COMPARATORS AND

5
WAVEFORM GENERATORS

5.1 INTROD!

operates in a non-linear manner.

in onerational ampliffer in the open-loop configuration
this mode, such as, comparators, detectors,
There are a number of appications of op-amp inconverters.
digital interfacing devices namely In this chapter, we shall discuss
imiters and
applications.
comparator and its

5.2 COMPARATO

comparator is a circuit which compares a signalvoltage applied at one input of an op-amp

A input. It is basically an open-loop op-amp with
with a known reference voltage at the othertransfer characteristics of Fig. 5.1 (a). However,
output +Vst (= Vo) as shown in the ideal (b).
commercial op-amp has the transfer characteristics of Fig. 5.1
a
Va

+Vsal
10

0
(v,- V,a) 2 (v- Va) mV

-Vsat -10
(b)
(a)
Practical comparator
characteristics (a) Ideal comparator (b)
Fig. 5.1 The transfer
increment in input
the output state takes place with an This
that the change in cannot be directly defined.
;ofOf only e2 seen region where output
is the uncertainty off-set null compensating techniques can be
used
region is duemV.to This
input off-set voltage and
to eliminate this. There are basically two types of comparators:
 Linear Integrated Circuits
208

Non-inverting comparator
Afixed reference
Inverting comparator.
called a
non-inverting

signal v; is
comparator.

applied to (+) input. The voltag:

output
5.2 (a) is output
The circuit of Fig.
input and a time varying
to + Vat for U; > Vref The
5.2 (b and c)
waveform
Vref is applied to (-)for ; < V And U, goesinput is shown in Figs. for positive
-Vut (+)
voltage is at signal applied to the
a sinusoidal inputrespectively.
and negative Vf
Vm

OV
Vef
OV t
-V,ef
R

V,

R R

Vref +Vsal
+Vsat
OV
OV

(a) -Vsa
v<-Vo
v< Vref
(c)
(b)

V
10 ks2
(d)

Fig. 5.2 (a) Non-inverting comparator. Input and output waveforms for (b) Vef positive
(c) Vef negative (d) Practical non-inverting comparator
which forms a
In a practical circuit Vf is obtained by using a 10 k2 potentiometer
voltage divider with the supply vltages V* and V- with the wiper connected to (-)
polarity can be
terminal as shown in Fig. 5.2(d). Thus a Vef of desired amplitude and
obtained by simply adjusting the 10k2 potentiometer. V
Figure 5.33(a) shows a practical inverting comparator in which the reference voltage the
is applied to the (+) input and v is applied to (-) input. For a sinusoidal input signal,
output waveform is shown in Fig. 5.3 (b) and (c) for Vor positive and negative
r e s p e c t i v e l y .

obtained by
Output voltage levels independent of power supply also be
using a resistor R and
voltages can
two back to back zener diodes at the output of
in shown

op-anp as
 Comparators and Waveform Generators 209

value of resistance R is chosen so that

(d). The the zener diodes operate at the
mommended current. It can be seen that the limiting
6.3

Fis.
voltages of U, are (Vz + Vp) and
where V, (-0.7 V) is the diode forward voltage.
Inthe waveforms of Figs. 5.2 and 5.3, the output transitions are shown as taking place
stantaneously, Practical circuits, however, take a certain amount of
time to edges
voltage level to another. The actual waveforn will therefore exhibit slanted switchasfrom
well
delays atthe points of input threshold crossing. These effects are more noticeable at high
fiequencies where the output switching times are comparable or
even longer than the input
period itsel. Thus there is an upper limit to the operating frequency of any comparator.
If 741, the internally compensated op-amp is used as comparator, the primary limitation
Since 741C has slew rate equal to 0.5 V/us, it takes 2 x
slew r a t e .
13/0.5 50 us (Vat
741) to swing from one saturation level to the other. In
i st h e

=tl3
Vfor
many applications, this
V

R
10 ks2
-ovo

R
R_

(a)

Vm
OV OV
t
Nef
-Vm
V2 O 5Chapter
R

T ye-Vef
Vgat
OV
OV (d)
t

v,>-Vref
(b) (c)

Fig. 5.3 (a) Inverting comparator. Input and output waveforms (b) Vef > 0
(c) Vet < 0(d) Comparator with zener diode at the output
 Linear Integrated Circuits
212

clipped off after passing through

as shown in Fig. 5.6 (d). The negative portion is (e). So, with the help of this the dire
Dand the waveform v, is as shown in Fig. 5.6
sinusoid has been converted into a train of positive
pulses of spacing T and may circuit,
be usen the
voltage of CRT etc. s
triggering the monoshots, SCR, sweep
Phase Detector
The phase angle between two voltages can also be measured using the circuit of Fig. 5.6
Both voltages are converted into spikes and the time interval between the pulse spikes
one input and that of the other is measured. The time interval is proportional to the phase
with such a circuit
difference. One can measure phase angles from 0° to 360°

