SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEEERING

UNIT – I – FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE OF CONVENTIONAL

SURVEYING – SCIA1303

1
 Fundamental Knowledge of Conventional Surveying
Definition of Survey

Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on

the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal distances between them, and by
preparing a map to any suitable scale. Thus, in this discipline, the measurements are
taken only in the horizontal plane.
Different methods and instruments are being used to facilitate the work of
surveying.

The primary aims of field surveying are:

To measure the Horizontal Distance between points. 

To measure the Vertical elevation between points. 
To find out the Relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal angles with
reference to any arbitrary direction and 
To find out Absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles with reference to a
fixed direction. These parameters are utilized to find out the relative or absolute
coordinates of a point / location.


Objectives of Surveying

To collect field data;

To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;
To analyze and to calculate the field parameters for setting out operation of actual
engineering works.
To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering works.

2
Division of Surveying
The approximate shape of the earth can best be defined as an oblate tri-axial
ovaloid. But, most of the civil engineering works, concern only with a small portion of
the earth which seems to be a plane surface. Thus, based upon the consideration of the shape
of the earth, surveying is broadly divided into two types.
1.Geodetic Surveying 
2. Plane Surveying

Geodetic Surveying

In this branch of surveying, the true shape of the earth is taken into consideration.
This type of surveying is being carried out for highly precise work and is adopted for
surveying of large area.
Plane Surveying
In this method of surveying, the mean surface of the earth is considered to be a
plane surface. This type of survey is applicable for small area (less than 200 square
kilometer). Thus for most of the Civil Engineering projects, methods of plane surveying
are valid. This course is restricted to the different aspects of plane surveying. Henceforth,
in this course work, the word surveying implies plane surveying.

Classification of surveying
Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted),
Surveying has been classified into:

Control surveying: To establish horizontal and vertical positions of controlpoints.
Land surveying: To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land,

alsoknown as property survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.
Topographic survey: To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes naturalas

well as and man-made features including elevation.


3
 Engineering survey: To collect requisite data for planning, design and executionof

engineering projects. Three broad steps are
Reconnaissance survey: To explore site conditions and availability ofinfrastructures.
Preliminary survey: To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map of areato be used
for planning and design.
Location survey: To set out work on the ground for actual construction /execution of
the project.
Route survey: To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways,railways,

canals, pipelines, and other linear projects.
Construction surveys: Surveys which are required for establishment of points,lines,
grades, and for staking out engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and

the structural design has been done).
Astronomic surveys: To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observationstation)

and azimuth (of a line through observation station) from astronomical observation.
Mine surveys: To carry out surveying specific for opencast and undergroundmining

purposes.
Based on instruments:
Chain Surveying
Compass Surveying
Plane Table Surveying
Theodolite Surveying
Tachometric Surveying
Photographic Surveying

Based on methods
Triangulation Surveying and,
Traverse Surveying

Triangulation Surveying

The selected survey stations are connected with survey lines in such a way resulting in
the formation of network of triangles. This survey is useful in surveying larger areas with

4
 uneven site boundaries.The various formulas of the triangle are used to determine and
area and various dimensions of the site.

Traverse Surveying

The whole area is divided into various transverses for the easy surveying. Since this
method involves division of survey area into various transverse, it is termed as
Transverse Survey.

Based on Object:
Geodetic Surveying
Mine Surveying
Archaeological Surveying, and
Military Surveying.
Based on nature of field
Land Surveying
Marine Surveying and,
Astronomical Surveying

Land Survey is further classified into following categories

1. Topographical Survey
2. Cadastral Survey
3. City Survey
4. Engineering Survey

Land Survey

This involved survey of objects in earth’s surface.

Topographical Survey

This survey is performed or determining the natural features of the country such as rivers,
mountains, hills, valleys etc. and also artificial features such as canals, railways, roads,
towns, villagesetc.This helps to keep a record of existing natural features of the country.

5
Cadastral Survey

Cadastral Survey is similar to topographical survey. It only involves a little more

precision and detailing in the process. Apart from determining the natural features, this
method of survey also helps to determine boundaries of fields, houses and other
properties.Cadastral Survey maps are drawn to a more larger scale as compared to
topographical survey maps.This is performed in connection with town planning schemes
such as drainage, water supply etc and for laying plots, roads, streets etc.

City Survey

City Survey is carried out in connection with various engineering works such as roads,
railways etc and it also involves various works related to water supply sector such as
reservoirs, wells etc

Principle of Surveying
The fundamental principles upon which the surveying is being carried out are
working from


1. To Work from the Whole to the Part and
2. To work from Part to the Whole

Work from the Whole to the Part

The whole area is enclosed by main station (Controlling Station) and main survey
lines (Controlling lines). Then the area is divided into a number of parts by forming well
conditioned triangles. The survey lines are measured very accurately by using tape or
chain or any linear measurement equipments. Then the sides of the triangle measured.
The purpose of working from whole to part is


To localize the errors and
To control the accumulation of errors.

6
 This is being achieved by establishing a hierarchy of networks of control points. The
less precise networks are established within the higher precise network and thus restrict
the errors.
To minimize the error limit, highest precise network (primary network)
To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed
reference point
The new stations should always be fixed by at least two measurements from fixed
reference points. Linear and angular measurements are measured by using theodolite and
prismatic compass. Thus the positions of main stations and direction of main survey lines
are fixed.

Figure:1

Plan and Maps

Plan
A plan is the graphical representation to some scale, of the features on, near or below
the surface of the earth as projected on a horizontal plane. The horizontal plane is
represented by plane of drawing sheets on which the plan is drawn to some scale
However the surface of the earth is curved it cannot be truly represented on a plane
without distortion. In plain surveying the area involved are small, theearth‟s surface
may be considered as plane and hence plan is constructed by orthographic
projections. A plan is drawn on a relatively large scale.

7
Map
If the scale of the graphical projection on a horizontal plane is small, the plan is called a
map. Thus graphical representation is called a plan if the scale is large while it is called
a map if the scale is small.
On plan, generally only horizontal distances and directions or angles are shown. On
topographical map, however the vertical distances (elevations) are also represented by
contour lines.
Scale
It is basic requirement for the preparation of plan or map Scale is used to represent
large distances on paper. The ratio by which the actual length of the object is
reduced or increased in the drawing is known as the „Scale‟ for example., if 1 cm on
a map represents a distance of 10 metres on the ground, the scale of the map is said
to be 1 cm = 10 m.
Full-Size Scale
Actual length of the object is shown on the drawing.
Reducing Scale
Actual length of the object is reduced in order to accommodate on the drawing
sheet.
Increasing or Enlarging Scale
Actual length of an object is enlarged so as to bring out its details more clearly
on the drawing.

Representative Fraction

• The ratio of the distance on the drawing to the corresponding actual length of the
object on the ground is known as the representative fractions. i.e..
• R.F= Distance of the Object on Drawing/Corresponding actual distance of object
on ground.
Types of Scales
a) Plain Scale
(b) Diagonal Scale

8
 (c) Chord Scale
(d) Vernier Scale
Units of Measure
The system of units in India in the recent years in M.K.S. andS.I.but all the records
available in surveying done in the past are in F.P.S. units therefore, for an engineer it
becomes necessary to know the conversion of units from one system to another, a
few are listed below.
Table -1

Length Area

1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 are = 100 2

1 foot = 0.3048 m 100 are= 1 hectare

1 yard = 3 feet 1 hectare = 10,000 m 2

1 mile = 1.609 km 1 hectare = 2.471 acres

1nauticalmile = 1.852 km 100 hectares= 1 km2

1 GROUND= 2400 sq.ft 1cent = 435.6 sq.ft

Representative Fraction

• The ratio of the distance on the drawing to the corresponding actual length of the object
on the ground is known as the representative fractions. i.e..

Distance of the Object on Drawing

R.F =
Corresponding Actual distance of object on Ground
Both the distances are in same unit.

Scale is a fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears with corresponding distance on
the ground.

9
 Scale can be represented by the following method

Representative Fraction

For example 1,

If a scale is 1 cm = 10 m

R.F. = 1 / 10 x 100 = 1 / 1000 or 1: 1000

For example 2,

If a scale is 1 cm = 1000 m 0r 1 km

R.F. = 1 / 1 x 1000 x 100 = 1 / 100000 or 1: 100000

This type of scale is called engineering scale.

There are four main types of scales which are used for different purposes for
measurements

1. Plain Scale
2. Diagonal Scale
3. Vernier Scale

Plain Scale

Plain Scale is one on which it is possible to measure two dimensions only. For example,
measurements such as units and lengths, metres and decimetres etc.

10
Diagonal Scale

On diagonal scale, it is possible to measure three dimensions such as metres, decimetres

and centimetres, units , tens and hundreds; yards, feet and inches etc.

A short length is divided into number of parts using the principle of similar triangle in
which sides are proportional.

1-1 represent 1/10 PQ

2-2 represent 2/10 PQ

9-9 represent 9/10 PQ

Vernier Scale

A device used for measuring the fractional part of one of the smallest divisions of a
graduated scale.
It usually consists of a small auxiliary scale which slides alongside of the main scale.
Least count of the vernier = the difference between smallest division on the main division
and smallest division on the vernier scale.

11
 Choice of Scale of a Map

Scales are generally classified as large, medium and small as under.

• Large Scale: 1 cm= 10 m or less than 10 m

• Medium Scale: 1 cm = 10 m to 100 m

• Small Scale: 1 cm= 100 or more than 100 m

Choice of Scale of a Map

For most of engineering projects, the scale varies from 1 cm = 2.5 m to 100 m
Small scale topographical maps are usually drawn to scale 1 cm = 1 km, a
scale of 1 cm= 5 m to 50 m is generally used for plans prepared for
subdivisions of land

12
Conventional Signs :

13
Methods of Linear Measurement

The following methods are generally employed for the linear, measurement are as
follows,

By Pacing or Stepping - The walking step of a man is considered as

2.5 Ft or 80 cm.

By Passometer - A small instrument just like a stop watch,

The passometer is used for counting the
number of steps automatically by some
mechanical devices.

By speedometers - This is used for recording distances

By perambulator and, - It is a wheel fitted with a fork and handle.
The wheel is graduated and shows a distance
per revolution. There is a dial which records
the number or revolutions.

By Chaining - This is an accurate method of measuring

Distance.
Accessories for Linear Measurements

Ranging Rods - Generally circular in section, of Diameter 25mm

and length 2m.

Tapes - Cloth or linen tape, Metallic tape, Steel tape and

Invar tape.

Arrows - Arrows made up of tempered steel wire of diameter

4 mm. One end of the arrow is bent into ring of Ø

50 mm and other end is pointed. Length 400 mm

ChainN - A Chain is prepared with 100 or 150 pieces of

Galvanized mild steel wire of diameter 4mm. Two
Brass handles are provided at the two ends of the
chain.

14
 Direct Measurements
When the distance between points / stations are measured directly, usually by
using tape, is known as direct method.
Ranging: When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, astraight
line is required to be laid between the points/ stations along which measurements are to
be carried out. The process of laying out a straight line between points is known as
ranging.
There are two types of Ranging
1. Direct Ranging
2. Indirect Ranging
Direct Ranging
When the end stations
are inter visible, ranging is
being carried out directly.
The intermediate points are
placed at distances having
interval less than one tape
length. Figure:2Direct ranging

15
 The intermediate points are found by moving a ranging pole in transverse direction
and thus, points are selected in such as way that the end points and the intermediate points
lie in a straight line (Figure) In this method, two flags, one ranging pole and a bunch of pegs
are required in a team of at least one surveyor and one assistant.
Indirect Ranging
When the end stations between which a straight line is to be laid, are not inter
visible, indirect method of ranging is being adopted. It is being carried out either by
reciprocal method or by random line method.
There are two types of Indirect Ranging
1. Reciprocal Ranging
2. Random Line Method

Reciprocal Ranging
Figure shows the field operations involved in reciprocal ranging. Let A and B are the two
end points whose distance is required to be found and are not inter visible. To fix the
intermediate points in a straight line between these points, two more points say C and

Figure :3Reciprocal Ranging

D are chosen in such a way that D & B are visible from C and C & A from D. Then, direct
ranging is being carried out alternatively along DCA and CDB for a number of times so that
ACDB lie in a straight line.

16
Random Line Method
In this method, (Figure) a random line such as BQ is being laid such that R is visible
from Q. A perpendicular QR is being erected at Q and measure its distance. Then the
desired distance BR is being calculated using distance formula. In laying the line BR,
intermediate points are established first. These are laid by taking offset from the random
line at distances calculated by using the method of similar triangle such as

Ranging by Random Line Method

After locating the intermediate points on the line BR, the obstructions get cleared to
make the end points intervisible. Then, direct ranging is being carried out to obtain a
extended continous straight line.

17
SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II –SURVEYING-I– SCIA1303

1
 Applications of various instruments in plane surveying
CHAIN

Figure :1

There Five types of chain

 Metric chain -
 Steel chain
 Engineer’s chain
 Gunter’s chain
 Revenue chain.
Metric chain
Metric chains are generally available in 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters. Tallies are fixed
at very meter length for chains of 5 m and 10 m length and at every five meters.
Steel chain
The steel band consists of a long narrow strip of blue steel of uniform width of 12
to 16 mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. metric steel bands are available in lengths of 20
or 30 m.
Gunter’s chain
Gunter's chain is a measuring device used for land survey, Gunter divided the chain
into 100 links, marked off into groups of 10 by brass rings which simplified intermediate
measurement. On the face of it, the dimensions make no sense: Each link is a fraction

2
under 8 inches long; 10 links make slightly less than 6 feet, 8 inches and a full length of
66 feet.

Engineer’s chain
The engineer’s chain is 100ft long and consists of 100 links, each link being 1 ft
long. At every 10 links, brass tags are fastened.
Revenue chain
The revenue Chain is 33ft long and consists of 16 links, each link being 2.0625 ft
long. This chain is mainly used for measuring fields in cadastral survey.
Principles of Chain Surveying
It is one of the oldest methods of surveying. It is used in horizontal measurement
on the earth’s surface. The principle of chain surveying is the triangulation. It is used for
measuring small areas of land when the level of accuracy required is not high.
Chain surveying is recommended where:
 The ground surface is more or less level.
 A small area is to be surveyed.
 A small-scale map is to be prepared
 The formation of well-conditioned triangle is easy.
Chain survey is unsuitable when
Area is crowded with many details.
Area consists of too many undulations.
Area is very large.
The formation of well-conditioned triangle becomes difficult due to obstacles
It means that the area to be surveyed is divided into number of small triangles.
The angles should not be too acute or too obtuse. The angle: shouldn't less than 30°
and shouldn't greater than 120° - Well conditioned triangles

3
 Survey Station

Survey stations are of two kinds

 Main Stations
 Subsidiary or tie

Main Stations

Main stations are the end of the lines, which command the boundaries of the
survey, and the lines joining the main stations re called the main survey line or the
Chain lines.

Subsidiary or the tie stations

Subsidiary or the tie stations are the point selected on the main survey lines,
where it is necessary to locate the interior detail such as fences, hedges, building
etc.

Tie or subsidiary lines

A tie line joints two fixed points on the main survey lines. It helps to checking the
accuracy of surveying and to locate the interior details. The position of each tie
line should be close to some features, such as paths, building etc.

Base Lines

It is main and longest line, which passes approximately through the center of the
field. All the other measurements to show the details of the work are taken with
respect of this line.
Check Line

A check line also termed as a proof line is a line joining the apex of a triangle to
some fixed points on any two sides of a triangle. A check line is measured to
check the accuracy of the framework. The length of a check line, as measured on
the ground should agree with its length on the plan.

4
 OBSTACLES IN CHAINING

Though it is desirable to select stations so as to avoid obstacles, occasionally the

obstacles are unavoidable.

During measurement of distance, various obstacles may be encountered in the field.

Depending upon the type of obstacle, a suitable geometrical figure has to be framed and
an equivalent distance has to measured or computed. Obstacles encountered in the field
can be divided into three broad categories.

Various obstacles to chaining may be grouped into:

Obstacles to ranging (chaining free-vision obstructed)

Obstacles to chaining (chaining obstructed-vision free)
Obstacles to both ranging and chaining.
Obstacles to Ranging

These obstacles can be further classified into the followi categories:

(a) Both ends of the line are visible from some intermediate points. Intervening ground is
an example of such obstacle. By resorting to reciprocal ranging this difficulty can be
overcome.
(b) Both ends of the line may not be visible from intermediate points on the line, but may
be visible from a point slightly away from the line. Intervening trees and bushes are the
examples of such obstacles. This obstacle to chaining may be overcome by measuring
along a random line as shown in Figure. In this case required length

Figure:2 Obstacles to Ranging

5
 Obstacles to Chaining
In this type the ends of lines are visible but chaining is obstructed. Examples of such
obstructions are ponds, lakes, marshy land etc. Various geometric properties may be used
to find obstructed length.

Figure 3: Measurement Obstructed Ranging round the Obstacle

Figure 4: Measurement Obstructed Ranging round the Obstacle

Obstacles to Both Chaining and Ranging

Building is a typical example of this obstacle.

6
Mistakes in Tapping
During taping, mistakes generally made by individuals (usually inexperienced)
are:
i. Adding or dropping a full length of tape
ii. Adding or dropping a part of the length of tap.
iii. Other points incorrectly taken as 0 or 30 meter marks on tape
iv. Reading numbers incorrectly
v. Calling numbers incorrectly or not clearly

Problems in Obstacles in Chaining

1. A survey line CD intersects a building. To overcome the obstacle a perpendicular
DE, 107 m long, is set out at D. From E, two lines EF and EG are set out at angles 50°
and 67° respectively with ED. Find the lengths EF and EG such that points F and G fall
on the prolongation with of CD. Also find the obstructed distance DF.
Solution

50° 67°
107 m

C D F G
From DEF
DE = Cos 50°
EF
EF = DE = 107 = 166.46 m
Cos 50  Cos 50 

and
DF = tan 50°
DE
DF = DE tan 50° = 107 x 1.1917 = 127.52 m
From DEG

7
 DE = Cos 65°
EG
EG = DE = 107 = 253.18 m
Cos 65  Cos 65 

2. During measurement of distance, a pond had been come across the path. Let P and
Q are the stations selected on the opposite side of the pond. A line PC = 900 m, was set
out on one side of PQ, and a line PD =1100m was set out on the other side, such that
CQD was in a straight line. The length of the lines CQ and QD are 500m and 600m
respectively. Determine the desired distance PQ.

8
 Errors in Chaining


Erroneous length of chain or tape


Bad Ranging


Careless holding and marking 


Bad Straightening


Non- Horizontality


Sag in Chain


Variation in Temperature


Variation in Pull

Personal Mistakes. 
Sources of Errors in Measurement
Depending on Sources of Origin, Errors in measurement fall into three classes,
they are


Natural Errors


Instrumental Errors

Personal Errors
Natural Errors
These are caused due to variations in nature i.e., variations in wind, temperature,
humidity, refraction, gravity and magnetic field of the earth
Instrumental Errors
These result from imperfection in the construction or adjustment of surveying
instruments, and movement of their individual parts.
Personal Errors
These arise from limitations of the human senses of sight, hearing and touch in
manipulating instruments.

Kinds of Errors
 met with in all chances of survey work may be classified as
Ordinary errors
Mistakes
Mistakes are errors which arise from inattention, inexperience,
carelessness and poor judgment or confusion in the observer mind.

9
 
Systematic Errors
A systematic error or cumulative error is an error that, under the same
condition, will always be of the same size and sign.

Accidental Errors
Accidental errors or compensating errors are those which remain after
mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminated and are caused by a
combination of reasons beyond the ability of the observer to control.

