AXIALLY LOADED BARS

CHAPTER 2: STRAIN The figure shows a bar of length L and constant cross-
INTRODUCTION: sectional area A that is loaded by an axial tensile force P.
In general terms, strain is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of a body. We assume that the stress caused by P is below the
Stress and strain are two fundamental concepts of mechanics of materials. proportional limit, so that Hooke’s law  = EЄ is
Although our emphasis in this chapter will be on axially loaded bars, the principles and applicable.
methods developed here apply equally well to more complex cases of loading discussed later. We
will learn how to use force-deformation relationships in conjunction with equilibrium analysis to solve
statically indeterminate problems. Because the bar deforms uniformly, the axial strain is Є = /L, which upon substitution into Hooke’s
law yields  = E(/L). Therefore, the elongation of the bar is
NORMAL (AXIAL) STRAIN
The normal strain Є (lowercase Greek epsilon) is defined as the elongation per unit length.
Therefore, the normal strain in the bar in the axial direction, also known as the axial strain, is
SAMPLE PROBLEM #1:
The timber member has a cross-sectional area of 1750 mm2 and its modulus of elasticity is 12 GPa.
Compute the change in the total length of the member after the loads shown are applied.
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
As seen in the figure, the stress-strain
diagram is a straight line from the
origin O to a point called the
proportional limit. This plot is a
manifestation of Hooke’s law: Stress
is proportional to strain; that is,

where E is a material property known

as the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus.

Elastic Limit A material is said to be elastic if, after being loaded, the material returns to its original
shape when the load is removed. The elastic limit is, as its name implies, the stress beyond which
the material is no longer elastic. The permanent deformation that remains after the removal of the
load is called the permanent set.
Yield Point The point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost horizontal is called the yield
point, and the corresponding stress is known as the yield stress or yield strength. Beyond the yield
point there is an appreciable elongation, or yielding, of the material without a corresponding increase
in load.
Ultimate Stress The ultimate stress or ultimate strength, as it is often called, is the highest stress
on the stress-strain curve.
Rupture Stress The rupture stress or rupture strength is the stress at which failure occurs.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #2: STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS
The bar ABC is supported by a pin at A and a steel wire at B. If the equilibrium equations are sufficient to calculate all the forces (including support
Calculate the elongation of the wire when the 36-lb horizontal force reactions) that act on a body, these forces are said to be statically determinate. In statically
is applied at C. The crosssectional area of the wire is 0.0025 in.2 determinate problems, the number of unknown forces is always equal to the number of independent
and the modulus of elasticity of steel is 29 x 106 psi. equilibrium equations. If the number of unknown forces exceeds the number of independent
equilibrium equations, the problem is said to be statically indeterminate.
Static indeterminacy does not imply that the problem cannot be solved; it simply means that
the solution cannot be obtained from the equilibrium equations alone. A statically indeterminate
problem always has geometric restrictions imposed on its deformation. The mathematical
expressions of these restrictions, known as the compatibility equations, provide us with the additional
equations needed to solve the problem (the term compatibility refers to the geometric compatibility
between deformation and the imposed constraints). Because the source of the compatibility
equations is deformation, these equations contain as unknowns either strains or elongations. We
can, however, use Hooke’s law to express the deformation measures in terms of stresses or forces.
The equations of equilibrium and compatibility can then be solved for the unknown forces.

PROCEDURE FOR SOLVING STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

In summary, the solution of a statically indeterminate problem involves the following steps:
 Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #3:  Derive the compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is often
The rigid bar ABC is supported by a pin at A and a steel rod helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the deformations.
at B. Determine the largest vertical load P that can be  Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations in
applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 35 ksi terms of forces (or stresses).
and the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.12  Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.
in. Neglect the weights of the members.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #4:

The rigid beam of negligible weight is supported by a pin at O and two vertical rods. Find the vertical
displacement of the 50-kip weight.
 Sample Problem #6:
The 12-in.-diameter rod CE and the 34-in.-diameter rod
DF are attached to the rigid bar ABCD as shown.
Knowing that the rods are made of aluminum and using
E = 10.6 x 106 psi, determine (a) the force in each rod
caused by the loading shown, (b) the corresponding
deflection of point A.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #5:

