with high efficiency during periods of regenerative braking
and low power demand.
• 29
Flywheel transfer energy one form of into another.
JFW, ωFW
The mechanical energy stored in a flywheel can be expressed as
Vehicle
Jv, ωv
1 2 wheel
E = J Fly
2 wheel
where J is the moment of inertia and ω the rotational speed. A simple connection between
vehicle wheel and flywheel

The energy stored is proportional to the square of its rotational speed and inertia which depends
on mass.
The energy can be transferred from one wheel to another either mechanically or electrically.

If the energy is transferred mechanically, gear mechanism connects the load wheel and fly wheel.

If the energy is transferred electrically, a motor-generator set connects load wheel and fly wheel.
30
Fly Wheel with Gear Mechanism:
There are two sets of gears in the vehicle wheel shaft and the flywheel shaft
These gears slowly transfer the motion in a seamless manner.
With gear A having small diameter and gear a having large diameter, the flywheel will run slow.
With gear D having a large diameter and gear d having small diameter, the flywheel will run fast

Initially the gears Aa will mesh together and other gears will be displaced laterally.
The angular velocity will be such that the energy is conserved C
D

Jv A B
If the initial velocity of the wheel was ωv, then after Aa meshing,
ωv
the relationship at steady state should be
1 1 1 Vehicle JFW
J v v = J FW FW + J v v ( new )
2 2 2
wheel c d
b ωFW
2 2 2 a Fly
ωv(new), the vehicle wheel velocity after some transfer of motion, wheel
will be smaller than the original value ωv. Use of gears to transfer motion mechanically
from vehicle wheel to fly wheel and vice versa31
Fly Wheel Motor-Generator set:
The motor-generator set and the power converter serve as a continually variable transmission .

The set-up can transfer energy either load wheel to fly wheel or vice-versa.

If the motion is to be transferred from the load wheel to fly wheel, left electric machine will act as
generator and the power converter will energize the other right side machine.

If the motion is to be transferred from the fly wheel to

the load wheel, the right side machine will acts as
Converter/
generator and the left as motor. inverter
Jv JFW
ωv ωFW
Vehicle Fly
wheel wheel
Motor Generator
Motion transfer
Generator direction Motor
Electromechanical means to transfer motion
mechanically from vehicle wheel to fly wheel 32
Battery Management System (BMS):

• The BMS is a sophisticated power electronics system that monitors and

manages the battery pack.

• It ensures that each cell operates within safe limits, prevents overcharging or
discharging, and monitors the battery's temperature.

• The BMS plays a critical role in maximizing the battery pack's performance,
safety, and lifespan.