Error in Measurement of Distance

Depending on the nature, errors present in the measurement of distance have been
classified into two types: Systematic error and random error.
1. Systematic Errors
2. Random Errors
Systematic Errors
Systematic errors (in taping) are caused due to: non-standard length of tape, slope
in terrain, and variations in temperature during measurement, variations in tension, sag,
incorrect alignment of the tape etc.
Slope Correction
Let s represents the slope distance between two points A and B, h be the
difference in elevation and H the horizontal distance between the points, all in the same
units. Let q be the slope of the terrain. Then, the horizontal distance is

Figure 5: Distance Measurement on Sloping Ground

10
 And thus, slope correction for measured distance s is
Ch = H - s = (s2 - h2) - s (always subtractive)

Correction for Temperature

If the temperature of standardization is T0 degree and measurements are taken at
a temperature of T degree, there is an error in length of the tape, due to difference in
standardized temperature and temperature during observation. The corresponding
correction Ct is given by
C t = a L (T- T0)
Where,
a is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material of the tape and
Lis the measured distance

Correction for Tension

If a tape is standardized at a tension of Po and measurements are taken at a
tension of P, the correction Cp for change in length per distance L due to difference in
standarised pull and actual pull during observation is given by

Where,
a is the cross sectional area of the tape and
E is modulus of elasticity of the material of the tape.

Correction for Sag

(Figure 9.2) When the tape sags between points of support, it takes the form of a
catenary. The correction for sag Cs is always subtracted from observed distance and is
given by

11
 Figure 6: Sagging in Distance Measurement

Where,
W is the total weight of tape between supports,
L is the distance between supports and
P is the applied tension.
Correction for Incorrect Alignment
(Figure) If the intermediate points are not in correct alignment with the ends of
the line or they are not on the line to be measured, a correction, Ch known as correction
for alignment has to be subtracted to measured distance. It is given by

Figure 7: Misalignment in Distance Measurement

Where,
d is the perpendicular distance by which the other end of the tape of length L is
out of alignment.

12
1. A tape was exactly 30 m long at 20° C when place on the flat under a pull of 75 N. a
survey line was measured with this tape under a pull of 120N and found to be 810 m. the
average temperature during the measurements was 30° C. If the tape was supported in spans
of one tape length each time, determine the corrected length of the tape is 7.8 x 10-5

n/mm3. The modulus of elasticity of the material of the tape is 2.1 x 10 -5 n/mm2. The
coefficient of thermal expansion of the materials of the tape is 11.7 x 10 -6 / °C.

Solution,
From the measured length of 810 m, the following results can be calculated
Correction to the temperature

Ct = Lα (tm - t0) = 810 x 11.7 x 10-6 x (30 - 20)

= 0.09477 m (+ve)

Correction for Pull

Cp =
P.L = (120 75) x810
A. E 4 x 2.1x10 - 5

= 0.043392857 m (+ve)

13
 Corrections
for Sag

2
Cs = L =x ( W ) 2= 810 x ( 30 x 1000 x 7.8 x 10 - 5 )
24 P 24 120
= 0.205335 m (-ve)
Hence the corrected length of the survey line is = 0.09477 + 0.043392857 - 0.205335
801 + 0.09477 + 0.043392857 -
= 0.205335 = 809.933 m

Error Due to Incorrect Chain

If the length of the chain used in measuring length of the line is not equal to the true
length or the designated lengths, the measured length of the line will not be correct and
suitable correction will have to be applied.
1) Correction to measured length
Let l' - Measured length of the line
L - Actual or true length if the line

L - True or designated length of the chain or tape

L' - Incorrect length of the chain or tape
Then the true length of the line l = l’ ( L' )
L
2) Correction to Area
Let A' - Measured area of the ground
A - Actual Area of the ground
2
Then the true length of the line A = A’ ( L' )
L

Problem
1. The length of a line measured with a 30 meters chain was found to be 425 meters.
Calculate the true length of the line if the chain was 10 Cm too long.
Solution
Incorrect length of the chain = L'=30+( 10 ) = 30.1 m
100
Measured length = l’ = 425 m

14
 Hence true length of the line = l’ = 425 ( 30.1 ) = 426.4167 m
30

From the relation

Hence true length of the line = l = l’ ( L' )
L

1506 = 1495 ( L' )

30

= 30.22 m
Hence L' is greater than L. so the chain is too long.
Amount of error e = 30.22 – 30 = +0.22 m
3. On a map draw to a scale of 50 m to 1 Cm, a surveyor measured the distance between two
stations as 3,500 m. But it found that by mistake he had used a scale of 200 m to
1 Cm. Find the true distance between the stations.
Solution
As the surveyor used the scale of 100 m to 1 Cm
Distance between stations on map = 3500' = 35 Cm
100
As the actual scale of map is 50 m to 1 Cm
True Distance on the ground = 35 x 50 = 1,750 m

15
 Compass Surveying
Compass Surveying
It is one of the methods used in traversing
In Compass survey chain or tape is used for linear measurements and compass is used for

fixing direction.
In compass freely suspended magnetic needle directs to north- south and the bearing of
line is obtained by line of sight.
Traversing
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connecting survey lines form the
frame work and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of
an angle measuring instrument and a tape respectively.

When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point, it is known as a

closed traverse.

If the circuit ends elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse

Types of Compass
The surveying compass can be classified in to two types,


Prismatic Compass

Surveyor’s Compass

Trough Compass
Tubular Compass


Prismatic Compass
The prismatic compass consists of circular box about
100mm in diameter. The magnetic needle is pivoted on a hard
steel pivot, an aluminum ring, graduated to degrees and half
degrees is attached to the needle. The object vane carries a
vertical hair of the sink thread attached to a suitable frame. The
sight vane consists of vertical slit cut into the upper assembly
of the prism.

16
The object vane provided with a hinge mirror which can be raised upwards or lowered
downwards, to sight the objects too high or too low.

Surveyor’s Compass
Surveyor compass acquires its name from its extensive use by surveyors. But the
prismatic compass has now replaced as it is light, compact and handy. It is similar in
construction to the prismatic compass except for a few differences.

Principles of Prismatic compass

The prismatic of compass surveying is traversing, which involves a series of
connected lines.

Compass surveying is recommended

 
 A large area to be surveyed
 
 The course of river or coast line is to be surveyed and
 
The area is crowded with many details and triangulation is not possible.

Terminology
GN
MN True Meridian
Magnetic Bearing

B True Bearing
Magnetic Meridian

17
True Meridian or Geographical meridian (GN)
The line passing through the geographical North Pole, geographical South Pole
and any point on the surface of the earth is known as the true meridian or geographical
meridian.
Magnetic Meridian
When a magnetic needle is suspended freely and balanced properly, unaffected by
magnetic substances, it indicates a direction. This direction is known as magnetic
meridian.
Arbitrary meridian
A convenient direction is assumed as a meridian is known as arbitrary meridian.
Whole circle bearing
The magnetic bearing of a line measured clockwise
North
From the North Pole towards the line is known as the
whole circle bearing
WCB
0° to 90° - First Quadrant East
A
West
90° to 180° - Second Quadrant 180°
to 270° - Third Quadrant 270° to 360° -
Fourth Quadrant

South

18
 When the Whole circle bearing of line is converted to quadrilateral, it is
termed as Quadrilateral Bearing. It is termed the reduced bearing

Bearing Converting W.C.B in to R.B Quadrant

0° to 90° R.B = W.C.B NE
90° to 180° R.B = 180° - W.C.B SE
180° to 270° R.B = W.C.B - 180° SW
270° to 360° R.B = 360° - W.C.B NW

Bearing Converting R.B in to W.C.B Quadrant

0° to 90° W.C.B = R.B NE
90° to 180° W.C.B = 180° - R.B SE
180° to 270° W.C.B = 180° + R.B SW
270° to 360° W.C.B = 360° - R.B NW

Fore Bearing
The bearing of a line measured in the direction of the progress of survey line is
called Fore Bearing
Back Bearing N
The bearing of a line measured in the
direction opposite to the survey line is Ø
B
Fore Bearing
called the Back bearing Back Bearing
N Ø
Magnetic Declination A

19
The horizontal angle between the magnetic meridian and true meridian is known as
magnetic declination.

Local Attraction
A magnetic needle indicates the north direction when freely suspended or
pivoted. But if the needle comes near some magnetic substances such as iron, steel
structures, electric cable, etc. it is found to be deflected from its true direction and does
not show the actual north. This disturbance influence of magnetic substances is known
as local attraction.
Difference between Surveyor’s and Prismatic Compass

S.No Item Prismatic Compass Surveyor Compass

The needle is of broad type, The needle is of edge bar
1 Magnetic Needle
does not acts as index type, acts as index.
1. Graduated card ring 1. Graduated card ring is
is attached with the attached with the box needle
needle and the ring and not to the needle. The
2 Graduated Card
does not rotate along card rotates along with the
with the lien of sight. lien of sight.
2. Graduations are in W.C.B 2. Graduations are in R.B
The object vane consist of The object vane consist of
3 Sighting Vanes
metal vane with vertical hair metal vane with vertical hair
The reading is taken with The reading is taken with
help of Prism. Sighting and top of the glass. Sighting
4 Reading
reading are done and reading are not done
simultaneously simultaneously.
Tripod may or may not be It cannot be used without
5 Tripod
used tripod stand.

20
 Temporary adjustment of any instrument

Setting Up
Leveling Up
Elimination of Parallax
 Temporary adjustment of prismatic compass

Fixing the compass with tripod stand

Centering

Leveling

Adjustment of prism
Observation of bearing 
Problems
 Convert the following W.C.B into RB
i. W.C.B of AB = 65° 30’
ii. W.C.B of BC = 145° 35’
iii. W.C.B of CD = 226° 30’
iv. W.C.BOF DE = 310° 20’
Answers
1. QB of AB = 65° 30’
2. QB of BC = 180° - 145° 35’ = 34° 25’
3. QB of CD = W.C.B. - 180° = 46° 30’
4. QB of DE = 360° - 310° 20’ = 49° 40’

 Convert the following RB into W.C.B

1. QB of AB = N35° 30’E
2. QB of BC = S52° 35’E
3. QB of CD = S26° 30’W
4. QB of DE = N79° 40’W
Answers
i. W.C.B of AB = Same = 35° 30’
ii. W.C.B of BC = 180° -52° 35’ = 127° 25’
iii. W.C.B of CD = 180° + 26° 30’ = 206° 30’
iv. W.C.BOF DE = 360° - 79° 40’ = 280° 20’

21
1. The magnetic bearing of a line is 58° 30’. Calculate the rue bearing, if the
magnetic declination is 5° 30’.

Solution
Declination = 5° 30’.
Therefore true bearing is = 58° 30’+ 5° 30’ = 64° 0’ 0”
1. The magnetic bearing of a line AB is S 55° 30’E. Calculate the true bearing of
the line, if the declination is 4° 30’W respectively.

N
The positions of true meridian, magnetic and
MM
the lines have been shown in figure. 4° 30’ Hence the true bearing

1. 55° 30’ + 4° 30’

= 60° 0’ 0” W E
4° 30’ S 55° 30’E

Included Angle Problem True bearing

S A

• The following are the bearings of a closed traverse using a prismatic compass.
Compute the included angle and the declination angles,

Length Fore Bearing Back Bearing

AB 37° 30’ 217° 30’
BC 92° 00’ 272° 00’
CD 151° 30’ 331° 30’
DE 220° 15’ 40° 15’
EF 283° 00’ 103° 00’
FA 330° 15’ 150° 15’

22
 92° 00’
B 151° 30’
37° 30’
C

Closed Traverse
D

220° 15’
F

330° 15’ E

283°00’
First Method to calculate included angle

Line Angle Included Angle

BB of FA – FB of AB
112° 45’
AB 150° 15’ - 37° 30’ = 182° 45’
BB of AB– FB of BC
125° 30’
BC 217° 30’ - 92° 00’ = 125° 30’
BB of BC– FB of CD
120° 30’
CD 272° 00’ - 151° 30’ = 120° 30’
BB of CD – FB of DE
111° 15’
DE 331° 30’ - 220° 15’ = 111° 15’
BB of DE– FB of EF
117° 15’
EF 40° 15’ - 283° 0’ + 360° = 117° 15’
BB of EF– FB of FA
132° 45’
FA 103° 00’ - 330° 15’+360° = 132° 45’

720° 00’ 0”
Sum of included Angles

23
 For the check, the sum of all angles is obtained as 720° 00’ since this is an six
sides traverse, the correct sum is (2n – 4) 90° = 720° 00’. Therefore there does not
have any error to be corrected.

• The bearing of the side AB of regular pentagon ABCDE was found to be 54°.
Compute the bearings of the remaining sides if the pentagon is run counterclockwise.
Calculate the Fore bearing of the given traverse.

Line AB BC CD DE EA
Bearing 54° 342° 270° 198° 126°

A
C

The following are the fore and back bearing of lines observed in an unclosed traverse
ABCDE.
Line FB BB
AB 65° 30’ 245° 00’
BC 106° 00’ 286° 00’
CD 220° 45’ 40° 30’
DE 210° 20’ 30° 00’

24
 Locate the position of local attraction and find the corrected
bearings BC is free from Local Attraction

BB of AB -180° (245° 00’ - 180°) = 65°

Corrected Bearing = 65° 30’ - 65° = 0° 30’
Fore Bearing of CD will be correct (220° 45’ - 180°) = 40° 45’
BB of CD - Corrected Bearing (40° 30’ - 40° 45’) = -0° 15’
Corrected bearing of DE = 210° 20 + 0° 15’ = 210° 35’
Corrected Bearing = 210° 35’ - 180° = 30° 35’

Line FB BB
AB 65° 00’ 245° 00’
BC 106° 00’ 286° 00’
CD 220° 45’ 40° 45’
DE 210° 35’ 30° 35’

 The following are the fore and back bearing of lines observed in an unclosed traverse
ABCDE

Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing

AB N45° 45’E S46° 10’W
BC S83° 05’E N82° 55’W
CD N29° 45’E S29° 10’W
DE N35° 12’W S35° 12’E

At what station the local attraction is suspended? Determine the corrected bearing
in the quadrilateral system.

25
 Solution
Converting reduced bearing to Whole circle bearing

Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing

AB 45° 45’ 226° 10’
BC 96° 55’ 277° 5’
CD 29° 45’ 209° 10’
DE 324° 48’ 144° 48’

We find that local attraction will be in DE line

Solution
Hence line DE is Free from Local Attraction
Observed Correction to
Calculation Correction
Bearing be applied
BB of line CD - 180° 29° 45’ - 29° 10
- 0° 35’
209° 10’ - 180° = 29° 10’ 29° 45’ = 0° 35’
BB of line BC - 0° 35’ 277° 5’ – 0° 35’ = 276° 30’
Corrected BB of line BC -
96° 55’ - 96° 30’
180° - 0° 25’
96° 55’ = 0° 25’
276° 30’ - 180° = 96° 30’
BB of line AB - 0° 25’ 226° 10’ – 0° 25’= 225° 45’
BB of line AB - 180°
Hence Solved
225° 45’ 180° = 45° 45’ 45° 45’

Answer
Hence the bearings are
Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing
AB 45° 45’ 225° 45’
BC 96° 30’ 276° 30’
CD 29° 10’ 209° 10’
DE 324° 48’ 144° 48’

26
 Methods of traversing
 
 Chain Traversing
 
 Chain and Compass Traversing
 
 Transit tape Traversing

By Fast needle method

By measurement of angles between the lines
 
Plane table Traversing

Chain Traversing

In this method the whole of the work is done with the chain and tape. No angle
measuring instrument is used and the directions of the lines are fixed entirely by linear
measurements. Angle fixed by linear or tie measurements are known as chain lines.

Chain and Compass Traversing (loose needle method or free needle method)

In chain and compass traversing the magnetic bearing of the survey lines are
measured by a compass and the lengths of the lines are measured either by chain or tape.
The direction of the magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station
independently. This method is also known as loose needle method or free needle method

Check in the Close Traverse

The sum of the measured interior angles should be equal to (2N -4)*90º
The sum of the measured Exterior angles should be equal to (2N +4)*90º
The algebraic sum of deflection angles should be equal to 360 º
The sum of the northing should be equal to that of southing, and sum of Easting
should be equal to westing.

Check in the Open Traverse

In the open traverse measurement cannot be checked in the field.







27


Instrumental Errors
They are those which arise due to the faulty adjustments of the instruments. They
may be due to the following reason,

The

needle not being perfectly straight 


Pivot being bent


Sluggish needle


Blunt pivot point 


Improper balancing weight


Plane of sight not being vertical

Line of sight not passing through the centers of the right 

Personal Errors
p
Natural Errors


Variation in declination

Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction forces 

Magnetic changes in the atmosphere due to clouds and storms. 
Irregular variations due to magnetic storms etc.

28
 Plane Table Surveying

Basics of Plane Table Surveying

A plane table surveying is a graphical method of surveying. In this method of
surveying, field observation and plotting are done simultaneously thus helps surveyor to
compare the plotted details with actual features of the ground.
Advantages of Plane Table Surveying


It is suitable for location of details as well as contouring for large scale maps

directly in the field.

As surveying and plotting are done simultaneously in the field, chances of getting

omission of any detail get less.

The plotting details can immediately get compared with the actual objects present
in the field. Thus errors as well as accuracy of the plot can be ascertained as the

work progresses in the field.

Contours and specific features can be represented and checked conveniently as

the whole area is in view at the time of plotting.

Only relevant details are located because the map is drawn as the survey

progresses. Irrelevant details get omitted in the field itself.

The plane Table survey is generally more rapid and less costly than most other

types of survey.

As the instruments used are simple, not much skill for operation of instruments is

required. This method of survey requires no field book.

Disadvantages of Plane Table Surveying


 The plane table survey is not possible in unfavorable climates such as rain, fog etc.

 survey is not very accurate and thus unsuitable for large scale or
This method of
precise work.
 
 As no field book is maintained, plotting at different scale require full exercise.

 The method requires large amount of time to be spent in the field. 

Quality of
the final map depends largely on the drafting capability of the
surveyor.

29
 
 is effective in relatively open country where stations can be sighted
This method
easily
Instruments
A plane table mounted on a tripod stand and a number of accessories are being
used during plane table survey. The accessories consist of alidade, spirit level, trough
compass, plumbing fork, plumb bob, drawing sheet.
Plane Tables
The plane table consists of a drawing board with arrangement for fixing on a
tripod stand. There are various types of plane tables, depending upon the arrangement of
fixing the boards to the tripod, leveling of the table and rotating arrangement in a
horizontal plane. Figure shows a simple plane table.

Simple Plane Table

Alidade

An alidade is a device in which the vertical plane of the line of sight is maintained
parallel to a straight-edge ruler on which the sighting arrangement is kept. It is used to
draw a line parallel to the line of sight and thus provides the direction of the object to be
plotted. Depending on the type of sighting arrangement, alidades are classified as Plain
Alidade, Telescopic Alidade and digital alidade.
Three Types of Alidade
 
 Plain Alidade
 
 Telescopic Alidade
 
Digital Alidade

30
 Plain Alidade
It consists of a straight-edge ruler, made of a metal or wood, with one of the edges
is bevelled and graduated known as fiducial edge. It consists of two vanes in
perpendicular as its ends, fitted with hinges at their bases, known as sight vanes. These
are kept folded down on the ruler when not in use. One of the sight vanes is provided
with a narrow slit having three holes.

Plain Alidade
This is used as eye vane. The other, used as object vane, is open and carries a hair
or thin wire at its centre. Thus, the line passing through the slit of the eye vane joining the
thin wire of the object vane and passing beyond is known as the line of sight of a plane
alidade. A string is fitted at the top of the sight vanes and is used for inclined sight. In
some alidade, a compass needle as well as a spirit level gets fitted in a box engraved at its
base. However, the plain alidade is not very accurate. Figure show a plain alidade.