The rigid, homogeneous slab weighing 600 kN is supported by
three rods of identical material and cross section. Before the
slab was attached, the lower ends of the rods were at the same
level. Compute the axial force in each rod.
THERMAL STRESSES SAMPLE PROBLEM #8:
It is well known that changes in temperature cause dimensional changes in a body: An The rigid bar of negligible weight is supported as shown in
increase in temperature results in expansion, whereas a temperature decrease produces the figure. If W = 80 kN, compute the temperature change
contraction. of the assembly that will cause a tensile stress of 50 MPa
The associated strain, called thermal strain, is in the steel rod. Use the following data:

where the constant  is a material property known as the coefficient of thermal expansion, and T
is the temperature change. If the temperature change is uniform throughout the body, the thermal
strain is also uniform. Consequently, the change in any dimension L of the body is given by

SAMPLE PROBLEM #7:

The horizontal steel rod, 2.5 m long and 1200 mm2 in cross-sectional area, is secured between two
walls as shown in the figure. If the rod is stress-free at 20C, compute the stress when the
temperature has dropped to -20C. Assume that (1) the walls do not move and (2) the walls move
together a distance  = 0.5 mm. Use  = 11.7 x 10-6/C and E = 200 GPa.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #9: POISSON’S RATIO: UNIAXIAL LOADING
All members of the steel truss have the same cross-sectional area. If the truss is stress-free at 10C, Experiments show that when a bar is stretched by an axial force, there is a contraction in the
determine the stresses in the members at 90C. For steel,  = 11:7 x 10-6/C and E = 200 GPa. transverse dimensions, as illustrated in the figure shown.

Transverse dimensions contract as the bar is stretched by an axial force P.

In 1811, Sime´on D. Poisson showed that the ratio of the transverse strain to the axial strain is
constant for stresses within the proportional limit. This constant, called Poisson’s ratio, is denoted by
 (lowercase Greek nu).

For uniaxial loading in the x-direction, as in the figure shown, Poisson’s ratio is  = -t/x, where t is
the transverse strain. The minus sign indicates that a positive strain (elongation) in the axial direction
causes a negative strain (contraction) in the transverse directions. The transverse strain is uniform
throughout the cross section and is the same in any direction in the plane of the cross section.
Therefore, we have for uniaxial loading
z  y    x
Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity that ranges between 0.25 and 0.33 for metals.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #10:

A solid aluminum shaft of diameter 80 mm fits concentrically inside a hollow tube. Compute the
minimum internal diameter of the tube so that no contact pressure exists when the aluminum shaft
carries an axial compressive force of 400 kN. Use  = 1/3 and E = 70 GPa for aluminum.
ASSIGNMENT:

PROBLEM 1:
Each of the links AB and CD is made of aluminum
(E =10.9 x 106 psi) and has a cross-sectional area of
0.2 in. Knowing that they support the rigid member
BC, determine the deflection of point E.

PROBLEM 2:
Link BD is made of brass (E = 105 GPa) and has a cross-
sectional area of 240 mm2. Link CE is made of aluminum
(E = 72 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2.
Knowing that they support rigid member ABC, determine
the maximum force P that can be applied vertically at
point A if the deflection of A is not to exceed 0.35 mm.

PROBLEM 3:
The rigid bar AD is supported by two steel wires
of 1/16-in. diameter (E = 29 x 106 psi) and a pin
and bracket at D. Knowing that the wires were
initially taut, determine (a) the additional tension
in each wire when a 120-lb load P is applied at B,
(b) the corresponding deflection of point B.

PROBLEM 4:
A rod consisting of two cylindrical portions AB and BC is
restrained at both ends. Portion AB is made of steel (Es = 29
x 106 psi, s = 6.5 x 10-6/ F) and portion BC is made of
aluminum (Ea = 10.4 x 106 psi, a = 13.3 x 10-6/ F). Knowing
that the rod is initially unstressed, determine (a) the normal
stresses induced in portions AB and BC by a temperature
rise of 70F, (b) the corresponding deflection of point B.