Example 5.1
(a) For the comparator shown in Fig. 5.7 (a) plot the transter curve if the op-amp is
ideal one and Vz1 = Vz2 =9V.
50,000.
(b) Repeat part (a) if the open loop gain of op-amp is
Solution
input drives the outnt
(a) Since Ao., = o, even a small positive or negative voitage at the
to +Vot: This causes Vz1 or Vz2 to break down, giving output voltage v, = + (V, +V
= +9.7 V. The transfer curve is shown in Fig. 5.7 (b).

9.7 V 9.7 V
V, V2
V,, mV
V R
0 -0.194 mV 0.194 mV
10 k2
Vo
-9.7 V

(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 5.7 (a) Circuit of Example 5.1 (b) Transfer curve for Example 5.1 (a).
(c) Transfer curve for Example 5.1 (b)
9.7 +0.194 ml
(b) Now AoL. = 50,000, so AUj = AoL = 0.194 mV. The zeners break down after
as shown in the transfer curve of Fig. 5.7 (c).

5.3 REGENERATIVE COMPARATOR (SCHMITT TRIGGER) Conse

greatly.
If positive feedback is added to the comparator circuit, gain can be increased Theoretical.

quently, the transfer curve of comparator becomes more close to ideal curve. becomes
intinite

ifthe loop gain -ßAo, is adjusted to unity, then the gain with feedback, Ay values of outpul
This results in an abrupt (zero rise time) transition between the extreme gain
exact
maintain loop-g So a
voltage. In practical circuits, however, it may not be possible to
temperature
V a r i a t i o n s .

equal to unity for a long time because of supply voltage and discontinu

value greater than unityis chosen. This also gives an output wavefornm virtually
 Comparators and Waveform Generators 213
he comparison
tysteresis or backlash.
voltage. This circuit, however,
now exhibits a phenomenon called
Figure
&
5.8 (a) shows such a regenerative
Trikxer.
Theinput
voltage is applied to the (comparator. The cireuit is also known as Sehmitt
terninal.
The input voltage v, input terminal and feedback voltage to the (+)
input
voltage
levels, These triggers the output every time it exCeeds certain
voltage levels are called upper
valtage
(VT). The hysteresis
width is the differencethreshoid voltage (Vr) and lower threshold
-Vi These threshold voltages are between these two threshold voltages ie.
calculated as
Suppose the output U, =+Vt:
KuperpOsition
The voltage at (+) inputfollows.
terminal can be obtained by using

VUT = RV (5.11
R, +R,
R, +R,
This voltage is called upper threshold voltage Vm. As
long as U, is less than VUT the
utput U, remains constant at +V
switches to -V sat and sat When; is just greater than VT, the output regeneratively
remains at this level as long as U, > Vr as shown in Fig. 5.8 (b).
For U, = -Vsats the voltage at the (+) input terminal is,

VR R,V sat
(5.2)
R, +R, R+R,
This voltage is referred to as lower threshold voltage VT. The input voltage v, must
become lesser than Vr in order to cause v, to switch from -Vsat to +Vat A regenerative
transition takes place as shown in Fig. 5.8 (c) and the output v, returns from -V to +Vt
aimost instantaneously. The complete transfer characteristics are shown in Fig. 5.8 (d).

(b)
VUT
Rg
V 5Chapter
R,

Rz
(c)

Ve
(a)

(d)

ciai acteristics for incCreasing and

Schmitt Trigger (D, C) trasTer
Fig. 5.8 (a) An inverting decreasing (d) Composite input-output curve
V
 Vur

V
isinß =V,JV,
V

(e) (6)
Fig. 5.8 (e) Schmitt Trigger used as a squarer (f) Shift in the output waveform

Note that V;n < V and the difference between these two voltages is the hysteresis
VH and can be written as