Telescopic Alidade
It consists of a telescope as an arrangement for sighting (similar to that present in
the upper part of a theodolite). The telescope is fitted with a stadia diaphragm and can be
used as tacheometer also for computations of horizontal distance and vertical elevations.
The line of sight of the telescope is aligned along the fiducial edge. In this instrument, the
object is sighted through the telescope and the distance is scaled off in that direction
along the fiducial edge. Figure shows a telescopic alidade.

31
 Telescopic Alidade

The telescopic alidade is designed for greater precision and longer range of sights.
It can be used with advantages for contouring and plotting of details during topographic
surveying.

Digital Alidade
It consists of an EDM, with a built-in telescope for sighting, an automatic angle
sensor for registering vertical angle and a microcomputer for yielding horizontal distance
and difference in elevation. It also consists of a liquid crystal display which is used to
display and thus read and retrieve the observer and calculated parameters. Digital alidade
is particularly useful for accurate plotting of detail and for the long line of sight.
Plumbing Fork
A plumbing fork is a U-shaped piece of metal or wooded frame (Figure 33.4). The
end of one of its arm is pointed and the other arm is having an arrangement for hanging a
plumb bob. The frame is constructed in such away that the tip of the pointed arm and the
plumb line lie in the same vertical line.

32
 At the time of use, the pointed arm is placed on the table and the other arm, with
a plumb bob attached, is kept below the table. Plumbing fork with a plumb bob is used in
large scale surveying for Centering of plane table and for Transferring of ground point.
Spirit Level
It consists of flat based tube with a small bubble either a circular or tubular in
shape. It is used to check the level of plane table by placing it on the board in two
positions at right angles to each other. When the bubble tube remains in the centre all
over the table, the table is considered to be properly leveled.

Spirit level
Trough Compass
A trough compass consists of a long, narrow rectangular box, covered with glass.
Inside the box, at its centre, there is a magnetic needle resting on the pivot. At the
extremities of the trough compass, there are graduated scales with zero at the centre and
marking up to 5° on either side of the zero line. Figure 33.6 shows a Trough compass.

33
 Trough Compass
The trough compass is used for marking the magnetic north line on the drawing
sheet of the plane table. In this case, the magnetic needle point to 0° - 0° of the graduated
scale and a line drawn parallel to the edge of the trough compass is along the magnetic
meridian. A trough compass is also used to orient the plane table with respect to the
magnetic meridian.
Drawing Arrangements
A drawing paper of good quality and well-seasoned is to be used for plotting. It
should be able to withstand the rubbing of the alidade. The effect of changes in humidity
and temperature of the atmosphere should be minimum thus reduction in the expansion or
contraction of the paper, and alter the scale of the map and distort the plan.

  is to be used for drawing lines. Soft pencils are
A sharp, hard (4H or 6H) pencil
used for lines to be erased.
 
A good quality rubber eraser is used for erasing the lines.

Basic Principle of Plane Table Surveying

Plane table surveying is based on the principle that lines drawn during plotting
always lie parallel to the corresponding lines actually present on the ground.
For example, let us consider four ground stations A, B, C and D which on joining
provides a rectangle ABCD. This has been plotted on a sheet of paper at a scale by plane
table surveying. Here, the sides AB, BC, CD and DA are plotted in such a way that they
are parallel to the sides actually available on the ground.

34
 Setting of Instrument
At each station, the plane table is required to get set up before carrying out any
plotting work. It basically consists of the three operations: fixing, centering and leveling.

Fixing
In this operation, first the top of the tripod stand is fixed in level by eye
estimation at convenient height with its legs uniformly spread and shoes
fixed firmly into the ground. The board is fixed to the tripod head by
tightening the clamping screw.

Centering
There are two types of operations involved in centering of plane table.
. The centering with reference to already plotted position of the station. In
this case, the pointed end of the upper arm of a U-fork is hold at the
plotted position of the station and the table is shifted and adjusted in such

a way that the tip of the plumb bob points exactly over the ground station.

The centering with reference to ground location of the station. In this case,
the tip of the plumb bob attached to a U-frame is placed exactly over the
ground point which is required to be transferred. The point corresponding
to the tip of the pointed arm of the U-frame provides the transferred
position on the table.However, the accuracy with which centring is being

carried out depends upon the scale of plotting.

Levelling
The top of the table is leveled by moving the legs of the tripod.
The level of plane table is first judged by eye estimation. Further, it
is checked by keeping spirit level at different positions on the table
and if required, legs are further adjusted.

Temporary Adjustment of Plane Table

It is necessary to check whether the accessories satisfies some basic conditions
and if required, necessary adjustments are to be done before starting any plane table
surveying work. The operations involved in this are known as temporary adjustment of
plane table. The conditions needs to be tested and subsequent adjustments are as follows:

35
 The surface of the board should be a perfectly plane.
Test: It is tested by placing a straight edge on the top surface of the plane table in
different directions. If there is no gap between the base of the straight edge and the
surface of the plane table then the surface is perfectly plane. Otherwise, the surface is not
perfectly plane.
Adjustment: If the gaps are minute, those are removed by rubbing with sand paper and
for more gaps, the table should be replaced.

The fiducial edge of the alidade should be straight.

Test: It is tested by drawing a fine line on the paper along the fiducial edge of the alidade.
Then, by reversing the alidade, end for end, and placing against the line drawn, a line is to
be drawn again along the fiducial edge. If the two lines coincide, the edge is straight.
Otherwise, the edge is not straight.
Adjustment: The fiducial edge of the alidade is too made straight by filing and then test
is repeated till satisfactory outcome.

In fully opened condition, the sight vanes of the alidade should be perpendicular to its
base.
Test: Hang a plumb bob at a distance of about 5 to 10 m from the plane table. Bisect the
string of the plumb bob through the alidade placed on properly leveled plane table. If the
sighting slit, the object vane hair and the plumb bob string lie the same vertical line, the
vanes of the alidade are perpendicular to the base of the alidade. Otherwise, it requires
adjustment.
Adjustment: is being carried out by inserting packing under the base of the sight vanes
or by filing the base, as required. The test and adjustment get repeated till satisfactory
outcome is achieved.

4. The telescopic alidade if used should be in perfect adjustment.

36
Orientation of Plane Table
The objective of this operation is to maintain the orientation of the table constant
at all the stations in any particular plane table surveying i.e., the four edges of the plane
table will always be in the same directions at all the stations. Thus, all lines plotted on the
plane table sheet will maintain parallel to their corresponding lines on the ground.
During orientation, the leveling of the plane table generally gets disturbed so it is
usually carried out with leveling simultaneously iteratively. The orientation of plane table
can be carried out by:
Using a
Trough compass;
Back sighting;
Resection.
Orientation of Trough compass
In this method, the edge of the trough compass is placed along the magnetic
meridian (drawn at the starting station) and the plane table is rotated till the needle points
to zero-zero of the scale. Once it is achieved, the table is said to be oriented and thus
clamped. This method of orientation is not very accurate and also may get affected by
local attraction and is generally used for small-scale survey.

Orientation of Back sighting

In this method, the fiducial edge of alidade is laid along a ray drawn from
previous station to the present station and the plane table is then rotated till the line of
sight of alidade bisects exactly the ranging rod placed at previous station. The plane table
is then clamped and said to be oriented. In this method, the level of the plane table has to
be maintained identical in both the stations.

Orientation of Resection
This method of plane table surveying is employed to locate and plot the position
of the plane table during surveying. This also results in the orientation of the plane table.
The basic principle of resection is opposite to that of the method of intersection. In this
method, the position of the plane table is determined by drawing resectors from already

37
plotted points. There are different methods for locating plane table by method of
resection and are primarily based on the type of orientation which precedes resection.

Methods of Plane Table

Different operations are involved during the location of details through plane
table surveying. To carry out the operations under different field conditions, different
methods of plane table surveying have been evolved - method of radiation, method of
intersection, method of traversing and the method of resection. The method radiation and
the method of intersection are employed to locate objects and features present in the area
of survey; the method of traversing is used to plot the network of stations and the method
of resection is employed to determine and to plot the location of the plane table as well as
to orient the table simultaneously.
Radiation Method
In the radiation method of plane table surveying, the direction of the objects or
points to be located are obtained by drawing radial lines along fiducial edge of alidade
after getting the objects or points bisected along the line of sight of the alidade. The
horizontal distances are then measured and scaled off on the corresponding radial lines to
mark their positions on the drawing.

38
 Radiation Method of plane table surveying
Procedure
Let Figure 34.1 be considered in which a plane table is set up at station X and
details in the area got plotted by method of radiation. In order to carry out this, first the
plane table is set over the station X, clamped and its position is plotted on paper as x.
Now, with alidade pivoted at x, salient object points present in the area such as A, B, C,
D etc of a building around the plane table got bisected and radial lines are drawn showing
their directions. The corresponding field distances XA, XB, XC, XD are measured and
scale off on respective radial lines. Thus, plotted their positions as a, b, c, d etc. The
plotted positions are then joined to represent the object. In this way, points e, f, g, h are

also plotted and joined to get another building corner. The location of a telephone
line pillar T plotted as t.

The radiation method of plane table surveying is suitable for locating objects
which are within a single tape length (from the location of plane table). The method is
convenient if telescopic or digital alidade is used. Otherwise, it is effective when
associated with tacheometer or EDM for measurement of horizontal distance.

39
Intersection Method
In intersection method of plane table surveying, the objects or points to be located
are obtained at the point of intersection of radial lines drawn from two different stations.

Intersection method of plane table surveying

Procedure
Let us consider plane table stations Z and Y Figure from which details got plotted
by method of intersection. In this, first the plane table is set over the station Z, clamped
and its position is plotted on paper as z. If the position of the station is not already
plotted, then the station Y is bisected and plotted by method of radiation. Now, with
alidade pivoted at z, salient object points on the surface of earth such as 1, 2, 3 etc of a
building, 4 a telephone pillar, 5 a tree etc around the plane table got bisected and radial
lines are drawn showing their directions. The table is then shifted to the station Y nd get
it set and after orienting by backsighting to station Z get it clamped. With alidade pivoted
at y, same objects i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. get bisected and rays are drawn. The intersection
of the respective rays provides the plotted positions of the respective details. The plotted
positions of 1,2, 3 are then joined to represent the building corner. Telephone pillar and
tree are represented by their conventional symbols.
In this method, the plotting of plane table stations are to be carried out accurately.
Checking is important and thus done by taking third sight from another station.

40
 The intersection method is suitable when distances of objects are large or cannot
be measured properly. Thus, this method is preferred in small scale survey and for
mountainous regions.
Plane Table Traversing
This method of plane table surveying is used to plot a traverse in cases stations
have not been previously plotted by some other methods. In this method, traverse stations
are first selected.
The stations are plotted by method of radiation by taking back sight on the
preceding station and a fore sight to the following station. Here distances are generally
measured by tachometric method and surveying work has to be performed with great
care.

Plane table traversing

41
Procedure
Let us consider the stations P, Q, R and S Figure which are to plotted by method
of traversing. Stations are to be chosen in such a way that adjoining stations are visible.
First, the plane table is to be set at station P and then plotted as p. The orientation of the
table and scale of plotting should be such that all other stations will be accommodated
within the boundary of the sheet. With the alidade pivoted at p, draw the rays to Q and S.
Distances PQ and PS are measured and plotted on the respective rays, pq and ps
respectively.

The plane table is then shifted to station Q, get it set and then oriented by back
sighting to station P. With the alidade pivoted at q, draw a ray to R. Distance QR is
measured and plotted on the ray as qr. In this way, plane table is shifted to stations R and
S and corresponding rays are drawn to obtain the plotting of the traverse pqrs.

Check lines. To check the accuracy of the plane table traverse, a few check lines
are taken by sighting back to some preceding station. In this example, a check line rp is
drawn from the station R to P when the plane table is occupying the station R. If the
traverse is correct, the check line rp would pass through p, the plotted position of station
P. Likewise, a check line sq is drawn from S to Q. In case there is no suitable preceding
station visible, any well-defined point, such as a corner of a building or a tree, which has
been previously plotted, can be used for checking.

Error of closure. If the traverse to be plotted is a closed traverse, the foresight

from the terminating station should pass through the first station. Otherwise the amount
by which plotted position of the first station on the foresight fails to close is designated as
the error of closure. It is adjusted graphically, if the error is within permissible limits,
before any further plotting works are done.
Three Point Problem
In this method, three well defined points, having locations already being plotted
on the drawing are involved. These are used to find and subsequently plot the location of
the plane table station.

42
 Principle of Three – point problem Solution
The method is based on the fact that, in a correctly oriented plane table, resectors
through well defined points get intersected at a point which represents the location of the
plane table station on the drawing. For example, as shown in Figure 35.1, if X, Y and Z
are well defined objects present in the field whose plotted positions are x, y and z. Now,
if the plane table is oriented correctly, the three resectors Xx, Yy and Zz get intersected
at p which represents the location of the plane table station, P on the drawing sheet. Thus,
through solution of three-point problem, both orientation and resection of plane table gets
accomplished simultaneously.
There are several methods for solution of the three point problem: (i) trial and
Error method, (ii) mechanical method, (iii) graphical method, (iv) Analytical method and
1. geometrical construction method. Of these, the trial and error method is easy, quick
and accurate. It is commonly used in practice and hence, has been discussed in detail.

Trial and Error method

In three point problem, if the orientation of the plane table is not proper, the
intersection of the resectors through the three points will not meet at a point but will form
a triangle, known as triangle of error Figure. The size of the triangle of error depends
upon the amount of angular error in the orientation.

43
 Triangle of Error

The trial and error method of three point problem, also known as Lehman's
method minimises the triangle of error to a point iteratively. The iterative operation
consists of drawing of resectors from known points through their plotted position and the
adjustment of orientation of the plane table.

The estimation of location of the plane table depends on its position relative to the well
defined points considered for this purpose. Depending on their relative positions, three
cases may arise:
1. The position of plane table is inside the great triangle;
2. The position of plane table is outside the great triangle;
The position of plane table lies on or near the circumference of the great
3. circle.
In case of (iii), the solution of the three-point problem becomes indeterminate or
unstable. But for the cases (i) and (ii), Lehmann,s rules are used to estimate the location
of plane table.

44
 Leveling
The aim of leveling is to determine the relative heights of different objects on or
below the surface of the earth and to determine the undulation of the ground surface.
Uses of leveling


To prepare a contour map for fixing sites for reservoirs, dams, barrages, etc. and
to fix the alignment of roads, railways, irrigation canals, and so on.


To determine the altitudes of different important points on a hill or to know the
reduced levels of different points on or below the surfaces of the earth.


To prepare a longitudinal section and cross sections of a project in order to
determine the volumes of earth.


To prepare a layout map for water supply , sanitary or drainage scheme

Level Surface
A level surface is defined as a curve surface which at each point is perpendicular
to the direction of gravity the point.
Level Line
A line lying in a level surface is known as level line.

45
Horizontal line
A horizontal plane through a point is the plane normal to the direction of gravity
at that point. It is tangential to the level surface at the point.

Vertical line
The vertical line at a point is the direction of gravity (i.e., towards the centre of
the earth) as indicated by a plumb line.

Datum
Datum is any surface to which elevations are referred the mean sea level afford a
conveinient datum world over and elevations are commonly given as so much above or
below sea level.

Mean Sea Level

Mean sea level is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any
particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19
years.

Reduced Level (RL)

The vertical distance of a point above or below the datum line is known as the
reduced level of the point

Line of collimation
It is the imaginary line passing through the intersection of the cross hair at the
diaphragm and the optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. It is also known
as the line of sight.

Height of instrument
When the leveling instrument is properly leveled. The RL of the line of
collimation is known as the height of instrument. This is obtained by adding the BS
reading to the RL of the BM

46
 Bench Mark
Bench mark is a relatively permanent point reference whose elevation with
respect to some assumed datum is known.
There are four type of bench mark
 
 GTS (Great trigonometrical Survey)


Permanent Bench Mark 


Arbitrary Bench Mark 

Temporary Bench Mark 

GTS (Great trigonometrical Survey)

GTS bench marks were established throughout the country to a high degree of
precision by the survey of India during their Great trigonometrical Survey. Their plan
positions and elevations with respect to the standard datum- mean sea level at Karachi.
Are tabulated in the catalogue published by them.

Permanent Bench Mark

Permanent bench marks are fixed reference points established by the government
organization or agencies such as the Public Works Department in certain states from the
standards bench mark. Conspicuous points on culverts, bridges, and buildings are
normally chosen.

Arbitrary Bench Mark

Arbitrary Bench Mark are reference points whose elevations are Arbitrary
assumed.

Temporary Bench Mark

Temporary Bench Mark is established at the end of a day’s work so that it can be
continued later with reference o them. Firm points such as parts of permanent objects are
used. (Man Made)
Fore Sight
The last sight taken before shifting the instrument to a different station is
foresight.

47
Back Sight
The first sight taken after setting up the instrument at a point is the back sight.

Intermediate sight
Once the back sight is taken at any instrument station, the surveyor is bale to
determine the level of any number of points of interest within range before the fore sight
is taken on a chosen point and the instrument is shifted.

Change Points
A staff station on which a fore sight before shifting the instrument is called a
change Points or turning point.

Leveling instrument
The instruments used for leveling are as follows
1. Dumpy Level
The telescope of the dumpy level is rigid fixed to its supports, it cannot be
removed from its support nor can it be rotated about its longitudinal axis. The
instrument is stable and retains its permanent adjustment for a long time.
2. Wye level
The telescope is held in two ‘Y’ supports. It can remove from the support and
reversed from one end of the telescope to be other end. The ‘Y’ support consists
of two curved clips which may be raised. Thus the telescope can be rotated about
its longitudinal axis.
3. Modern Tilting Level
The telescope can be tilted slightly about its horizontal axis with the help of a
tilting screw. In this instrument the line of collimation is made horizontal for each
observation by means of the tilting screw.
4. Automatic level
This is also known as the self-aligning level. This instrument is leveled
automatically within a certain tilt range by means of a compensating device

48
Description of Dumpy Level

Tripod Stand
The tripod stand consists of three legs which may be solid or framed. The legs are
made of light and hard wood. The lower ends of the legs are fitted with steel shoes.
Diaphragm
The diaphragm is a brass ring fitted inside the telescope just in front of the eye
piece. The ring carries the cross hair, which get magnified when viewed through eye
piece.
Leveling Head
The leveling head consists of two parallel triangular plates having three grooves
to support the foot screw.

49
 Bubble tube
Two bubble tubes, one called the longitudinal bubble tube and other the cross
bubble tube, are placed at right angles to each other. These tubes contain spirit bubble.
The bubble is brought to the centre with the help of foot screws.

Compass
A compass is provided just below the telescope for taking the magnetic bearing of
a line when required.

