Chapter 2

Stress and Strain- Axial Loading

INTRODUCTION
σ
Stress and Strain

ε
σ
Repeated Loadings; Fatigue

CYCLES
Deformation of Members Under Axial Loading
A
B C
58

1.2 0.8

Statically Indeterminate Problems

A
B 58 C

1.2 0.8

Temperature Effects
A
ΔT =100 °C
B C

1.2 0.8

Introduction to Stress and Strain: Axial Loading 2-1

 Poisson’s Ratio
P

Multiaxial Loading; Generalized Hooke’s Law

σy

σx σx
σz
σy σy
Shearing Strain

σx σx

σz
σy

Saint-Venants Principle

P P P P

Stress Concentrations

P P P P

Introduction to Stress and Strain: Axial Loading

2-2
NORMAL STRAIN UNDER AXIAL LOADING

A B

δ
L
δ ε=
L
A
P

Normal Strain Under Axial Loading

2-3
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS
P P

σ σ σ

ε ε ε
Low-carbon steel Aluminum Alloy Brittle material

ε
True stess-strain diagram
(ductile material)

Hooke’s Law;
Modulus of Elasticity

σ = Eε

Stress-Strain Diagrams
2-4
REPEATED LOADINGS; FATIGUE

Steel ENDURANCE LIMIT- The stress for which

failure does not occur, even for an indefi-
nitely large number of loadings.
Al

FATIGUE LIMIT- The stress corresponding

to failure after a specified number of loading
cycles, such as 500 million.

Number of repeated cycles

Repeated Loadings; Fatigue 2-5

EXAMPLE
A 5 kN force is applied to a 25 m steel wire. Knowing that E= 200 GPa
and the wire stretches 19 mm, determine the (a) diameter of the wire,
(b) the corresponding normal stress.

2-6
EXAMPLE
A square aluminum bar should not stretch more than 1.6 mm.
Knowing that E= 70 GPa and the allowable tensile strength is 120
MPa, determine (a) the maximum allowable length of the bar, (b) the
required dimensions of the cross section if a tensile load of 32 kN is
applied.

2-7
EXAMPLE
B
The 5 mm diameter steel wire BC has
an E value of 200 GPa. If the 1
maximum normal stress in the wire is P
not to exceed 185 MPa and an
elongation of 6 mm, find the applied
load P. 1.9

A C

1.6

2-8
DEFORMATIONS OF MEMBERS UNDER AXIAL LOADINGS

A B

L
δ

A
P

PL
δ=
AE

Deformation of Members Under Axial Loadings

2-9
EXAMPLE
Knowing that rod AB has a diameter of 45 mm, determine the diameter
for BC for which the displacement of point C will be 3 mm. E= 105
GPa. Units: kN, m.
A
B C
58

1.2 0.8

2-10
EXAMPLE 1500
The 3” diameter rod AB is made of copper
(E= 17,000 ksi) and BC is made with C
aluminum (E= 10,000 ksi). Determine the
diameter of rod BC so that the displacement
42
of C is 0. Units: lbs, in.
6000
B

36

2-11
 Example
Determine the displacement at the end of the rod at point C. The
brass pipe section AB has an outside diameter of 75 mm and
thickness of 4 mm. The steel rod is attached to a rigid plate on the
top of the pipe. The steel rod BC has a diameter of 10 mm.
E (steel)= 200 GPa and E (brass)= 105 GPa. Units: kN, m.

60

2-12
 25
Example
The two steel bar segments, AB and BD, have A

cross-sectional areas of 2 and 5 in²,

respectively. At C a rigid thin plate is installed. 1 1
30
Determine the vertical displacement of A.
E= 29000 ksi. Units: kips, in. B

9 9 24

C
12
D

25 25 25

1 1 1 1

9 9

2-13
Example
Post AC is made of steel and has a diameter of 18 mm, and BD is
made of copper and has a diameter of 42 mm. Determine the
displacement of point E on the rigid beam AB. E(steel)= 200 GPa,
E(copper)= 120 GPa. Units: mm, kN
4000
1000
60