V = VUT - V = 2 R, Vaat
R+R,
Because of the hysteresis, the circuit triggers at a higher voltage for increasing sp
than for decreasing ones. Further,note that if peak-to-peak input signal v; were smaller
V then the Schmitt trigger circuit, having responded at a threshold voltage by a trs
in one direction would never reset itself, that is, once the output has jumped to, a)
it would remain at this level and never return to -V, It may be seen from Eq. 03
hysteresis width VH is independent of Vef The resistor R, in Fig. 5.8(a) is choe
to R| R, to compensate for the input bias current. A non-inverting Schmitt trig
obtained if v; and Vyef are interchanged in Fig. 5.8 (a) (Problem 5.10). The imae most

application of Schmitt trigger circuit is to convert a very slowly varying nput voltage
a square wave output as shown in Fig. 5.8 (e).
If in the circuit of Fig. 5.8 (a), Vef is chosen as zero volt, it follows from
(5.2) that

VoT = -VT = R, sat

R+Ra
If an input sinusoid of frequency f = 1/T is applied to such a Comparator, a hw
Wareturm
square wave is obtained at the
output.
will not 0ccur at the time the sine waveThe vertical
passes of the
edge zero
through output
(Fig. 58(O) but
phase by 0 where sin 0:
Special purpose Schmitt= Vu/Vm and V, is the peak sinusoidalTI-13,
voltage.

chips with totem pole output triggers

and Vnare
= 1,7commercially
V, Vm = 0.9available,
Vare available., The ad:ata

i8 a quad two-input t h e

high input impedanceNAND Shmitt trigger, CMOS Schmitt offer

triggers

trigger are the CD40106Band low power ixamples of

CMOS
consumption.
and 7440C14.
 215
Comparators and Waveform Generators

An
i n t

application of hysteresis is in the detection and counting

e r e s t i n g

of the zero-
ings of an arbitrary waveform if it t is superimposed with interference say of a frequency
higgher than the signal.
mach
Consider the Fig. 5.8(g) where the clean signal crosses the zero axis a number of times
with noise interference around each of the zero
crossing points we are trying
corrupted

shen
detect. A simple comparator would change state at each of the zero crossings. If, however,
the expected peak-to peak amplitude of the interference, the problem is solved by
straducing hysteresis of appropriate width in the circuit as shown by VT and VT in Fig.
The hysteresis in the comparator
E8 g).
witing interference.
characteristics thus provides an effective means of
Zero
crossings
Clean
signai

Signal corrupted
with interference

VuT

ViT

Multiple
zero cOssings

5Chapter

in the comparator characteristics

Fig. 5.8 (a) Illustrating the use ofofhysteresis
rejecting interference
as ameans

trample 5.2.
a
the crcuit Schmnitt trigger of Fig. 5.8 (a), R, = 100 2, R, = 50 kS2, Vref = 0V, = 1Vpp
of voltage = *14 V. Determine threshold voltages Vr
ak-w-peak) Bine wave and saturation

lutóon
Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2)
100 x14 = 28 mV
50100
216 Linear Integrated Circuits

100
VT = 50100 x(-14)=-28mV

Example 5.3
A Schmitt trigger with the upper threshold level Vp =0 Vand hysteresis width
converts a 1 kHz sine wave of amplitude 4Vpp into a square wave. Calculate Vy=02
the
duration of the negative and positive portion of the output waveform. tits
Solution V
VUT =0 2V

VH =VUT - VT = 0.2 V 0
So. VT =-0.2 V. V-0.2V/
In Fig. 5.9, the angle can be calculated as
-0.2 = V, sin (T + 0) = -V sin
m
= -2 sin
9 = arc sin 0.1 = 0.1 radian

The period, T = 1/f = /1000 = 1 ms

0
wle = 2r (1000) T, = 0.1 T,
TA = (0.1/2 t) ms = 0.016 ms -T;
So, T, = TI2 + T, = 0.516 ms Fig. 5.9 Circuit for Example 53
and T, = TI2-T, = 0.484 ms

5.4 SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR (ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR)

A simple op-amp square wave generator is shown in Fig. 5.10 (a). Also called a free runnng
oscillator, the principle of generation of square wave output is to force an op-amp to operai
in the saturátion region. In Fig. 5.10(a) fraction B= R/R, +R) of the output is fed t
to the (+) input terminal. Thus the reference voltage Vef is Bu, and may take value
R Vo

Vsat

0
R

-pVsat
R, -Vsat

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.10 (a) Simple op-amp square wave generator (b) Waveforms
 Comparators and Waveform Generators 217

Or - BVat: The output is also

BIsat
ofa
low-pass RC conmbination.fed back to the input terminal after integrating by
takes place resulting in Whenever input at the ( input terminal just exceeds
eans
Switching