Leveling Staff
It is a self-reading graduated wooden rod having rectangular cross section. The
lower end of the rod is shod with metal to protect it from wear and usually point of zero
measurement from which the graduations are numbered. Staff are either solid (having
single piece of 3 meter height) or folding staff (of 4 meter height into two or three pieces)
The least count of a leveling staff is 5 mm.
Fundamental Lines of a Level
There are three fundamental lines in a level instrument figure. These are
 Vertical axis

 Axis of the level tube

 Line of sight


50





Fundamental Lines in a level

Temporary adjustment
Each surveying adjustment needs two types of adjustments.
a) Temporary adjustments or station adjustment
The adjustment mad easy at ever set up of the level before the staff
reading are taken are known as temporary adjustment.
The temporary adjustments for a level consist of the following
Setting Up
1) Fixing the instrument on the stand
2) Leveling the instrument approximately by leg adjustment.
Leveling Up
The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical.
The manner of leveling the instrument by the plate levels depends upon
whether there are three leveling screws.
3) Elimination of Parallax

51
 Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the objective
is not in the plane of the cross hair. It is by focusing the eye piece and by
focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of the cross
hair.
b) Permanent Adjustment of Dumpy Level
If any fundamental relation is found to be disturbed in a dumpy level, the cross-
hairs and level tube are adjusted so that the fundamental relations get satisfied. The
reference line for the adjustments in dumpy level is the vertical line which remains fixed
in direction, as it depends upon the direction of gravity.
Axis of the Level Tube is Perpendicular to the Vertical axis
Horizontal Cross Hair Should Lie in a Plane Perpendicular to the Vertical
axis
The Line of Sight is Parallel to the axis of the Bubble Tube

Calculation of Levels
The observed staff readings as noted in a level book are further required to be
manipulated to find out the elevation of points. The operation is known as reduction of
level. There are two methods for reduction of levels:
 Height of instrument method.
 Rise and Fall method and

Height of collimation method

In any particular set up of an instrument height of instrument, which is the
elevation of the line of sight, is constant. The elevation of unknown points can be
obtained by subtracting the staff readings at the desired points from the height of
instrument. This is the basic behind the height of instrument method for reduction of
level.

52
 Rise and fall method
For the same set up of an instrument, Staff reading is more at a lower point and
less for a higher point. Thus, staff readings provide information regarding relative rise
and fall of terrain points. This provides the basics behind rise and fall method for finding
out elevation of unknown points.
Booking and Reduced Levels
There are two methods of booking levels
 
 Height of collimation method

Rise & Fall method
Height of collimation
In this method, the height of the instrument is calculated for the each setting of the
instrument by adding back sight to the elevation of the BM.
Station B.S I.S F.S H.I R.L Remarks
First 3.415 515.415 512.00
2.725 512.69
Second 0.975 1.855 514.535 513.560 Change Point
Third 1.365 2.450 513.450 512.085 Change Point
0.475 512.975
Fourth 2.805 2.405 513.85 511.045 Change Point
Fifth 3.065 1.685 515.23 512.165 Change Point
Sixth 1.500 1.400 515.33 513.83 Change Point
2.750 512.58

53
∑B.S - ∑F.S = Last R.L - First R.L
13.125 - 12.545 = 512.58 - 512.00
0.58 = 0.58
2. A level book page is ruled as shown below to suit the height of collimation
method, and the readings entered in it. The first reading from every set up is a back sight,
the last reading as a fore sight, and all the other in between are intermediate sights. Also
consecutive readings just before and after shifting the instrument are recorded as
foresight and back sight in the same line as they refer to a change point.

Back Sight Inter Sight Fore sight Height of Co RL Remarks

0.900 100.90 100.000
2.400 1.250 102.05 099.650 Change Point
2.945 1.375 103.620 100.675 Change Point
3.125 100.495
0.100 3.725 99.995 099.895 Change Point
1.975 098.020
2.025 097.970
1.775 098.220

6.345 8.125 1.78

The arithmetical checks are ok as shown below

∑B.S - ∑FS = 1.78
The fall from first to last RL
∑First RL – ∑Last RL = 1.78
Hence Proved

2. The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level, 3.864, 3.346,
2.932, 1.952, 0.854, 37.796, 2.639, 1.542, 1.934, 0.864, and 0.665. The level was shifted
after the fifth reading and eight readings. The first reading was taken on a bench mark of
RL 150.250. Calculate the reduced levels of the change points and difference of level
between the first and last point.

54
 Solution
Back Sight Inter Sight Fore sight Height of Co RL Remarks
3.864 154.114 150.250
3.346
2.932
1.952
3.796 0.854 157.056 153.260 Change Point
2.639
1.934 1.542 157.448 155.514 Change Point
0.864
0.665 156.783 Last Point
9.594 3.061 6.533
The arithmetical checks are ok as shown below
∑B.S - ∑FS = 9.594 – 3.061 = 6.533
The fall from first to last RL
∑First RL – ∑Last RL = 156.783 – 150.250 = 6.533
Hence Proved

2. The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level, the instruments
having been shifted after the second, fourth and seventh readings: 0.900, 1.250,
2.400, 1.375, 2.945, 3.125, 3.725, 0.100, 1.975, 2.025 and 1.775. the first reading
was taken with a staff held on a bench mark of elevation 100.00. Enter the readings
in a level book and reduce the level by the rise and fall method. Apply the usual
check.
Reduced
Back Sight Inter Sight Fore Sight Rise Fall Remarks
Level
0.900 100.00
2.400 1.250 0.350 99.650
2.945 1.375 1.025 100.675
B.M:
3.125 0.180 100.495
Reduced
0.100 3.725 0.600 99.895
Level
1.975 1.875 98.020
100.00
2.025 0.050 97.970
1.775 0.250 98.220
6.345 8.125 1.275 3.055 Fall 1.780

55
 The arithmetical checks are
ok ∑fore sight - ∑back sight • 8.125 – 6.345
The fall from the first to last = 100.00 – 98.220 = 1.780
RL ∑Fall- ∑Rise = 3.055 – 1.275 = 1.780

• Complete the leveling table given tables. If an even gradient of 1 vertical in every
horizontal starts 1 m above peg 0. What is the height of the gradient above or its depth
below peg?
Reduced
Station Back Sight Inter Sight Fore Sight Rise Fall Remarks
Level
B.M 3.10 193.62
0 2.56 0.54 194.16
1 1.07 1.49 195.65
2 1.92 3.96 2.89 192.76 Change Point
3 1.20 0.67 1.25 194.01 Change Point
4 4.24 3.04 190.97
5 0.22 1.87 2.37 193.34 Change Point
6 3.03 2.81 190.53
7 1.41 1.62 192.15
6.44 7.91 7.27 8.74

The arithmetical checks are ok

∑fore sight - ∑back sight = 6.44 – 7.91 = -1.47
The fall from the first to last RL = 100.00 – 98.220 = -1.47
∑Fall- ∑Rise = 7.91 – 8.74 = -1.47
Height of gradient above peg 7 = 193.16 – 192.15 = 1.01m above

56
 Given below is page from a level book. Furnish the missing entries and complete
the field book with the usual check
S.no Back Reduced
Inter Sight Fore Sight Rise Fall Remarks
Sight Level
B.M X 150.00
1 2.457 0.827 X
2 2.400 0.057 X
B.M:
3 2.697 X X 148.070
Reduced
4 X 2.051 0.646 148.716
Level
5 2.500 1.068 149.784
150.00
6 2.896 X 149.388
7 X 0.124 X
8 2.672 0.348 149.784

Remembering the rules of reduction the missing entries may be easily deduced and
entered as follows (reduced entries are underlined). It can be easily seen that the
arithmetical checks are satisfied.

Reduced
Back Sight Inter Sight Fore Sight Rise Fall Remarks
Level
1.630 150.00
2.457 0.827 149.173
2.400 0.057 149.230
2.697 3.560 1.160 148.070 B.M:
3.568 2.051 0.646 148.716 Reduced
2.500 1.068 149.784 Level
2.896 0.396 149.388 150.00
3.020 0.124 149.264
2.672 0.348 149.612
7.895 8.283 2.119 2.507

57
Home Work
Given below is page from a level book. Furnish the missing entries and complete
the field book with the usual check. Calculate the missed data. (Home Work)
S.no Back Reduced
Inter Sight Fore Sight Rise Fall Remarks
Sight Level
B.M 2.150 450.00
1 1.645 X 0.500
2 2.345 X
3 X 1.965 X B.M:
4 2.050 1.825 0.400 Reduced
5 X X X 451.500 Level
6 1.690 1.570 0.120 450.00
7 2.865 2.100 X
8 X X 451.250
9

Table 1: Compare between Collimation and Rise & Fall

System
S.no Collimation System Rise & Fall System
It is rapid as it involves few It is laborious, involving several
1
calculation calculations
There is no check on the RL on There is a check on the RL of
2
intermediate points intermediate points
Errors in intermediate RL’s cannot be Errors in intermediate RL’s can be
3
detected detected as all the points are corrected
There are two checks on the accuracy There are three checks on the accuracy
4
of RL calculation of RL calculation
This system is suitable for
This system is suitable for fly leveling
5 longitudinal leveling where there are
where there are no intermediate sights,
a number of intermediate sights

58
 Methods of leveling
There are various leveling techniques each used for specific purpose.
 
 Simple leveling


Differential Leveling 


Fly Leveling


Check Leveling


Profile Leveling or Longitudinal Leveling 


Cross Sectional Leveling 


Reciprocal Leveling


Precise Leveling


Trigonometrically Leveling 


Barometry Leveling or Barometric Leveling 

Hypsometry Leveling 

The last three leveling is indirect approach.

Simple Leveling
Simple Leveling is a straightforward technique in which the difference in level
between two points is found with just one set up of the level approximately midway
between them.
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling is when points whose difference in elevation is required are
too far apart, or when the difference in level is too large. For this one set up of level will
not bet adequate.
Fly Leveling
Low precision, to find/check approximate level, generally used during
reconnaissance survey. A level line run at the close of a working day to check the results
of an extended line run in one direction only. Longer sights and fewer setups are used as
the purpose is to detect large mistakes. Also called fly levelling. Check Leveling
Check leveling is employed to check the accuracy of a part or whole of a leveling
job. At the end of the day’s work, a line of levels is run back to the starting point, merely
to check the accuracy of the work.

59
If the closing error is within permissible limits, the work is considered satisfactory,
otherwise the job is repeated. A simpler way to check any leveling job is to take staff
readings before chaining the level station twice, and checking for consistency at every
stage. Sometimes two different leveling instruments are employed simultaneously, at
every stage of the work, to get the difference of level between any two consecutive
points. The work proceeds further only after agreement of the values obtained by both
surveyors. This is a kind of fly leveling, but is also called check leveling by some. Profile
Leveling or longitudinal sectioning
Profile Leveling or longitudinal sectioning is used in route surveys for highways
and railways. The reduced levels of points along the proposed centre line, a known
distance apart, are obtained by the principles of differential and fly leveling. The object is
to determine the profile of the ground in a vertical longitudinal section.
Cross sectional leveling:
Cross sectioning
is the determination of
levels at specified
points to obtain an idea
of the variation of the
ground level transverse
to the centre line of a route on either side of it for a desired distance. Taking longitudinal
sections (LS) and cross sections (CS) helps in the estimation of the earth work involved
in a route.

60
Reciprocal leveling
Reciprocal leveling is the accurate determination of the difference in level
between two points by setting up the instrument near each of the points in succession and
taking observation of staff readings on both. It is useful when it is not feasible to set up
the level midway between the points.
Precise leveling
Precise leveling establishes bench mark fro future public use with a high degree
of precision. Refined instruments and procedure enhance the accuracy of the work, which
is usually conducted by government agencies like the survey of India.
Trigonometric leveling
Trigonometric leveling enables one to compute the elevation of highly separated
points from horizontal distances and vertical angles measured in the field.
Barometric Leveling
In this method, altitudes of points are related to changes in atmospheric pressure.
It is used to determine the rough levels of points at widely differing altitudes, as often
encountered in reconnaissance and preliminary surveys.
Hypsometry or Hypsometric leveling
Here the changes in the boiling point of water at points with differing altitudes
yield the difference of level approximately. The method is not reliable fro accurate work.
It is used for reconnaissance surveys.
Errors, Mistakes and Precautions in Leveling
Types of Errors
Instrumental Errors
Personal Errors
Errors due to Natural Causes
Error due to Earths Curvature & Refraction

61
 Instruments Error:
Error in permanent adjustment of level: For any major surveying
work, instrument needs to be tested and if required, gets to be adjusted. For small works,
bubble of the level tube should be brought to the centre before each reading and
balancing of sights are to be maintained.
Staff defective and/or of non-standard quality: The graduation in staff
may lack standard distance and thus may cause error in reading. In an ordinary leveling,
the error may be negligible but in the case of precise leveling, the graduations are to be
standardized with invar tape.
Error due to defective level tube: The bubble of the level tube may
remain central even though the bubble axis is not horizontal due to its sluggishness or it
may take considerable time to occupy central position, if it is very sensitive. Also, there
may be irregularity in the curvature of the tube causing delirious effect.
Error due to defective tripod: The tripod stand should be strong and
stable otherwise it causes setting of the instrument unstable and considerable time is
required to make it level. The nuts provided at the joints of the legs to the tripod head
should be well-tightened before mounting the instrument. The tripod should be set up on
a stable, firm ground.
Personal Errors
Due to imperfection in temporary adjustment of the instrument
These errors are caused due to careless setting up of the level, improper leveling of the
instrument, lack in focus of eyepiece or/and objective and error in sighting of the staff.
 Careless set-up of the instrument: If the instrument is not set up firmly, it gets
disturbed easily. If the ground is not firm, it may settled down and on hard
ground, it may get slipped. 

 Imperfect leveling of the instrument: Due to improper leveling of the
instrument, bubble does not remain at the centre when the sights are taken
resulting error in reading. To avoid the error, the bubble should be brought to the
centre before each reading.
 Imperfect focusing: If either the eye-piece or the objective or both are not
properly focused, parallax and thus error in the staff readings occur. Due to 

62
  movement of eyes if there is any apparent change in the staff reading the eye-
piece and objective need proper focusing. 

Errors in sighting: This occurs when the horizontal cross-hair does not exactly coincide
with the staff graduation or it is difficult to see the exact coincidence of the cross hairs
and the staff graduations. The error can be minimised by keeping the small sight distance.

Error due to staff held Non-vertical: If the staff is not held vertical, the staff reading
obtained is greater than the correct reading. To reduce the error, the staff should be held
exactly vertical or the staff man should be asked to waive the staff towards the instrument
and then away from the instrument and the lowest reading should be taken.

Errors in reading the staff: These errors occur if staff is read upward, instead of
downwards, read against the top or bottom hair instead of the central hair, mistakes in
reading the decimal part and reading the whole meter wrongly.

Errors in recording: The common errors are entering a wrong reading (with digits
interchanged or mistaking the numerical value of a reading called by the level man),
recording in wrong column, e.g., B.S. as I.S., omitting an entry, entering the inverted staff
reading without a minus sign etc.

Errors in computing: adding the fore sight reading instead of subtracting it and or
subtracting a back sight reading instead of adding.

Errors due to Natural Causes

Error due to curvature: In case of small sight distance error due to the curvature are
negligible, but if the sight distances are large, the error should be estimated and
accounted for, as discussed below. However, the error can be minimized through
balancing of sight or reciprocal observation.

63
 Error due to Curvature of the earth (ec) and Refraction of light(er)

With reference to figure, the horizontal line of sight through an instrument set at L is L' x
h. The level line passing through L' is L' x l . The correct staff reading at X is x l. Thus,
horizontal staff reading at station X, x h is associated with an error x h x l due to curvature
of the earth.
In Figure, PH is a horizontal line tangent at P to the level line along the mean radius, R m
of the earth. At station L, LH is the amount of departure of the horizontal line from level
line and thus the error due to curvature of the earth (e c). This can be calculated from the
triangle OPH in which
OH2 = OP2 + PH2
Or, (Rm + ec )2 = Rm2 + PH2

(Neglecting ec in the denominator as it is very small in comparison to Rm).

Assuming, mean radius of the earth as 6367 Km, and D is the distance in Km from the
instrument position to the staff station, the error due to the curvature of the earth is
ec = 0.0785 D2
It is subtractive in nature as curvature of the earth always provides increase in staff
reading.

64
Error due to refraction: It varies with temperature, terrain and other atmospheric
conditions. It is usually considered to be one seventh times but in opposite nature to the
error due to curvature. To minimize this error, reciprocal observation at the same instant
of time is required to be adopted.

Calculation for Curvature and Refraction error

In actual field condition, the line of sight through a level is not straight but it
bends downward due to the refraction of rays of light as it passes through the intervening
medium. Thus, reduces the error due to curvature of the earth by approximately 14%.
With reference to Figure, the actual line of sight of the instrument set at L is thus L' x a.
The observed staff reading at station X is x a. Thus, the compensation due to refraction is
thus x h x a which is error due to refraction (er ) through intervening atmosphere. In
figure, HA is the error due to refraction (er ).

Error due to Earths Curvature & Refraction

The combined error due to curvature and refraction (ecomb ) is thus given

by ecomb = 0.0675 D2 m where D is the distance in km

It is finally subtractive in nature as the combined effect provides increase in staff

reading. In Figure, x l x a represents the combined error due to curvature and refraction
and in Figure, it is AL.

65
 Error due to Curvature of the earth (ec) and Refraction of light(er)

In most ordinary leveling operation, the line of sight is rarely more than 2 meter
above the ground (where the variation in temperature causes substantial uncertainties in
the refraction index of air). Fortunately, most lines of sights in leveling are relatively
short (< 30 m) and B.S. & F.S. are balanced. Consequently, curvature and refraction
corrections are relatively small thus insignificant except for precise leveling.

Contouring
Contour
A contour is defined as an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground
surface. It can also be defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with the ground
surface. For example, the line of intersection of the water surface of a still lake or pond
with the surrounding ground represents a contour line.

Contour Interval
The difference in elevation between successive contour lines on a given map is
fixed. This vertical distance between any two contour lines in a map is called the contour
interval (C.I.) of the map. Figure (a) shows contour interval of 1m whereas Figure (b)
shows 10m.

66
 Contour lines (a) 1 m (b) 10 m

The choice of suitable contour interval in a map depends upon four principal
considerations. These are:
• Nature of the Terrain
• Scale of the Map
• Accuracy
• Time of Cost


Horizontal Equivalent

The horizontal distance between two points on two consecutive contour lines for a
given slope is known as horizontal equivalent. For example, in Figure (b) having contour
interval 10m, the horizontal equivalent in a slope of 1 in 5 would be 50 m. Thus,
horizontal equivalent depends upon the slope of the ground and required grade for
construction of a road, canal and contour interval.















Contour lines 10 m

67
 Characteristics of contour
The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a contour
map are as follows:
 The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to be
uniform.
 The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of
slope and varies inversely on the amount of slope. Thus, contours are spaced
equally for uniform slope (Figure); closely for steep slope contours (Figure) and
widely for moderate slope (Figure).
 The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the
normal of the contour at that point (Figure). They are perpendicular to ridge and
valley lines where they cross such lines.
 Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings (Figure)
 Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other (caves and overhanging
cliffs are the exceptions). (Figure)
 Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour (vertical cliff is
an exception). (Figure)
 Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan.
 A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the
map.
 A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill (Figure (a)). A
set of ring contours with higher values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower
value inside, depicts a depression (without an outlet) Figure (b).
 Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines in
U-shape cross a ridge and in V-shape cross a valley at right angles. The concavity
in contour lines is towards higher ground in the case of ridge and towards lower
ground in the case of valley (Figure).
 Contours do not have sharp turnings.

Methods of Contouring



Direct Method

Indirect Method

68
Direct Method
In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground.
Points which happen to fall on a desired contour are only surveyed, plotted and finally
joined to obtain the particular contour. This method is slow and tedious and thus used for
large scale maps, small contour interval and at high degree of precision. Direct method of
contouring can be employed using Level and Staff as follows:
Vertical control: In this method, a benchmark is required in the project area. The level is
set up on any commanding position and back sight is taken on the bench mark. Let the
back sight reading on the bench mark be 1.485 m. If the reduced level of the bench mark
is 100 m, the height of instrument would be 100 + 1.485 = 101.485 m. To locate the
contour of 100.5 m value, the staff man is directed to occupy the position on the ground
where the staff reading is 101.485 -100.500 = 0.985 m. Mark all such positions on the
ground where the staff reading would be 0.985 m by inserting pegs. Similarly locate the
points where the staff reading would be 101.485 -101 = 0.485 m for 101m contour. The
contour of 101.5 m cannot be set from this setting of the instrument because the height of
instrument for this setting of the instrument is only 101.485 m. Therefore, locating
contours of higher value, the instrument has to be shifted to some other suitable position.
Establish a forward station on a firm ground and take fore sight on it. This point acts as a
point of known elevation, for shifting the position of the instrument to another position,
from where the work proceeds in the similar manner till the entire area is contoured.
Horizontal control: The horizontal control is generally provided by method of plane
table surveying or locating the positions of points by other details of which will be
discussed in later module (Figure).