A E B

2200

C D

4000
1000
E B
A

2-14
Example
Two steel bars are pin-connected to a rigid member. Determine the
location where the 60 kN force should be applied so that the rigid
member AC remains horizontal . Bar AB has a cross-sectional area of
15 mm², and bar CD has a cross-sectional area of 25 mm². E(steel)=
200 GPa. Units: kN, mm.
2100

2000

1500

A C

x
60

2-15
Example
The horizontal rigid beam AB rests on the two short springs with the
same length. The spring at A has stiffness of 250 kN/m and the spring
at B has a stiffness of 150 kN/m. Determine the displacement under
the load. Units: kN, mm. 220 3.7

A C
B

900

900

A C
B

2-16
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

L
B P P

Statically Indeterminate Problems 2-17

EXAMPLE
The steel rod has a diameter of 7 mm. It is attached to the fixed wall at
A, and before it is loaded there is a 1 mm gap between the wall at C
and the rod. Neglecting the collar at B, find the reactions at A and C.
E (steel)= 200 GPa. Units: kN, m.
A C
B
18

0.6 1.0

A
B
18

A
B

2-18
Example
The assembly ABCD is welded to the wall at A and D. The steel rod
ABC has a diameter of 11 mm and the copper rod CD has a diameter
of 7 mm. A thin rigid flange is placed at B. Determine the
displacement of point B. E (steel)= 200 GPa, E (copper)= 120 GPa.
Units: kN, m. A B 20 C
15 D

20
0.5
1.2 0.8

A B 20 C
15 D

20

A B C D

2-19
Example
The three steel bars are pin-connected to a rigid member. Determine
the force developed in each bar. Bars AB and CD each have a cross-
sectional area of 15 mm², and bar EF has a cross-sectional area of
25 mm². E(steel)= 200 GPa. Units: kN, mm.
600 1400

B D

2000

1500

A C E

1200
60

2000
600
C E
A

2-20
2-21
Example
The square column has an outer shell of brass and and interior core of
steel. Find the force required to create a shortening of 0.20 mm.
E (brass)= 105 GPa, E (steel)= 200 GPa. Units: N, mm. P

5 typ

50

Column
cross-section
500

2-22
Example
A copper bar is placed between two identical steel bars. P
Determine "h" in order for the copper to carry half of the
total load. E (copper)= 120 GPa, E (steel)= 200 GPa.
Units: N, mm. 20

100

h h 500
Column
cross-section

2-23
Example
A brass bolt with a diameter of 0.375" is fitted inside a 7/8" diameter
steel tube with a wall thickness of 1/8". After the nut has been
snugged, it is tightened 1/4 turn. The bolt is single threaded and has
a pitch of 0.1". Determine the normal stress in the bolt and the tube.
E (brass)= 15,000 ksi and E (steel)= 29,000 ksi. Units: kips (k), in.
20

2-24
Example
The rigid steel beam is pin-connected at A and to two 6 mm diameter
steel wires. Determine the force developed in each wire.
E(steel)= 200 GPa. Units: kN, mm.
1100 600

C
1300
1000
60
A B D
F

500

1700
500
A
F D

2-25
PROBLEMS INVOLVING TEMPERATURE CHANGE
L

A B

L δ
δ T = α ( ΔT ) L
A B

2-26 Problems Involving Temperature Change

Example
The steel rod AB has a diameter of 11 mm and the copper rod BC has
a diameter of 7 mm. Determine the displacement of point C if the
assembly is subjected to a temperature increase of 50°C.
Units: m.
A B
Copper: α= 17E-6/ºC C
Steel: α= 11.7E-6º/C

1.2 0.8

2-27
Example
The steel rod shown is subjected to a temperature increase of 60˚F.
Calculate the reactions at the supports and the stress in the bar.
E(steel)= 29,000 ksi, α= 0.0000065/°F, area= 4 sq. in. Units: k (kips),

2-28
Example
A solid steel rod S is placed inside a copper pipe C having the same
length. The coefficient of thermal expansion of copper is larger than
the coefficient of steel. After being assembled, the cylinder and tube
are compressed between two rigid plates by forces P. Obtain a
formula for the increase in temperature that will cause all of the load to
be carried by the copper tube. Units: k (kips), in. P