Direct Method of contouring

69
 Indirect Method
In this method, points are located in the field, generally as comers of well-shaped
geometrical figures such as squares, rectangles, and spot levels are determined.
Elevations of desired contours are interpolated in between spot levels and contour lines
are drawn by joining points of equal elevation.
Indirect methods are less expensive, less time consuming and less tedious as
compared to the direct method. These methods are commonly employed in small scale
surveys o f large areas or during mapping of irregular surface or steep slope. There are
two different ways usually employed for indirect method of contouring:
 Grid method and

 Radial line method
Gird Method
In this method, the area to be surveyed is divided into a grid or series of squares
(Figure). The grid size may vary from 5 m x 5 m to 25 m x 25 m depending upon the
nature of the terrain, the contour interval required and the scale of the map desired. Also,
the grids may not be of the same size throughout but may vary depending upon the
requirement and field conditio

The grid corners are marked on the ground and spot levels of these comers are
determined by leveling. The grid is plotted to the scale of the map and the spot levels of
the grid corners are entered. The contours of desired values are then located by
interpolation. Special care should be taken to give the spot levels to the salient features of
the ground such as hilltops, deepest points of the depressions, and their measurements
from respective comers of the grids, for correct depiction of the features. The method is
used for large scale mapping and at average precision.

70
 Table 2 : A Comparison between Direct and Indirect Methods of Contouring

Direct Method Indirect Method

Not very accurate but quicker and less
1 Very accurate but slow and tedious
tedious.
2 Expensive Reasonable cost
Appropriate for small projects Suitable for large projects requiring
requiring high accuracy, e.g., layout moderate to low accuracy, e.g., layout of
3
of building, factory, structural highway, railway, canal, etc.
foundations, etc.
More suitable for low undulating
4 Suitable for hilly terrain.
terrain.
Calculations need to be carried out in
5 Calculation in the field is not mandatory.
the field
After contouring, calculation cannot Calculations can be checked as and when
6
be checked. needed

Contouring Gradient
An imaginary line on the surface of the earth having a constant inclination with
the horizontal (slope) is called contour gradient. The inclination of a contour gradient is
generally given either as rising gradient or falling gradient, and is expressed as ratio of
the vertical height to a specified horizontal distance. If the inclination of a contour
gradient is 1 in 50, it means that for every 50 m horizontal distance, there is a rise (or fall)
of 1 m.
When the inclination of a contour gradient is given its direction from a point may be
easily located either on the map or on the ground by the methods discussed below.
 Location Contour Gradient on a Map
 Location Contour Gradient on the Ground

Uses of Contours

Nature of Grounds
To Locate Route
Intervisibility between Stations
To Determine Catchments Area or Drainage Area
Storage capacity of a Reservoir

71
Difference between Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson’s Rule

Trapezoidal Rule Simpson’s Rule

The boundary between the ordinates is The boundary between the ordinates is
considered to be straight considered to be an Arc of a Parabola.
There is no limitation. it can be applied for To apply this rule, the number of ordinates
any number of ordinates. must be odd. That is the number of
divisions should be even.
It gives an approximate results It gives a more accurate result.

Problem
The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10 m interval from a chain line to
an irregular boundary: 3.06, 4.14, 5.60, 6.00, 6.60, 7.80, 6.30 and 7.20m. Calculate
the are enclosed between the chain line, the irregular boundary using,
Average Ordinate Rule
Trapezoidal Rule
Simpson’s Rule
Average Ordinate Rule
Sum of Ordinates
Area = x l
No.of Ordinates

8 x 10
Area = x 3.06 4.14 5.604.866.006.607.806.307.20  = 458.31
9
sq.m

Trapezoidal Rule
Common Ordinates
Area = x 1st Ordinate  Last Ordinate  2Sumof other ordinates
2
10
Area = x 3.06 7.20  24.145.604.866.006.607.806.30 = 464.30
2
Sq.m

72
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III- APPLICATION OF THEODOLITE – SCIA1303

1
 Application of Theodolite

Theodolite Survey
The Theodolite is the most accurate instrument used by Surveyor for the
measurement of horizontal and vertical angles. It is wide applicable in Survey such
as,
 Laying off horizontal angles
 Locating points on line
 Prolonging Survey lines
 Establishing grades
 Determining difference in elevation
 Setting out Curves

Types of Theodolite
Theodolite can be classified as
 Transit Theodolite
 Non – Theodolite
Transit Theodolite
A transit theodolite is one in which the telescope can be revolved through a complete revolution
about 180 º, its horizontal axis in a vertical plane.
Non – Theodolite
The non – theodolite is one in which cannot be transited. In non transit theodolite the telescope is
mounted in such a manner that the line of sight cannot be revolved by revolving the telescope.
Nowadays only transit theodolite can used.
Theodolite can be further classified in to two types
 Vernier theodolite

Microptic theodolite
Vernier theodolite
Vernier theodolite is placed on the rounded plate to measure the reading
clearly quickly.

Microptic theodolite

Micrometer theodolite is placed on the rounded plate to measure the reading

clearly quickly.
Theodolite are made of various sizes. The diameter of the horizontal graduated circle (lower
plate) defines the size of the theodolite. The sizes rangefrom 8 cm to 25 cm, 8 cm to 12 cm size
instruments are used for general survey,while 14 cm to 25 cm size instruments are used for
triangulation.

2
Modern Theodolite
The optical Theodolite has optical system to read both horizontal and vertical angles with
greater accuracy. The electronic theodolites have optoelectronic system to scan
both horizontal vertical circles and display them digitally on a screen. Apart from this angle
measuring instrument, electronic distance measurement equipment (EDM) such as distomats is
also used to measure the distance automatically.

Various modern Theodolites are as follows

Electronic theodolite
Wild T 1000
Wild T 1600
Wild T 2002
Wild T 3000
Transit Theodolite
The Main features of all theodolites are the same, the instruments of different markers and the
different models of each mark vary in many of their details, but the essential parts are the same in
each.Component parts of transit theodolite are

1. Telescope 13. Altitude level

2. Trunnion axis 14. Leveling Head
3. Vernier frame 15. Levelingscrew
4. Vertical Circle 16. Plumb Bob
5. Plate levels 17. Arm of vertical Circle clamp
6. Standard frames 18. Foot plate
7. Upper Plate 19. Tripod Head
8. Horizontal Plate Vernier 20. Upper clamp
9. Horizontal Circle 21. Lower Clam
10. Lower Plate 22. Vertical circle clamp
11. Inner Axis 23. Tripod

Leveling Head
It consists of two parallel plates separated by leveling screw, the upper plate is called tribrach and
the lower plate is trivet. The trivet has a central aperture through with a plumb can be supported.
It supports the entire instruments & also serves to mount the instrument on a tripod.

3
Shifting Head
It is self centering device placed below the lower plate, but above the tribrach to center the
instrument is first approximately centered over the station by moving the tripod legs, then exact
centering is done by using the shifting head.

Lower Plate
It is a graduated horizontal circular plate graduated in clock-wise direction from 0 º to
360 º, each fifth degree is numbered. It is provided, lower clamp screw is tightened and the outer
spindle is fixed to tribrach of the lower plate is fixed.
Plate level
A level tube is mounted on an upper plate in the plate level to make the vertical axis truly
vertical.
Upper Plate
Upper plate is attached to inner solid spindle. It carries two vernier A and B diametrically
opposite to each other at 180 º. The upper plate is provided with upper screw and tangent screws.
The upper screw is clamped, both the plate move together as one unit.
Standards or 'A' frame
The two standards are 'A' frame shape is mounted on the upper plate.
Compass
It is a circular/trough/tubular to measure magnetic bearing of survey line.
Altitude Bubble
It is a sensitive level tube, attached to top of 'T' frame for measuring vertical
angles transit is leveled with reference to altitude bubble.

Tripod
It is a stand to support the theodolite for using in the field. The legs are made up of a solid frame.
It is pointed with steel shoes pointed down. Its has a tripod head has external screws to which
trivet of the leveling head is screwed.
Axis of telescope
The line joining the optical cetre of the object glass to the centre of the eye piece.
Face left and Face right observation
The observation of the horizontal and vertical angles with the face vertical either to the left or to

the right of an observer are known as Face left and Face right.

Swinging
Turning the telescope in a horizontal plane about vertical axis is generally called swinging.

4
 Figure 1: Theodolite

Fundamental Lines of a theodolite and the desired relationship between them

The fundamental lines of theodolite are as follows,
The vertical Axis
The horizontal Axis
The line of Collimation
Axis of plate level
Axis of altitude Level
Axis of Striding level

5
Temporary Adjustment
Setting Up
Leveling Up
Elimination of parallax
Setting Up

Centering of the instrument over the station mark by a plumb bob. 

Approximate levelling with the help of both tripod legs. 

By moving the leg radially, the plum bob is shifted in the direction
of legs while by moving by legs circumferentially or side way
Considerer able change in the inclination is effected without
disturbing the tripodlegs.

The approximate levelling is done either with the reference to a
small Circular bubble provided on tribrach. 

Levelling Up

repeatTurn the upper plate until the longitudinal axis of the plate level is roughly
parallel to a line joining any two of the levelling screws. 

Hold these two levelling screws between the thumb and first finger of Each hand and turn
them uniformly so that the thumb moves either towards eachother. 

Turn the upper plate through 90 º.

Turn the levelling screws until the bubble is central. 

Return the upper plate through 90 º to its original position till the bubble at centre. 

Turn back again through 90 º and the second again.

Repeat the 2nd and 4th step, till the bubble comes at central position. 


Elimination of Parallax
Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the objective is not in the plane of the
cross-hair. Unless parallax is eliminated, accurate sighting is impossible. Parallax can be
terminated by using followings two steps,



Focusing the eye-piece.

Focusing the objective.












6
Measurement of Horizontal Angles
General Method
Repetition method
Reiteration Method

General Method

 Set up the instrument at Q and level it accurately.

 Release all the clamps turn the upper and lower plates in opposite Directions till the
zero of one vernier is against zero of the scale and the vertical circle is to the left.
 Loose the lower clamp and turn the instrument towards the signal at P. Since the both
plates are clamped together the instrument will rotate about the outer axis.
 Bisect the P accurately by using lower tangents screws.
 Unclamp the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise about the inner axis to
bisect the point R, and clamp the upper plate.
 Read both vernier, the readings A gives the ∆PQR directly while the vernier B gives
by deducting 180 º.
 Change the face by transiting the telescope and repeat the whole Process.
 The average horizontal angle is then obtained.

Repetition method

 Set up the instrument at Q and level it accurately.

 Release all the clamps turn the upper and lower plates in opposite Directions till the
zero of one vernier is against zero of the scale and the vertical circle is to the left.
 Loose the lower clamp and turn the instrument towards the signal at P.

 Since the both plates are clamped together the instrument will rotate about the outer axis.
Bisect the P accurately by using lower tangents screws.
 Unclamp the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise about the inner axis to
bisect the point R, and clamp the upper plate.
 Read both vernier, the readings A gives the ∆PQR directly while the vernier B gives by
deducting 180 º.
 Unclamp the lower clamp screw and again sight P and clamp it. Unclamp the upper
clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise about the inner axis to bisect the point R,
and clamp the upper plate. Note down thereadings

7
  Repeat the process until the angles is repeated the required number of Times
(Usually3). The average angle with face left will be equal to final reading.

Reiteration Method
 Set the instrument over O and level it. Set one vernier to zero and bisect point A
accurately.
 Loose the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to point B. Bisect B
accurately using the upper tangent screw.
 Read both the verniers. The mean of the readings will give angles.
 Similarly, bisects successively, C, D, etc thus closing the circle. Read both the vernierat
each bisection. Since the graduated circle remains in a fixed position throughout the
entire process, each included angle is obtained by taking the difference between two
consecutive readings.
 On final sight to A, the reading of the vernier should be the same as the original setting. It
not, notes the readings and finds the error dueto slips etc, and if the error is small,
distribute it equally to all angles. If large, repeat the procedure and take a fresh set a
reading.
nd th
 Repeat 2 and 4 steps with the other face.

Measurement of Vertical Angles

 Level the instrument with reference to the plate level, as already
explained.
 Keep the altitude level parallel to any two foot screws and bring The bubble central.
Rotate the telescope through 90 º till the altitude.
 Bubble is on the third screw. Bring the bubble to the centre with the third foot screw.
Repeat the procedure till the bubble is central in both the positions. If the bubble is in
adjustment it will remain central for all pointing of the telescope.
 Loose the vertical circle clamp and rotate the telescope in vertical Plane to sight the
object. Use vertical circle tangent screw for accurate Bisection.
 Read both verniers (i.e.C and D) of vertical circle. The mean of the two gives the vertical
circle. Similarly observation may be made with another face. The average of the two
gives the required angle.

8
Miscellaneous Operations with
Theodolite
To measure the magnetic bearing of a line.
To measure direct angles
To measure deflection angles
To prolong a straight line
To run a straight line between two points
To locate the point of intersection of two straight lines
To lay off a horizontal angle
To lay off an angle by repetition

Sources of Error in Theodolite Work

 The sources of error in transit work are:
 Instrumental Errors
 Non Adjustment of plate
 Line of collimation not being perpendicular to horizontal axis
 Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to vertical axis
 Line of collimation not being parallel to axis of telescope
 Eccentrically of inner and outer axis
 Graduations not being uniform
 Vernier being eccentric
 Personal Errors, andNatural Errors

OMITTED MEASUREMENTS

Co-ordinate Method

The latitude of a survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length measured parallel to an
assumed meridian direction. The departure of survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate
length measured at right angles to the meridian direction. The latitude (L) and departure (D)
are tabulated below.

9
L = l cosø
D = l sin ø

The following tables give signs of latitude and departures

TABLE 1

Latitude Departure
Quadrant WCB RB RB (Ø)
(L cos Ø) (L sin Ø)

I 0º-90º WCB NØE + L cos Ø + L sin Ø

II 90º–180º 180 º -WCB SØE - L cos Ø + L sin Ø

III 180 º– 270 º WCB -180 º SØW - L cos Ø - L sin Ø

IV 270 º-360º 360 º-WCB NØW + L cos Ø - L sin Ø

10
Independent Co-ordinate
The co-ordinate of any point with respect to a common origin are said to be independent co –
ordinates of that point.

Consecutive co-ordinate
The latitude and departure of a point calculated with reference to the preceding point for
what are called consecutive co-ordinate

Closing and limitation

If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end point of the
traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point; such error is known as closing error.
In a closed traverse the algebraic sum of latitudes should be zero. The algebraic sum of
departure should be zero.

Adjustment of angular errors

Before calculating latitude and departure, the traverse angles should be adjusted to satisfy
geometric conditions.
In closed traverse, the sum of al interior angles should be equal to (2N-4) right angles, or the
algebraic sum of deflection angles should be 360

Adjustment of bearings

In a closed traverse in which the bearing are observed, the closing error in bearing may be
determined by comparing the two bearing of the last line as observed by the first land last station
of the traverse. Let e be the closing error bearing of last line of a closed traverse having N sides

The following are common methods of adjusting the traverse

• Bow ditch’s method

• Transit method

• Third Rule

11
Bow ditch’s method

• It is also termed as compass rule, is mostly used to balance the traverse where
linear and angular measurements are equal precision.

Correction of the latitude of any side = lengthof that side

perimeter of the traverse *total error in Latitude

Correction of the departure of any side = lengthof that side

perimeter of the traverse *total error in Deaparture

Transit Rule

The transit rule may be employed where the angular measurement are more precise
that the linear measurement.
Correction of the latitude of any side = latitude of that side *total error in Latitude
arithmetical sum of all latitudes

Correction of the departure of any side = latitude of that side

arithmetical sum of all Deaparture * total error in Deaparture

In a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of latitude and departure must be equal to zero.
∑L = l1Cos Ө1 + l2Cos Ө2 + l3Cos Ө3 + l4Cos Ө4 +………… = 0

When the length of one side and the bearing of another side are omitted
The following records are obtained in a traverse survey , when the length and bearing of the

last line is not recorded

.Line Length(m) Bearings

AB 204.0 ?
BC 226.0 20° 20’
CD 187.0 280° 0’
DA ? 210° 80’

12
Compute the length and bearing of the line DA.
Solution,

Northing Southing Easting Westing

Line Length(m) Bearing WCB
(+) (-) (+) (-)
AB 204.0 ? - - -
BC 226.0 20° 20’ 90° - 180° L Cos Ө L Sin Ө
CD 187.0 280° 0’ 270° - 360° L Cos Ө L Sin Ө

DA ? 210° 80’ 180° - 270° L Cos Ө L Sin Ө

Line Latitude (L Cos Ө) Departure(L Sin Ө)

AB 204.0 x Cos 0 = + 204.0 204.0 x Sin 0 = 0

BC 226.0 x Cos 20° 20’= +211.091 226.0 x Sin 20° 20’= + 78.53

CD 187.0 x Cos 280° 0’= +32.47 187.0 x Sin 280° 0’= - 184.15

DA L1 Cos 210° 80 = -0.854 L1 L1 Sin 210° 80 = -0.52 L2

In a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of latitude and departure must be equal to zero.
∑L = l1Cos Ө1 + l2Cos Ө2 + l3Cos Ө3 + l4Cos Ө4 +………… = 0
∑D = l1Sin Ө1 + l2 Sin Ө2 + l3 Sin Ө3 + l4 Sin Ө4 +………… = 0

+ 204 +211.0913 +32.47 -0.854 L1 = 0

L1 Cos Ө = - 524.1
+ 65.96 + 168.87 - 24.43 + L1 Sin Ө = 210.4
L1 Sin Ө = 203.11
Since the latitude (L Cos Ө) is positive and departure (L Sin Ө) is in Negative,
hence it is in North West Quadrant.
Bearing of line DA = D

13
 203.11
=
524.10

Tan-1 Ө = 0.3875
= N 21° 11’ 1.97 W

Distance = √ (∑L) 2 + (∑D) 2 = √ (524.10) 2 + (203.11) 2 = 562.08m

When the length of two side are omitted

A closed traverse was conducted round an obstacle and the following
observations were made.

Line Length(m) Bearings

AB 300 98° 30’
BC 620 30° 20’
CD 468 298° 30’
DA ? 230° 0’
EA ? 150° 10’

Compute the length and bearing of the line DA length and EA length.
Solution,
L1 = Latitude of DA,
L2 = Latitude of DA,

Eastin
Northing Southing g Westing
Line Bearing WCB
(+) (-) (+) (-)
L Sin
AB 98° 30’ 90° - 180° L Cos Ө Ө
L Sin
BC 30° 20’ 0° - 90° L Cos Ө Ө
CD 298° 30’ 270° - 360° L Cos Ө L Sin Ө
DA 230° 0’ 180° - 270° L Cos Ө L Sin Ө
L Sin
EA 150° 10’ 90° - 180° L Cos Ө Ө

14
In a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of latitude and departure must be equal to zero.
∑L = l1Cos Ө1 + l2Cos Ө2 + l3Cos Ө3 + l4Cos Ө4 +………… = 0
∑D = l1Sin Ө1 + l2 Sin Ө2 + l3 Sin Ө3 + l4 Sin Ө4 +………… = 0

- 73.90 + 535.17 + 223.31 -0.64 L1 -0.87 L2 = 0

+ 494.51 + 313.12 - 411.28 -0.76 L1 +0.48 L2 = 0
-0.64L1 -0.87 L2 = - 684.58…… (1)
-0.76L1 +0.48 L2 = - 396.35…… (2)
0.64L1 +0.87 L2 = 684.58……… (1).
0.76L1 -0.48 L2 = 396.35……… (2)
----------------------------------------------------------
Multiplying the Equation (1) with 0.76 and Multiplying the Equation (2) with 0.64
0.4864 L1 + 0.6612 L2 = 520.28……… (3).
(-) (-) (-)
0.4864 L1 + 0.3072 L2 = 253.664……… (4).
----------------------------------------------------------
0.354 L2 = 266.64
0.354L2 = 266.64
L2 = 753.22 m
Substituting the value of L2 in equation (3)
0.4864 L1 + 0.6612 x 753.22 = 520.28
0.4864 L1 = -498.03
L1 = 1023.9 m

15
Definition of Curves:

Curves are regular bends provided in the lines of communication like roads, railways etc. and also
in canals to bring about the gradual change of direction. They are also used in the vertical plane at
all changes of grade to avoid the abrupt change of grade at the apex.

Curves provided in the horizontal plane to have the gradual change in direction are known as
Horizontal curves, whereas those provided in the vertical plane to obtain the gradual change in
grade are known as vertical curves. Curves are laid out on the ground along the centre line of the
work. They may be circular or parabolic.

(i) Simple Curve:

A simple curve consists of a single arc of a circle connecting two straights. It has radius of the same
magnitude throughout. In fig. 11.1 T1 D T2 is the simple curve with T1O as its radius.

(ii) Compound Curve:

A compound curve consists of two or more simple curves having different radii bending in the
same direction and lying on the same side of the common tangent. Their centres lie on the same
side of the curve. In fig. 11.2, T 1 P T2 is the compound curve with T1O1 and PO2 as its radii.

16
(iii) Reverse (or Serpentine) Curve:

A reverse or serpentine curve is made up of two arcs having equal or different radii bending in
opposite directions with a common tangent at their junction. Their centres lie of opposite sides of
the curve. In fig. 11.3 T1 P T2 is the reverse curve with T1O1 and PO2 as its radii.

17
Names of Various Parts of a Curve: (Fig. 11.5)

The two straight lines AB and BC, which are connected by the curve are called the tangents or
straights to the curve.

(ii) The points of intersection of the two straights (B) is called the intersection point or the vertex.

(iii) When the curve deflects to the right side of the progress of survey as in fig. 11.5, it is termed as
right handed curve and when to the left, it is termed as left handed curve.

(iv) The lines AB and BC are tangents to the curves. AB is called the first tangent or the rear
tangent BC is called the second tangent or the forward tangent.

(v) The points (T1 and T2) at which the curve touches the tangents are called the tangent points. The
beginning of the curve (T1) is called the tangent curve point and the end of the curve (T2) is called
the curve tangent point.

(vi) The angle between the tangent lines AB and BC (ABC) is called the angle of intersection (I)

(vii) The angle by which the forward tangent deflects from the rear tangent is called the deflection
angle (ɸ) of the curve.

18
(viii) The distance the two tangent point of intersection to the tangent point is called the tangent
length (BT1 and BT2).

(ix) The line joining the two tangent points (T 1 and T2) is known as the long-chord

(x) The arc T1FT2 is called the length of the curve.

(xi) The mid-point (F) of the arc (T1FT2) in called summit or apex of the curve.

(xii) The distance from the point of intersection to the apex of the curve BF is called the apex
distance.

(xiii) The distance between the apex of the curve and the midpoint of the long chord (EF) is called
the versed sine of the curve.

(xiv) The angle subtended at the centre of the curve by the arc T 1FT2 is known as the Central angle
and is equal to the deflection angle (ɸ).

Elements of a curve

19
Methods of Curve Ranging:

A curve may be set out:

1. By linear methods, where chain and tape are used.

2. By angular or instrumental methods, where a theodolite with or without a chain is used.

Before starting setting out a curve by any method, the exact positions of the tangent points between
which the curve lies, must be determined.

For this, proceed as follows: (Fig. 11.5)

(i) Having fixed the directions of the straights, produce them to meet at point (B).

(ii) Set up a theodolite at the intersection point (B) and measure the angle of intersection (I). Then
find the deflection angle (ɸ) by subtracting (I) from 180°. i.e., ɸ = 180° — I

(iii) Calculate the tangent length from the Eqn. 11.3:

(iv) Measure the tangent length (BT1) backward along the rear tangent BA from the intersection
point B, thus locating the position of T1.

(v) Similarly, locate the position of T 2 by measuring the same distance forward along the forward
tangent BC from B,

Having located the positions of the tangent points T 1 and T2; their changes may be determined. The
change of T1 is obtained by subtracting the tangent length from the known change of the
intersection point B. And the change of T 2 is found by adding the length of the curve to the change
to T1.

Then the pegs are fixed at equal intervals on the curve. The interval between the pegs is usually 30
m or one chain length. This distance should actually be measured along the arc, but in practice it is
measured along the chord, as the difference between the chord and the corresponding arc is small
and hence negligible. In order that this difference is always small and negligible, the length of the
chord should not be more than 1/20th of the radius of the curve. The curve is then obtained by
joining all these pegs.

20
The distances along the centre line of the curve are continuously measured from the point of
beginning of the line upto the end, i.e., the pegs along the centre line of the work should be at equal
interval from the beginning of the line to the end. There should be no break in the regularity of their
spacing in passing from a tangent to a curve or from a curve to a tangent.

For this reason, the first peg on the curve is fixed at such a distance from the first tangent point (T 1)
that its change becomes the whole number of chains i.e. the whole number of peg interval. The
length of the first chord is thus less than the peg interval and is called as a sub- chord. Similarly
there will be a sub chord at the end of the curve. Thus a curve usually consists of two-chords and a
number of full chords. This is made clear from the following example.

Transition Curves:

A non-circular curve of varying radius introduced between a straight and a circular curve for the
purpose of giving easy changes of direction of a route is called a transition or easement curve. It is
also inserted between two branches of a compound or reverse curve.

Advantages of providing a transition curve at each end of a circular curve:

(i) The transition from the tangent to the circular curve and from the circular curve to the tangent is
made gradual.

(ii) It provides satisfactory means of obtaining a gradual increase of super-elevation from zero on
the tangent to the required full amount on the main circular curve.

(iii) Danger of derailment, side skidding or overturning of vehicles is eliminated.

(iv) Discomfort to passengers is eliminated.

Conditions to be fulfilled by the transition curve:

(i) It should meet the tangent line as well as the circular curve tangentially.

(ii) The rate of increase of curvature along the transition curve should be the same as that of
increase of super-elevation.

(iii) The length of the transition curve should be such that the full super-elevation is attained at the
junction with the circular curve.

(iv) Its radius at the junction with the circular curve should be equal to that of circular curve.

21
There are three types of transition curves in common use:

(1) A cubic parabola,

(2) A cubical spiral, and

(3) A lemniscate, the first two are used on railways and highways both, while the third on highways
only.

When the transition curves are introduced at each end of the main circular curve, the combination
thus obtained is known as combined or Composite Curve.

Super-Elevation or Cant:

When a vehicle passes from a straight to a curve, it is acted upon by a centrifugal force in addition
to its own weight, both acting through the centre of gravity of the vehicle. The centrifugal force acts
horizontally and tends to push the vehicle off the track.

In order to counteract this effect the outer edge of the track is super elevated or raised above the
inner one. This raising of the outer edge above the inner one is called super elevation or cant. The
amount of super-elevation depends upon the speed of the vehicle and radius of the curve.

22
Let:

W = the weight of vehicle acting vertically downwards.

F = the centrifugal force acting horizontally,

v = the speed of the vehicle in metres/sec.

g = the acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 metres/sec 2.

R = the radius of the curve in metres,

h = the super-elevation in metres.

b = the breadth of the road or the distance between the centres of the rails in metres.

Then for equilibrium, the resultant of the weight and the centrifugal force should be equal and
opposite to the reaction perpendicular to the road or rail surface.

If θ is the inclination of the road or rail surface, the inclination of the vertical is also θ

Characteristics of a Transition Curve (Fig 11.25):

Here two straights AB and BC make a deflection angle ∆, and a circular curve EE’ of radius R,
with two transition curves TE and E’T’ at the two ends, has been inserted between the straights.

It is clear from the figure that in order to fit in the transition curves at the ends, a circular imaginary
curve (T1F1T2) of slightly greater radius has to be shifted towards the centre as(E 1 EF E E1. The

distance through which the curve is shifted is known as shift (S) of the curve, and is equal to ,

23
where L is the length of each transition curve and R is the radius of the desired circular curve
(EFE’). The length of shift (T1E1) and the transition curve (TE) mutually bisect each other.

(ii) The tangent length for the combined curve

(iii) The spiral angle φ1=

24
(iv) The central angle for the circular curve:

∠EOE’=∆2ɸ1

(v) Length of the circular curve EFE’

(vi) Length of the combined curve TEE’T”

(vii) Change of beginning (T) of the combined curve = Change of the intersection point (B)-total
tangent length for the combined curve (BT).

(viii) Change of the junction point (E) of the transition curve and the circular curve = Change of T
+ length of the transition curve (L).

(ix) Change of the other junction point (E’) of the circular curve and the other transition curve-
change of E + length of the circular curve.

(x) Change of the end point (T’) of the combined curve = change of E’ + length of the transition
curve.

Check:

The change of T thus obtained should be = change of T + length of the combined curve.

Note:

The points on the combined curve should be pegged out with through change so that there will be
sub-chords at each end of the transition curve and of the circular curve.

(xi) The deflection angle for any point on the transition curve distant I from the beginnings of
combined curve (T),

25
(xiii) The offsets for the transition curve are found from:

26
(xiv) The offsets for the circular curve from chords producers are found from:

Method of Setting Out Combined Curve by reflection Angles (Fig. 11.25):

The first transition curve is set out from T by the deflection angles and the circular curve from the
junction point E. The second transition curve is then set out from T’ and the work is checked on the
junction point E’ which has been previously fixed from E.

(i) Assume or calculate the length of the transition curve.

(ii) Calculate the value of the shift by:

(iii) Locate the tangent point T by measuring backward the total tangent length BT (article 11.14, ii)
from the intersection point B along BA, and the other tangent T by measuring forward the same
distance from B along BC.

(iv) Set up a theodolite at T, set the vernier A to zero and bisect B.

(v) Release the upper clamp and set the vernier to the first deflection angle (x1) As obtained from
the table of deflection angles, the line of sight is thus directed along the first point on the transition
curve. Place zero end of the tape at T and measure along this line a distance equal to first sub
chords, thus locating first point on the transition curve.

27
(vi) Repeat the process, until the end of the curve E is reached.

Check:

The last deflection angle should be equal to φ1/3, and the perpendicular offset from the tangent TB
for the last point E should be equal to 4S.

Note:

The distance to each of the successive points on the transition curve is measured from T.

(vii) Having laid the transition curve, shift the theodolite to E and set it up and level it accurately.

(viii) Set the vernier to a reading(360°-2/3 φ1 ) for a right-hand curve (or 2/3 φ1) for a left-hand
curve and lake a back sight on T. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise through
an angle 2/3 φ1 the telescope is thus directed towards common tangent at E and the vernier reads
360°. Transit the telescope, now it points towards the forward direction of the common tangent at E
i.e. towards the tangent for the circular curve.

(ix) Set the vernier to the first tabulated deflection angle for the circular curve, and locate the first
point on the circular curve as already explained in simple curves.

(x) Set out the complete circular curve up to E’ in the usual way

Check:

The last deflection angle should be equal to

(xi) Set out the other transition curve from T as before. The point E’ to be set from T should be the
same as already set out from E.

Method of Setting Out a Combined Curve by Tangential Offsets (Fig. 11.25):

(i) Assume or calculate the length of the transition curve.

(ii) find the value of the shift train, .

(iii) Locate the tangent points T and T as in article (11.15, iii),

(iv) Calculate the offset for the transition curve as in article (11.14 xiv)

(v) Locate die points on the transition curve as well as on the circular curves by setting out the
respective offsets.

28
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV- DISTANCE AND ELEVATION BY TACHEOMETRY

– SCIA1303

1
 Distance and Elevation by Tacheometry
Tacheometric Surveying

Tacheometric is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances are

determined by taking angular observation with an instrument known as a tachometer.
Tacheometric surveying is adopted in rough in rough and difficult terrain where direct
leveling and chaining are either not possible or very tedious. The accuracy attained is such
that under favorable conditions the error will not exceed 1/100. and if the purpose of a survey
does not require accuracy, the method is unexcelled. Tacheometric survey also can be used
for Railways, Roadways, and reservoirs etc. Though not very accurate.Tacheometric
surveying is very rapid, and a reasonable contour map can be prepared for investigation
works within a short time on the basis of such survey.
Uses of Tachometry
 Tachometry is used for

 preparation of topographic map where both horizontal and vertical distances are
required to be measured;

 survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods of measurements are

inconvenient;

 reconnaissance survey for highways and railways etc;

Establishment of secondary control points.
Instruments used in tachometric surveying
An ordinary transits theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally used for
tacheometric surveying. The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair above
and the other an equal distance below the horizontal cross hair, the stadia hair being mounted
in the same ring and in the same vertical plane as the horizontal and vertical cross-hair.
The telescope used in stadia surveying are three kinds,
 The Simple external focusing telescope.
 The external focusing anal lactic telescope (porro’s telescope).
 The internal focusing telescope.

2
The first type is known as stadia theodolite, while the second type is known as tacheometer.
The tacheometer has the advantage over the first and third type due to fact that the additive
constant of the instrument is zero.

The instruments employed in tachometry are the engineer's transit and the leveling rod or
stadia rod, the theodolite and the subtense bar, the self-reducing theodolite and the leveling
rod, the distance wedge and the horizontal distance rod, and the reduction tacheometer and
the horizontal distance rod.
Features of tacheometer or Characteristic of tacheometer

The multiple constant (f/i) should have a normal value of 100 and the error contained in this
value should not exceed 1 in 1000.

The axial horizontal lines should be exactly midway between the other two lines. The
telescope should be fitted with an anallatic lens to make the additive constant
(f + d) exactly to zero.
The telescope should be truly analectic.
The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20 to 30 diameters. The
Aperture of the object should be 35 to 45 mm in diameter.
Levelling and Stadia Staff Rod
For short distances, ordinary leveling staves are used. The leveling staff normally 4m long,
and it can be folded with here parts. The graduations are so marked that a minimum reading
of 0.005 or 0.001m can be taken.
Different systems of Tacheometric Measurement
The various systems of tacheometric survey may be classified as follows,
The Stadia Method
a) Fixed Hair Method and
b) Movable Hair Method
c) Tangential System

3
Measurements by means of special instruments.
The principle is common to all system is to calculate the horizontal distance between two
points A and B their deference in elevation, by observing 1) the angle at the instrument at A
subtended by known short distance along a staff kept at B and 2) the vertical angle to B from
A
Stadia systems
In this systems staff intercepts, at a pair of stadia hairs present at diaphragm, are considered.
The stadia system consists of two methods:
 Fixed-hair method and
 Movable-hair method
Fixed-hair method
In this method, stadia hairs are kept at fixed interval and the staff interval or intercept
(corresponding to the stadia hairs) on the leveling staff varies. Staff intercept depends upon
the distance between the instrument station and the staff.
Movable- hair method
In this method, the staff interval is kept constant by changing the distance between the stadia
hairs. Targets on the staff are fixed at a known interval and the stadia hairs are adjusted to
bisect the upper target at the upper hair and the lower target at the lower hair. Instruments
used in this method are required to have provision for the measurement of the variable
interval between the stadia hairs. As it is inconvenient to measure the stadia interval
accurately, the movable hair method is rarely used.
Non-stadia systems
This method of surveying is primarily based on principles of trigonometry and thus
telescopes without stadia diaphragm are used. This system comprises of two methods:
 Tangential method and
 Subtense bar method.
Tangential method
In this method, readings at two different points on a staff are taken against the horizontal
cross hair and corresponding vertical angles are noted.

4
Subtense bar method.
In this method, a bar of fixed length, called a subtense bar is placed in horizontal position.
The angle subtended by two target points, corresponding to a fixed distance on the subtense
bar, at the instrument station is measured. The horizontal distance between the subtense bar
and the instrument is computed from the known distance between the targets and the
measured horizontal angle.

Principles of Stadia Method

(Figure 23.1) A tacheometer is temporarily adjusted on the station P with horizontal line of
sight. Let a and b be the lower and the upper stadia hairs of the instrument and their actual
vertical separation be designated as i. Let f be the focal length of the objective lens of the
tacheometer and c be horizontal distance between the optical centre of the objective lens and
the vertical axis of the instrument. Let the objective lens is focused to a staff held vertically at
Q, say at horizontal distance D from the instrument station.

Figure 1: Principle of Stadia Measurement

5
By the laws of optics, the images of readings at A and B of the staff will appear along the
stadia hairs at a and b respectively. Let the staff interval i.e., the difference between the
readings at A and B be designated by s. Similar triangle between the object and image will
form with vertex at the focus of the objective lens (F). Let the horizontal distance of the staff
from F be d. Then, from the similar Ds ABF and a' b' F,

as a' b' = ab = i. The ratio (f / i) is a constant orf a particular instrument and is known as
stadia interval factor, also instrument constant. It is denoted by K and thus

d = K.s --------------------- Equation (23.1)

The horizontal distance (D) between the center of the instrument and the station point (Q)
at which the staff is held is d + f + c. If C is substituted for (f + c), then the horizontal
distance D from the center of the instrument to the staff is given by the equation

D = Ks + C ---------------------- Equation (23.2)

The distance C is called the stadia constant. Equation (23.2) is known as the stadia equation
for a line of sight perpendicular to the staff intercept.
Theory of Stadia Tacheometry
The following is the notation used in stadia tacheometry
O = Optical centre of object glass.
A1, A2, C = Readings on staff cut by three hairs
a 1, a 2, C = Bottom Top, and Central Hair of diaphragm
a 1 a 2, = i = length of image
A1, A2, = S = Staff Intercept
V = Vertical axis of instrument

6
7
The quanta ties (f/i) and (f + d) are known as techeometric constants. (f/i) is called the
multiplying constant, as already stated, and (f + d) the additive constant. by adopting an anal
latic lens in the telescope of a tacheometric, the multiplying constant is made 100, and the
additive constant zero. However, in some tacheometers the additive constants are not exactly
zero, but vary from 30 cm to 60 cm
Inclined Stadia Measurements
It is usual that the line of sight of the tacheometer is inclined to the horizontal. Thus, it is
frequently required to reduce the inclined observations into horizontal distance and
difference in elevation.

Figure 2: Principle of Stadia Measurement

8
Let us consider a tacheometer (having constants K and C) is temporarily adjusted on a
station, say P (Figure 23.2). The instrument is sighted to a staff held vertically, say at Q.
Thus, it is required to find the horizontal distance PP1 (= H) and the difference in elevation
P1Q. Let A, R and B be the staff points whose images are formed respectively at the upper,
middle and lower cross hairs of the tacheometer. The line of sight, corresponding to the
middle cross hair, is inclined at an angle of elevation q and thus, the staff with a line
perpendicular to the line of sight. Therefore A'B' = AB cos q = s cos q where s is the staff
intercept AB. The distance D (= OR) is C + K. scos q (from Equation 23.2). But the distance
OO1 is the horizontal distance H, which equals OR cos q. Therefore the horizontal distance
H is given by the equation.
H = (Ks cos q + C) cos q

Or H = Ks cos2 q + C cos q ----------------- Equation (23.3)

in which K is the stadia interval factor (f / i), s is the stadia interval, C is the stadia constant (f
+ c), and q is the vertical angle of the line of sight read on the vertical circle of the transit.