C S C

2-29
Example
The 2.5" diameter aluminum shell is completely bonded to the 1"
diameter brass core and is unstressed at 70°F. Determine the stress
in each if the temperature is raised to 170°F.
Brass: E= 15,000 ksi, α= 11.6E-6/°F
Aluminum: E= 10,600 ksi, α= 12.9E-6/°F

Cross section

2-30
Example
The square column has an outer shell of brass and inner core of steel.
Determine the largest allowable temperature increase if the stress in
the steel is not to exceed 55 MPa. Units: mm.
E (brass)= 105 GPa, α= 20.9E-6/°C
E (steel)= 200 GPa, α= 11.7E-6/°C
5 typ

50

Column
cross-section
500

2-31
Example
The steel rod AB has a diameter of 11 mm and the copper rod BC has
a diameter of 7 mm. Determine the reactions if the assembly is
subjected to a temperature increase of 50°C.
Units: kN, m.
E (copper)= 120 GPa, α= 17E-6/°C
E (steel)= 200 GPa, α= 11.7E-6/°C
A B C

1.2 0.8

A B C

A B C

2-32
POISSON’S RATIO

lateral strain
ν =−
axial strain

νσ x
εy = εz = −
E

Poisson’s Ratio 2-33

MULTIAXIAL LOADING; GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW

σy

σx σx
σz σ x νσ y νσ z
σy εx = + − −
E E E
νσ σ νσ
εy = − x + y − z
E E E
νσ νσ σ
εz = − x − y + z
E E E

Multiaxial Loading; Generalized Hooke’s Law

2-34
SHEARING STRAIN
σy

τ xy = Gγ xy
σx σx
τ yz = Gγ yz
σz τ zx = Gγ zx
σy

Shearing Strain
2-35
SAINT-VENANT’S PRINCIPLE

P P P P

2-36 Saint-Venant’s Principle

STRESS CONCENTRATIONS

P P P P

P P
P

σ max
K=
σ ave
P

r
r

P P P
P
D d D
3.0 3.0
2.0
1.5 D/d
K 1.3 K
2.0 1.2 2.0
1.1

1.0 1.0
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.2 0.4 0.6
r/d r/(D-2r)
W.D. Pilkey, Peterson’s Stress Concentration Factors, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1997

Stress Concentrations 2-37

EXAMPLE
For the 5 mm thick bar, determine the maximum normal stress for hole
diameters 12 mm and 20 mm. Units: kN, mm.

2.5 2.5
60

P P
D
3.0

K
2.0

1.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
r/(D-2r)

2-38
EXAMPLE
For the 5 mm thick bar, determine the maximum normal stress for fillet
radii of 6 mm and 10 mm. Units: kN, mm.

2.5 2.5
60 40

P P
D d
3.0
2.0
1.5 D/d
K 1.3
2.0 1.2
1.1

1.0
0 0.10 0.20 0.30
r/d

2-39
SUMMARY
σ
Stress and Strain

σ = Eε

ε
σ
Repeated Loadings; Fatigue
ENDURANCE LIMIT- The stress for which
failure does not occur, even for an indefi-
nitely large number of loadings.

FATIGUE LIMIT- The stress corresponding

to failure after a specified number of loading CYCLES
cycles, such as 500 million.

Deformation of Members Under Axial Loading

A
B C
58
PL
δ=
AE
1.2 0.8

Statically Indeterminate Problems

A
B 58 C

1.2 0.8

Temperature Effects
A
ΔT =100 °C
B C

δ T = α ( ΔT ) L
1.2 0.8

Summary
2-40
 Poisson’s Ratio
P lateral strain
ν =−
axial strain
P

Multiaxial Loading; Generalized Hooke’s Law

σ x νσ y νσ z σy
εx = + − −
E E E
νσ σ νσ
εy = − x + y − z σx σx
E E E
νσ νσ σ
εz = − x − y + z σz
E E E
σy
Shearing Strain σy

τ xy = Gγ xy
σx σx
τ yz = Gγ yz
σz
τ zx = Gγ zx
σy

Saint-Venants Principle

P P P P

Stress Concentrations

P P P P

σ max
K=
σ ave
Summary
2-41