The distance RO1, which equals OR sin q, is the vertical distance between the telescope
axis and the middle cross-hair reading. Thus V is given by the equation

V = (K s cos q + c) sin q

V = Ks sin q cos q + C sin q ----------------- Equation (23.4)

Thus, the difference in elevation between P and Q is (h + V - r), where h is the height of the
instrument at P and r is the staff reading corresponding to the middle hair.

9
Uses of Stadia
The stadia method of surveying is particularly useful for following cases:
• In differential leveling, the back sight and foresight distances are balanced
conveniently if the level is equipped with stadia hairs.
• In profile leveling and cross sectioning, stadia is a convenient means of finding
distances from level to points on which rod readings are taken.
• In rough trigonometric, or indirect, leveling with the transit, the stadia method is
more rapid than any other method.
• For traverse surveying of low relative accuracy, where only horizontal angles and
distances are required, the stadia method is a useful rapid method.
• On surveys of low relative accuracy - particularly topographic surveys-where both
the relative location of points in a horizontal plane and the elevation of these
points are desired, stadia is useful. The horizontal angles, vertical angles, and the
stadia interval are observed, as each point is sighted; these three observations
define the location of the point sighted.
Errors in Stadia Measurement
Most of the errors associated with stadia measurement are those occur during observations
for horizontal angles (Lesson 22) and differences in elevation (Lesson 16). Specific sources
of errors in horizontal and vertical distances computed from observed stadia intervals are
as follows:
Error in Stadia Interval factor
This produces a systematic error in distances proportional to the amount of error in the stadia
interval factor.
Error in staff graduations
If the spaces on the rod are uniformly too long or too short, a systematic error proportional
to the stadia interval is produced in each distance.
Incorrect stadia Interval
The stadia interval varies randomly owing to the inability of the instrument operator to
observe the stadia interval exactly. In a series of connected observations (as a traverse) the

error may be expected to vary as the square root of the number of sights. This is the
principal error affecting the precision of distances. It can be kept to a minimum by proper
10
focusing to eliminate parallax, by taking observations at favorable times, and by care in
observing.

Error in verticality of staff

This condition produces a perceptible error in measurement of large vertical angles than for
small angles. It also produces an appreciable error in the observed stadia interval and hence
in computed distances. It can be eliminated by using a staff level.
Error due to refraction
This causes random error in staff reading.
Error in vertical angle
Error in vertical angle is relatively unimportant in their effect upon horizontal distance if the
angle is small but it is perceptible if the vertical angle is large.
Tangential Method
The tangential method of tacheometry is being used when stadia hairs are not present in
the diaphragm of the instrument or when the staff is too far to read.
In this method, the staff sighted is fitted with two big targets (or vanes) spaced at a fixed
vertical distances. Vertical angles corresponding to the vanes, say q1 and q2 are measured.
The horizontal distance, say D and vertical intercept, say V are computed from the values s
(pre-defined known) q1 and q2 . This method is less accurate than the stadia method.
Depending on the nature of vertical angles i.e, elevation or depression, three cases of
tangential methods are there.

When the Both Angles are Angles of Elevation

When one of the Vertical Angles is Elevation Angle and the other is Depression Angle
When Both Vertical Angles are Depression Angles

11
When the Both Angles are Angles of Elevation

Figure 3

V = D tan q1

and V+s = D tan q2

Thus, s = D (tan q2 - tan q1)

12
When Both Vertical Angles are Depression Angles

Figure 4

13
V = D tan q1

and V-s = D tan q2

Thus, s = D ( tan q1 - tan q2 )

When one of the Vertical Angles is Elevation Angle and the other is Depression
Angle

Figure 5

14
V = D tan q1

and s - V = D tan q2

Thus, s = D (tan q2 + tan q1)

-------------------- Equation (24.7)

where, h is the height of the instrument, r is the staff reading corresponding to lower
vane.

Example Problem
In a tangential method of tacheometry two vanes were fixed 2 m apart, the lower vane being
0.5 m above the foot of the staff held vertical at station A. The vertical angles measured are
+1° 12' and -1° 30'. find the horizontal distance of A and reduced level of A, if the R.L. of the
observation station is 101.365 m and height of instrument is 1.230 m.

15
Solution:
Let D be the horizontal distnce between the observation station P and staff point A. Then,
from Figure Ex24.1,
V = D tana1
s - V = D tana1
Or, s = D tana2 + D tana1

Given, s = 2 m; a1= 1° 30' & a2 = 1° 12'

Therefore R.L. of A = 101.365 + 1.230 -1.11 - 0.5 = 100.985 m

16
Tacheometric Formula

Different systems of Tacheometric Measurement

The various systems of tacheometric survey may be classified as follows
 The Stadia Method
I. Fixed Hair Method
When the line of sight is horizontal, with staff held vertical

When the line of sight is horizontal, the general formula for finding
distance between instruments station and object station.
D = f x S + (f+d)
i

Where, f = Multiplying constant (K)(f+d) = Additive constant(C)

i

D = KxS+C
Generally in tacheometry surveying, the multiplying constant i = 100, and
additive constants (f+d) = 0.
RL of Instruments axis = RL of BM + BS
RL of station point P = RL of Instrument axis–h
Where,
BM =Bench Mark
BS =Back Sight
height of the instrument HI = Height of
Collimation

17
When the line of sight is Inclined(Angle of Elevation), with staff held vertical

V
ø Line of Axis

When the line of sight is Inclined (Angle of Elevation), the general formula for finding
distance between instruments station and object station.

D = f x S Cos 2 ø + (f+d) Cos ø

i

Generally in tacheometry surveying, the multiplying constant i = 100, and

additive constants (f+d) = 0.
We know that,
V = L Sin ø
L = f x S Cos ø + (f+d)
i
Therefore,
f
1. x S Cos ø Sin ø + (f+d) Sin ø
i
V = f x S x Sin 2ø + (f+d) Sin ø
i 2

V = D tan ø

RL of Instruments axis = RL of BM + BS
RL of station point P = RL of Instrument axis + V –h

18
c) When the line of sight is Angle of Depression with staff held vertical
Line of Axis

When the line of sight is Angle of Depression the general formula for finding
distance between instruments station and object station.

D = f x S Cos 2 ø + (f+d) Cos ø

i

Generally in tacheometry surveying, the multiplying constant i = 100, and

additive constants (f+d) = 0.
We know that,
V = L Sin ø
L = f x S Cos ø + (f+d)
i
Therefore,
f
x S Cos ø Sin ø + (f+d) Sin ø
i
V = f x S x Sin 2ø + (f+d) Sin ø
i 2
V = D tan ø

RL of Instruments axis = RL of BM + BS
RL of station point P = RL of Instrument axis - V –h

19
Problem
1 A tacheometer is set up at a station point P and the following readings were taken
Instrument Staff Vertical
Staff Reading Remarks
Station Station Angle

A BM -6° 30’ 0.98, 1.54, 2.10 RL of the

BM
A P +12° 24’ 1.89, 2.48, 3.07 384.5 m

Calculate the horizontal distance between AB and RL of B, when the constants of the
instruments are 100 and 0.5
Solution
When the line of sight is inclined, the general formula for finding distance between
instrument station and the object station.

D = f x S Cos 2 ø + (f+d) Cos ø

i
The tacheometry surveying, the multiplying constant i = 100, and additive constants (f+d) =
0.5

S2

h2
P V2
Line of Axis T ø 12° 24' Line of Axis
6° 30'
V1 BS

S1
h1
BM

D1 D2

a) First observation (BM to A)

S1 = 2.10-0.98 = 1.12 m
Ø = 6° 30’

2
D1 = f x S Cos ø + (f+d) Cos ø

20
 = 100 x 1.12 Cos 26° 30’+ (0.5 Cos 6° 30’
= 99.21 m

f S xSin 2ø
V1 = x + (f+d) Sin ø
2
1.12xSin2 x 630
= 100 x + 0.5 Sin 6° 30’

= 12.65 m

Second observation (A to P)
S2 = 3.07- 1.89 = 1.18 m
Ø = 12° 24’

2
D1 = f x S Cos ø + (f+d) Cos ø
i
= 100 x 1.18 Cos 2 12° 24’+ (0.5 Cos 12° 24’
= 113.05 m

f S xSin 2ø
V1 = x + (f+d) Sin ø
2
1.18xSin2 x 1224
100 x + 0.5 Sin 12° 24’
2
24.85 m

RL of the instruments axis = RL of BM + h1+ V1

= 384.5 + 12.65 + 1.54
= 398.69 m
RL of P = RL of instrument axis + V2 - h1
= 421.06
2.Atacheometer is set up at a station point P and the following readings were taken
Instrument Staff Vertical
Staff Reading Remarks
Station Station Angle

A BM -7° 30’ 1.300, 1.80, 2.30 RL of the

BM
A P +18° 24’ 0.95, 1.700, 2.450
415.5 m
B P -9° 30’ 1.915, 2.515, 3.115

21
Calculate the horizontal distance between AB and RL of B, when the constants of the
instruments are 100 and 0

Solution
When the line of sight is inclined, the general formula for finding distance between
instrument station and the object station.

D = f x S Cos 2 ø + (f+d) Cos ø

i
The tacheometry surveying, the multiplying constant i = 100, and additive constants (f+d) =
0

9° 30'
V3

S2
h3
h2
P V2
Line of Axis T ø 18° 24' Line of Axis
7° 30'
V1 BS

S1
h1
BM

D1 D2 D3

22
23
 Triangulation

Triangulation is the surveying technique in which unknown distances between stations may
be determined b trigonometric applications of a triangle or triangles. In triangulation, one
side called the baseline and at least two interior angles are measured. When the all the three
interior angles are measured, accuracy of the calculated distances is in increased and a check
provided against any measurements error.
Geodetic triangulation
A geodetic triangulation survey, in which stations are miles apart, must consider the earth’s
size and shape.

Application of triangulation
Triangulation may be used for

Establishing accurately located control points for plane and geodetic survey of large areas.

Establishing accurately located control points in connection with aerial surveying, Accurate
location of engineering projects such as centre lines, terminal points and
shafts for long tunnels and abutments for long bridges.

Triangulation system
It may be defined as a system consisting of triangulation by a chain of triangles.
The complete figure is called triangulation system or triangulation figure.

Triangle
A chain of triangles is very rapid and economical when a narrow strip of terrain is to be
surveyed.
Angles less than 30° or more than 120° are not permitted
Advantages
Simple, rapid and economical

24
Classification of triangulation
The classification of triangulation is based upon the degree of accuracy required, the extent
of the area to be surveyed, length of the base, length of the sides, and triangulation mis-
closure.
The three classification of triangulation are
Primary triangulation (first order triangulation)
Secondary triangulation (Second order triangulation) Tertiary
triangulation (Third order triangulation)
The recommendation regarding the precession to be obtained during triangulation are given
by

s.no Requirements Primary Secondary Tertiary

30 – 160
1 Length of sides of triangle 8 – 70 Km 1.5 – 10 Km
Km
2 Length of baseline 5 – 20 Km 2 – 5 Km 0.5 – 3 Km
3 Average Triangular Closure 1” 3” 6”
4 Maximum Triangular Closure 3” 8” 12”
Wild or Any theodolite
5 Instruments Wild theodolite
Zeiss with 5” L.C
6 Limiting Strength of figure 25 40 50
7 Sets of observations 16 8 3
8 Actual Error of base 1 in 300,000 1 in 150,000 1 in 750,000
1 in
9 Probable Error of base 1 in 5000,000 1 in 250,000
1,000,000
10 mm
10 Discrepancy between station 20 mm √Km 25 mm √Km
√Km

It may define as a figure which gives the least error in the calculated length of the last line in
the system due to shape of triangles and composition of the figures.

25
Distances angles
In computing a given side in any triangle there are always two distance angles, namely, the
angle opposite the known side and the angle opposite the unknown side.

c b
A

B C

B C
a
Criterion of strength
The method is based on an expression for the square of probable error L2

D-C
Calculating strength of figure R = -------------- * Σ (δA2+ δAδB+ δB2)
D

D-C
R = -------------- * Σa
D
Where,
R = Strength of figure
D = Number of direction observed, excluding those of known side of a given fig.
= δA2+ δAδB+ δB2 (the values of probable error of an observed direction)
C = the number of geometric condition (angle condition + side condition)
3) (n’ –s’ + 1) + (n – 2s + 3)
n = number of lines
s’ = number of station occupied
s = total number of station
n’= number of lines observed in both the direction

26
Problem
 In a triangle ABC, angles A,B and C were observed as 70°, 50° and 60°
respectively. The line AC was used as a base line of the known length.
Calculate the strength of the figure.
Solution,

c 70°, b

50°, 60°,

B C
a
C = the number of geometric condition (angle condition + side condition)
 (n’ –s’ + 1) + (n – 2s + 3)
 (3–3+1)+(3–6+3)
Distance of given triangle
Distance Angle A = 70° (Angle opposite to known side)
Distance Angle B = 50° (Angle opposite to unknown side, which ever higher)

D-C
Calculating strength of figure R = -------------- * Σa
D

4-1
R = -------------- * 5=3.75
4

27
TYPES OF TRIANGULATION NETWORKS
In triangulation there are three types of triangulation networks (or nets).
They are the chain of single triangles, chain of polygons, and chain of quadri- laterals.

Chains of triangles

Chain of polygon

Chains of Quadrilaterals

28
TRIANGULATION STATIONS, SIGNALS, AND INSTRUMENT SUPPORTS

Signals
Signals are those survey targets that either are illuminated by natural sunlight or are
electrically lighted by use of wet or dry cell batteries. The observations for all first-and
second-order triangulation and first-order traverse are usually done at night using signal
lights, because of more stable atmospheric conditions, which allow for better pointings.
Observations maybe made during daylight hours using lights, but for high-accuracy surveys,
this is done only under extreme conditions.
Towers
Towers must be built on some stations to raise the lines of sight to clear obstructions or to
lengthen the lines of sight to increase distances between stations of area surveys. A tower
consists of an instrument stand (inner structure) and a platform to support the observer (outer
structure). Towers fall roughly into three classes: prefabricated aluminum or steel, wooden,
and expedient towers.
Classification of signals
The signals may be classified under two types,

Luminous Signals Opaque

Signals
Luminous signals
Luminous are sub-dived in to types

Sun Signals Night Signals

Those Signals which is reflect the ray’s of the sun towards the station of observation are
known as heliotropes. Such signals can be used in clear weather.
Heliotropes
The word "Heliotrope", when examined in detail, means "the sun" and "to turn". It is a fitting
name for an instrument which does just that reflects the sun toward a given point.

The heliotrope was utilized by surveyors as a specialized form of target; it was employed
during large triangulation surveys where, because of the great distance between stations
(usually twenty miles or more), a regular target would appear indistinct.

29
Opaque Signals
Opaque or non luminous signals used during day are or various forms and commonly used
ones are,
1. Pole Signals
2. Target signals

• (iii) Pole and brush signals

Requirements of good signals

A good signals should fulfills the following requirements
It should be conspicuous (clearly visible)
It should provide easy and accurate bisection by a telescope It should
be capable of being centered over the station marks
It should be exhibits very little phase error of bisection of the signals.

30
Buoys
A buoy is a floating device that can have many different purposes. It can be
anchored (stationary) or allowed to drift.
Lighted boy - floating object used as beacon
Navigational light - lantern used as a signal light
Bell - set of metal links used for mooring
Tail - End of a buoy
Stabilizer - Weight that holds the buoy upright
Body - Main part of a buoy
Pylon - Support device
Radar reflection - Device that reflect radar waves

Phase Signals
Phase signal is the error of bisection which arises
r
from the fact that, under lateral illumination, the O
signal is partly in light and partly in shade. The
observer sees only the illuminated portion and bisects
it. e
D
ξ
=the angle which the direction of sun makes
r = Radius of the signal
D = Distance between A station and B station
e = r cos 2 (/ 2) x 206265 (Seconds)
D

31
Reconnaissance
The object of the reconnaissance is to plan a system of triangulation in accordance with
specification laid down for the type of triangulation. A through reconnaissance of the area
contributes to the accuracy, geometrical strength, simplicity and economy.
 Size of the triangles
 Shapes of the triangle
 Selection of stations
 Inter-visibility and height of station
The distance between stations
Relative elevation of stations
Profile of the intervening ground
The following instruments used for reconnaissance survey,
Theodolite and sextant
Prismatic compass
Aneroid barometer for ascertaining elevations
Steel tape
Good telescope
Heliotropes for testing inter-visibility
Drawing instruments and materials
Guyed ladders, ropes creepers etc,

Size of the triangles

The main factor influencing the size of the triangle in a framework is the purpose for which the
survey is conducted. In topographic survey the station points should be close. In case of geodetic
survey, the triangles are quite large having sides of several kilometers, with due allowance being
made for the curvature of the earth.

32
Shapes of triangles
The shape of the triangles should be such that any error in the measurement of an angle should
affect the calculated sides the least. In triangulation, the sides are computed by using sine rule
and it should satisfy the geometric condition.
Selection of stations
The triangulation station should be selected under the following conditions
Stations should be inter-visible
Stations should be well conditioned
Stations should be easily accessible
Stations should be so selected that survey lines are not too long
Stations should be so selected that the cost of cleaning , cutting and building
towers is minimum
Inter-visibility and height of station
The most economical condition of triangulation is that the station should be inter-visible. The
calculation of the heights of a signal as well as that of instruments depends upon the following
condition
The distance between stations
If there is no obstruction due to interviewing ground, the distance of the visible horizon from a
station of known elevation above datum is given by

h = D2 x (1 – 2m) = 0.06735 D 2
2R
Where,
h = Height of the station above datum (in Km)
D = Distance to the visible horizon (in m)
R = mean radius of earth
=Co-efficient of refraction
0.07 for sights over land
0.08 for sights over sea

33
Relative elevation of stations
If there is no obstruction due to interviewing ground, then the required elevation
of a signal at the other station can be calculated is given by

h = D2 x (1 – 2m) = 0.06735 D 2
2R
Where,
h = Height of the station above datum (in Km)
D = Distance to the visible horizon (in m)
R = mean radius of earth
=Co-efficient of refraction
0.07 for sights over land
0.08 for sights over sea
• Inter-visibility and heights of stations
The most essential condition of triangles is that the Stations should be inter-visible. The
calculation of the heights of a signal as well as that of an instrument depends upon the
following factors.
The distance between stations
The distance of visible horizon above the datum is given by
h = D2 x (1 – 2m) = 0.06735 D 2
2R
D = h
0.06735

D = Distance of the visible horizon

h = Height of the station above datum
R = mean Radius of earth
• =co-efficient of refraction
• 0.07 for sight over land
• 0.08 for sight over sea

34
Relative elevation of stations
If there is no obstruction due
intervening ground, then the elevation of a signal at the other station can be calculated by using the
expression.

Types of triangulation station

The triangulation station may be categorized as under
Main station’

Subsidiary station Satellite station Pivot

station
Main Station
The triangulation stations which are used to carry forward the net work of triangulation are
known as main stations. Observations at each main station are made with every care.
Subsidiary station
Triangulation stations which are used only to provide additional rays to intersected points are
known as subsidiary station. Observations of the horizontal angles for subsidiary station are
made two zero’s only.
Satellite Station
The stations which are selected close to the main triangulation station to avoid intervening
obstruction are known as satellite station, or eccentric or false station. Observations are made
with the same precision as for the main station
Pivot station
The station at which no observations are made but, angles at those stations are used for the
continuity of a triangulation series are known as pivot station

35
36
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V- CONTROL SURVEYING AND ADJUSTMENTS

– SCIA1303

1
 CONTROL SURVEYING AND ADJUSTMENTS

HORIZONTAL CONTROLS & ITS METHODS

The horizontal control consists of reference marks of known plan position, from which
salient points of designed structures may be set out. For large structures primary and secondary
control points are used. The primary control points are triangulation stations. The secondary
control points are reference to the primary control stations. Reference Grid
Reference grids are used for accurate setting out of works of large magnitude. The
following types of reference grids are used:

1. Survey Grid
2. Site Grid
3. tructural Grid
4. Secondary Grid

Survey grid is one which is drawn on a survey plan, from the original traverse. Original
traverse stations form the control points of the grid. The site grid used by the designer is the
one with the help of which actual setting out is done. As far as possible the site grid should be
actually the survey grid. All the design points are related in terms of site grid coordinates. The
structural grid is used when the structural components of the building are large in numbers and
are so positioned that these components cannot be set out from the site grid with sufficient
accuracy. The structural grid is set out from the site grid points. The secondary grid is
established inside the structure, to establish internal details of the building, which are otherwise
not visible directly from the structural grid.

VERTICAL CONTROL & ITS METHODS:

The vertical control consists of establishment of reference marks of known height
relative to some special datum. All levels at the site are normally reduced to the nearby bench
mark, usually known as master bench mark.

2
 The setting of points in the vertical direction is usually done with the help of
following rods:
1. Boning rods and travelers
2. Sight Rails
3. Slope rails or batter boards
4. Profile boards

A boning rod consist of an upright pole having a horizontal board at its top, forming a
‘T ‘shaped rod. Boning rods are made in set of three, and many consist of three ‘T’ shaped
rods, each of equal size and shape, or two rods identical to each other and a third one
consisting of longer rod with a detachable or movable ‘T’ piece. The third one is called
traveling rod or traveler.

Sight Rails:

A sight rail consist of horizontal cross piece nailed to a single upright or pair of uprights
driven into the ground. The upper edge of the cross piece is set to a convenient height above
the required plane of the structure, and should be above the ground to enable a man to
conveniently align his eyes with the upper edge. A stepped sight rail or double sight rail is used
in highly undulating or falling ground. Slope rails or Batter boards:

hese are used for controlling the side slopes in embankment and in cuttings. These consist of
two vertical poles with a sloping board nailed near their top. The slope rails define a plane
parallel to the proposed slope of the embankment, but at suitable vertical distance above it.
Travelers are used to control the slope during filling operation.

Profile boards:

3
 These are similar to sight rails, but are used to define the corners, or sides of a building. A
profile board is erected near each corner peg. Each unit of profile board consists of two
verticals, one horizontal board and two cross boards. Nails or saw cuts are placed at the top of
the profile boards to define the width of foundation and the line of the outside of the wall

An instrument was set up at P and the angle of elevation to a vane 4 m above the foot of the
staff held at Q was 9° 30′. The horizontal distance between P and Q was known to be 2000
metres. Determine the R.L. of the staff station Q given that the R.L. of the instrument axis was
2650.38.

Solution:

Height of vane above the instrument axis

= D tan α = 2000 tan 9° 30′

= 334.68 m

Correction for curvature and refraction

C = 0.06735 D² m, when D is in km

= 0.2694 ≈ 0.27 m (+ ve)

Height of vane above the instrument axis

= 334.68 + 0.27 = 334.95

R.L. fo vane = 334.95 + 2650.38 = 2985.33 m

R.L. of Q = 2985.33 – 4 = 2981.33 m

An instrument was set up at P and the angle of depression to a vane 2 m above the foot of the
staff held at Q was 5° 36′. The horizontal distance between P and Q was known to be 3000

4
 metres. Determine the R.L. of the staff station Q given that staff reading on a B.M. of elevation
436.050 was 2.865 metres.

Solution:
The difference in elevation between the vane and the instrument axis
= D tan α
=3000 tan 5° 36′ = 294.153
Combined correction due to cuvature and refraction
C = 0.06735 D² metres , when D is in km
= 0.606 m.
Since the observed angle is negative, the combined correction due to
curvature and refraction is subtractive.
Difference in elevation between the vane and the instrument axis
= 294.153 – 0.606 = 293.547 = h.
R.L. of instrument axis = 436.050 + 2.865 = 438.915
R.L. of the vane = R.L. of instrument aixs – h

=438.915 – 293.547 = 145.368

R.L. of Q = 145.368 – 2
= 143.368 m.
In order to ascertain the elevation of the top (Q) of the signal on a hill, observations were made
from two instrument stations P and R at a horizontal distance 100 metres apart, thestation P and
R being in the line with Q. The angles of elevation of Q at P and R were 28° 42′ and 18° 6′
respectively. The staff reading upon the bench mark of elevation 287.28 were respectively
2.870 and 3.750 when the instrument was at P and at R, the telescope being horizontal.
Determine the elevation of the foot of the signal if the height of the signal above its base is 3
metres
Solution:

Elevation of instrument axis at P = R.L. of B.M. + Staff reading

5
 = 287.28 + 2.870 = 290.15 m

Elevation of instrument axis at R = R.L. of B.M. + staff reading

= 287.28 + 3.750 = 291.03 m

Difference in level of the instrument axes at the two stations

S =291.03 – 290.15 = 0.88 m.

α= 28° 42 and α ---- = 18° 6′

s cot α--- = 0.88 cot 18° 6′ = 2.69 m

= 152.1 m.

h-- = D tan α-- = 152.1 tan 28° 42′ = 83.272 m

R.L. of foot of signal = R.L. of inst. aixs at P + h-- - ht. of signal

= 290.15 + 83.272 – 3 = 370.422 m.

Check : (b + D) = 100 + 152.1 m = 252.1 m
h-- = (b + D) tan α-- = 252.1 x tan 18° 6′

= 82.399 m

R.L. of foot of signal = R.L. of inst. axis at R + h--+ ht. of signal

= 291.03 + 82.399 – 3 = 370.429 m.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION SYSTEM:

The basis of the classification of triangulation figures is the accuracy with which the
length and azimuth of a line of the triangulation are determined. Triangulation systems of
different accuracies depend on the extent and the purpose of the survey. The accepted grades of
triangulation are:

1. First order or Primary Triangulation

2. Second order or Secondary Triangulation

3. Third order or Tertiary Triangulation

6
FIRST ORDER OR PRIMARY TRIANGULATION:

The first order triangulation is of the highest order and is employed either to determine
the earth’s figure or to furnish the most precise control points to which secondary triangulation
may be connected. The primary triangulation system embraces the vast area (usually the whole
of the country). Every precaution is taken in making linear and angular measurements and in
performing the reductions. The following are the general specifications of the primary
triangulation:

1. Average triangle closure : Less than 1 second

2. Maximum triangle closure : Not more than 3 seconds

3. Length of base line : 5 to 15 kilometers

4. Length of the sides of triangles : 30 to 150 kilometers

5. Actual error of base : 1 in 300,000

6. Probable error of base : 1 in 1,000,000

7. Discrepancy between two

measures of a section : 10 mm kilometers

8. Probable error or computed distance : 1 in 60,000 to 1 in 250,000

9. Probable error in astronomic azimuth : 0.5 seconds

SECONDARY ORDER OR SECONDARY TRIANGULATION

The secondary triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework
of primary triangulation. The stations are fixed at close intervals so that the sizes of the

7
triangles formed are smaller than the primary triangulation. The instruments and methods used
are not of the same utmost refinement. The general specifications of the secondary
triangulation are:

1. Average triangle closure : 3 sec

2. Maximum triangle closure : 8 sec

3. Length of base line : 1.5 to 5 km

4. Length of sides of triangles : 8 to 65 km

5. Actual error of base : 1 in 150,000

6. Probable error of base : 1 in 500,000

7. Discrepancy between two

measures of a section : 20 mm kilometers

8. Probable error or computed distance : 1 in 20,000 to 1 in 50,000

9. Probable error in astronomic azimuth : 2.0 sec

THIRD ORDER OR TERTIARY TRIANGULATION:

The third-order triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework
of secondary triangulation, and forms the immediate control for detailed engineering and other
surveys. The sizes of the triangles are small and instrument with moderate precision may be
used. The specifications for a third-order triangulation are as follows:

1. Average triangle closure : 6 sec

2. Maximum triangle closure : 12 sec

3. Length of base line : 0.5 to 3 km

4. Length of sides of triangles : 1.5 to 10 km

8
 5. Actual error of base : 1 in 75, 0000

6. Probable error of base : 1 in 250,000

7. Discrepancy between two

Measures of a section : 25 mm kilometers

8. Probable error or computed distance : 1 in 5,000 to 1 in 20,000

9. Probable error in astronomic Azimuth: 5 sec.

Explain the factors to be considered while selecting base line.

The measurement of base line forms the most important part of the triangulation operations. The
base line is laid down with great accuracy of measurement and alignment as it forms the basis for
the computations of triangulation system. The length of the base line depends upon the grades of
the triangulation. Apart from main base line, several other check bases are also measured at some
suitable intervals. In India, ten bases were used, the lengths of the nine bases vary from 6.4 to 7.8
miles and that of the tenth base is 1.7 miles.

Selection of Site for Base Line. Since the accuracy in the measurement of the base line depends
upon the site conditions, the following points should be taken into consideration while selecting the
site:

The site should be fairly level. If, however, the ground is sloping, the slope should be uniform and
gentle. Undulating ground should, if possible be avoided.

The site should be free from obstructions throughout the whole of the length. The line clearing
should be cheap in both labour and compensation.
The extremities of the base should be intervisible at ground level.

The ground should be reasonably firm and smooth. Water gaps should be few, and if possible not
wider than the length of the long wire or tape.

9
The site should suit extension to primary triangulation. This is an important factor since the error
in extension is likely to exceed the error in measurement.
In a flat and open country, there is ample choice in the selection of the site and the base
may be so selected that it suits the triangulation stations. In rough country, however, the choice
is limited and it may sometimes be necessary to select some of the triangulation stations that at
suitable for the base line site.

Standards of Length. The ultimate standard to which all modern national standards are
referred is the international meter established by the Bureau International der Poids at
Measures and kept at the Pavilion de Breteuil, Sevres, with copies allotted to various national
surveys. The meter is marked on three platinum- iridium bars kept under standard conditions.
One great disadvantage of the standard of length that are made of metal are that they are
subject to very small secular change in their dimensions. Accordingly, the meter has now been
standardized in terms of wavelength of cadmium light.

TYPES OF ERROR

Errors of measurement are of three kinds: (i) mistakes, (ii) systematic errors, and (iii)
accidental errors.

(i) Mistakes. Mistakes are errors that arise from inattention, inexperience, carelessness
and poor judgment or confusion in the mind of the observer. If mistake is undetected, it produces
a serious effect on the final result. Hence every value to be recorded in the field must be checked by
some independent field observation.

(ii) Systematic Error. A systematic error is an error that under the same conditions will always
be of the same size and sign. A systematic error always follows some definite mathematical or physical
law, and a correction can be determined and applied. Such errors are of constant character and are regarded
as positive or negative according as they make the result too great or too small. Their effect is therefore,
cumulative.
If undetected, systematic errors are very serious. Therefore:

10
(1) All the surveying equipments must be designed and used so that whenever possible
systematic errors will be automatically eliminated and (2) all systematic errors that cannot be surely
eliminated by this means must be evaluated and their relationship to the conditions that cause them must be
determined. For example, in ordinary levelling, the levelling instrument must first be adjusted so that the
line of sight is as nearly horizontal as possible when bubble is centered. Also the horizontal lengths for
back sight and foresight from each instrument position should be kept as nearly equal as possible. In
precise levelling, every day, the actual error of the instrument must be determined by careful peg test, the
length of each sight is measured by stadia and a correction to the result is applied.

(iii) Accidental Error. Accidental errors are those which remain after mistakes and systematic
errors have been eliminated and are caused by a combination of reasons beyond the ability of the
observer to control. They tend sometimes in one direction and some times in the other, i.e., they are
equally likely to make the apparent result too large or too small.

An accidental error of a single determination is the difference between (1) the true value of the
quantity and (2) a determination that is free from mistakes and systematic errors. Accidental error
represents limit of precision in the determination of a value. They obey the laws of chance and
therefore, must be handled according to the mathematical laws of probability.

The theory of errors that is discussed in this chapter deals only with the accidental errors after
all the known errors are eliminated and accounted for.
THE LAW OF ACCIDENTAL ERRORS

Investigations of observations of various types show that accidental errors follow a

definite law, the law of probability. This law defines the occurrence of errors and can be
expressed in the form of equation which is used to compute the probable value or the probable
precision of a quantity. The most important features of accidental errors which usually occur
are:

Small errors tend to be more frequent than the large ones; that is they are the most probable.
Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency ; that is, they are
equally probable.

11
Large errors occur infrequently and are impossible.

PRINCIPLES OF LEAST SQUARES

It is found from the probability equation that the most probable values of a series of
errors arising from observations of equal weight are those for which the sum of the squares is a
minimum. The fundamental law of least squares is derived from this. According to the
principle of least squares, the most probable value of an observed quantity available from a
given set of observations is the one for which the sum of the squares of the residual errors is a
minimum. When a quantity is being deduced from a series of observations, the residual errors
will be the difference between the adopted value and the several observed values,

Let V1, V2, V3 etc. be the observed values x =most probable value

LAW OF WEIGHTS

From the method of least squares the following laws of weights are established:

(i) The weight of the arithmetic mean of the measurements of unit weight is equal to
the number of observations.
For example, let an angle A be measured six times, the following being the values:
A Weight A Weight

30° 20′ 8” 1 30° 20′ 10” 1

30° 20′ 10” 1 30° 20′ 9” 1

30° 20′ 7” 1 30° 20′ 10” 1

12
 Arithmetic mean

= 30° 20′ + 1/6 (8” + 10” + 7” + 10” + 9” + 10”)

= 30° 20′ 9”.

Weight of arithmetic mean = number of observations = 6.

(2) The weight of the weighted arithmetic mean is equal to the sum of the individual
weights.
For example, let an angle A be measured six times, the following being the values :

A Weight A Weight
30° 20′ 8” 2 30° 20′ 10” 3
30° 20′ 10” 3 30° 20′ 9” 4
30° 20′ 6” 2 30° 20′ 10” 2

Sum of weights = 2 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 2 =16

Arithmetic mean = 30° 20′ + 1/16 (8”X2 + 10” X3+ 7”X2 + 10”X3 + 9” X4+ 10”X2)

= 30° 20′ 9”.

Weight of arithmetic mean = 16.

(3) The weight of algebric sum of two or more quantities is equal to the reciprocals of
the individual weights.

For Example angle A = 30° 20′ 8”, Weight 2

13
 B = 15° 20′ 8”, Weight 3

Weight of A+B=

(4) If a quantity of given weight is multiplied by a factor, the weight of the result is
obtained by dividing its given weight by the square of the factor.
(5) If a quantity of given weight is divided by a factor, the weight of the result is
obtained by multiplying its given weight by the square of the factor.
(6) If a equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of the resulting equation is
equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the equation.
(7) The weight of the equation remains unchanged, if all the signs of the equation are
changed or if the equation is added or subtracted from a constant.

DISTRIBUTION OF ERROR OF THE FIELD MEASUREMENT

Whenever observations are made in the field, it is always necessary to check for the
closing error, if any. The closing error should be distributed to the observed quantities. For
examples, the sum of the angles measured at a central angle should be 360°, the error should be
distributed to the observed angles after giving proper weight age to the observations. The
following rules should be applied for the distribution of errors:

(1) The correction to be applied to an observation is inversely proportional to the

weight of the observation.

(2) The correction to be applied to an observation is directly proportional to the square

of the probable error.
(3) In case of line of levels, the correction to be applied is proportional to the
length.

The following are the three angles α, β and y observed at a station P closingthe horizon, along
with their probable errors of measurement. Determine their corrected values.

Solution.
α = 78° 12′ 12” ± 2”

β = 136° 48′ 30” ± 4”

14
y = 144° 59′ 08” ± 5”

Sum of the three angles = 359° 59′ 50”

Discrepancy = 10”

Hence each angle is to be increased, and the error of 10” is to be distributed in

proportion to the square of the probable error.

Let c1, c2 and c3 be the correction to be applied to the angles α, β and y

respectively.

c1 : c2 : c3 = (2)² : (4)² : (5)² = 4 : 16 : 25 … (1)

Also, c1 + c2 + c3 = 10” … (2)
From (1), c2 = 16 /4 c1 = 4c1
And c3 = 25/4 c1

Substituting these values of c2 and c3 in (2), we get c1 +

4c1 + 25/4 c1 = 10”
or c1 ( 1 + 4 + 25/4 )= 10”

c1 = 10 x 4/45 = 0”.89

c2 = 4c1 = 3”.36

And c3 = 25 /4 c1 = 5”.55

Check: c1 + c2 + c3 = 0.”89 + 3”.56 + 5”.55 = 10”

Hence the corrected angles are

α = 78° 12′ 12” + 0”.89 = 78° 12′ 12”.89

β = 136° 48′ 30” + 3”.56 = 136° 48′ 33”.56

and y = 144° 59′ 08” + 5”.55 = 144° 59′ 13”.55

-------------------------
Sum = 360° 00′ 00”+ 00

An angle A was measured by different persons and the following are the values

15
 Angle Number of measurements

65° 30′ 10” … 2

65° 29′ 50” … 3

65° 30′ 00” … 3

65° 30′ 20” … 4

65° 30′ 10” … 3

Find the most probable value of the angle.

Solution.
As stated earlier, the most probable value of an angle is equal to its weighted

arithmetic mean.

65° 30′ 10” x 2 = 131° 00′ 20”

65° 29′ 50” x 3 = 196° 29′ 30”

65° 30′ 00” x 3 = 196° 30′ 00”

65° 30′ 20” x 4 = 262° 01′ 20”

65° 30′ 10” x 3 = 196° 30′ 30”

------------------

Sum = 982° 31′ 40”

Σ weight = 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 3 = 15

Weighted arithmetic mean

= 982° 31′ 40”

----= 65° 30′ 6”.67

16
 Hence most probable value of the angle = 65° 30′ 6”.67

The telescope of a theodilite is fitted with stadia wires. It is required to find the most probable
values of the constants C and K of tacheometer. The staff was kept vertical at three points in
the field and with of sight horizontal the staff intercepts observed was as follows.

Solution:

The distance equation is

D=KS+C
The observation equations are

150 = 1.495 K + C

200 = 2.000 K + C

250 = 2.505 K + C

If K and C are the most probable values, then the error of observations are:

150 - 1.495 K - C

200 - 2.000 K - C

250 - 2.505 K – C

17
By the theory of least squares
2 2 2
(150 –1.495 K –C) +(200 - 2.000 K– C ) +(250 - 505 K – C ) = minimum---(i)

For normal equation in K,

Differentiating equation (i) w.r.t. K,

2(-1.495)(150 –1.495 K –C) +2(-20.)(200 - 2.000 K– C)

+2(-2.505)(250 - 505 K – C ) = 0

208.41667 – 2.085 K – C = 0 -------- (2)

Normal equation in C

Differentiating equation (i) w.r.t. C,

2(-1.0)(150 –1.495 K –C) +2(-1.0)(200 - 2.000 K– C)

+2(-1.0)(250 - 505 K – C ) = 0

200–2K–C=0 --------- (3)

On solving Equations (2) and (3)
K = 99.0196

C = 1.9608

The distance equation is:

D = 99.0196 S + 1.9608

18