Isa a square wave

the
states are quasi stable. output. In astable multivibrator, both
an instant of time
Consider
when the
Hards W. through resistance R, as output is at +V,sat- The capacitor now starts charging
sat

is held at +BVsat shown in Fig. 5.1o (b). The

Rminal
by R, and R, voltage at the (+) input
nCrises, until it has just exceeded + combination. This condition continues as the charge
BV sats the reference voltage. When the voltage at the
- input terminal becomes just greater than this
Ja At
this instant, the voltage on the reference voltage, the output is driven to
R. that is, charges toward-Vsat: When the
capacitor is + BVsat: It begins to discharge through
anges more and more negatively until its output voltage switches to -Vats the capacitor
back to + Vsat The cycle repeats itself voltage just exceeds - BV... The output switches
as shown in Fig. 5.10 (b).
The frequency is determined by the time it
-8V and vice versa. The voltage across the takes the capacitor to charge from - BVsat to
capacitor as a function of time is given by,
vt) = V + (V; -V; e-t/RC (3.4)
where, the final value, V= +Vat
and the initial value, V; = -BV sat
Therefore,
vt) = Vsat + -BVat- V)e-tlRC
vt) = Vsat -Vsat (1 + B)e tiRC (5.5)
At t = T, voltage across the capacitor reaches BVsat and switching
takes place. Therefore,
v(T) = BVsat = Vsat -Vsat (1+ B)e-Ti/RC (5.6)
After algebraic manipulation, we get,
T; = RC In:1+ß
1-ß (5.7)

This give only one half of the period.

Total time period 5Chapter

T = 2T; = 2RC In 1+ß (3.8)

1-B
asd the
output wave form is symmetrical.
If R, 2RC In 3. And for R, = 1.16A2, it can be seen that
T=2 RC= R2 then ß = 0.5, and T =
1
fo = 2RC
The output from + Va to - Va S0,
swings
Uo peak-to-peak =2 Vat (5 9)
 218 Linear Integrated Circuits

R R=10 ks
(Vz+Vo)

Rsc 741

R.

R, -(V,+V,)

C=0.1 uF
V, Av,

(c) (d)
Fig. 5.1o (c) Use of back to back zener diodes. (d) Asymmetric square wave generator

The peak to peak output amplitude can be varied by varying the power supply voltag
However, a better technique is to use back to back zener diodes as shown in Fig. 510
The output voltage is regulated to + (V, + Vy) by the zener diodes.
V, peak-to-peak = 2 (Vz + Vp) 5.10

Resistor R. limits the currents drawn from the op-amp to,

Vsat - Vz (5.11
Rge
This circuit works reasonably well at audio frequencies. At higher frequencies, howere
slew-rate of the op-amp limits the slope of the output square wave.
If an asymmetric square wave is desired, then zener diodes with different break dowz
voltages VzË and Vz2 may be used. Then the output is either V, or Vos where Vo1 =Vz
Vp and Vo2 = Vz2 + Vp It can be easily shown that the positive section is given by,
5.12
T, = RC ln l+ßVo2/Vo
1-ß &nd'

The duration of negative section T, will be the same as given by Eq. (5.12) with V
Voz interchanged. voltage
SOune

An alternative method to get asymmetricsquare wave output is to adda de the volta

between
Vin series R, as shown in Fig. 5.10 (d). Now the capacitor Cisswings
made variable,
voltage

levels (BV,t+ V) and (-BVaat t V). If the voltage source V

frequency conversion can be achieved though the variation will not be linear.

5.5 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR The

cint
state.
stable to
Monostable multivibrator has one stable state and the other is quasi
duration in
r e s p o n s e

connected

is useful for generating single output pulse of adjustable time components multivibratet.

triggering signal. The width of the output pulse depends only on external
the astable
to the op-amp. The circuit shown in Fig. 5.11(a) is a modified form of
 219
Comparators and Waveform Generators

(b)
Vo To V
R, R. Vo V
D,

(c)
To -Vat
D, Vsat
R.
(a)
-Vsat
(d)
55.1: (a) Monostable multivibrator (b) Negative going triggering signal
(c) Capacitor waveform (d) Output voltage waveform

Adiode LD, clamps the capacitor voltage to 0.7 V when the output is at +Vsat A negative
going pulse signal of magnitude V, passing through the differentiator R,C, and diode D,
produces a negative going triggering impulse and is applied to the (+) input terminal.
To analyse the circuit, let us assume that in the stable state, the output U, is at +V,sat The
diode D, conducts and v, the voltage across the capacitor Cgets clamped to +0.7 V. The
voltage at the (+) input terminal through R,R, potentiometric divider is + BVsat: Now, if
a negative trigger of magnitude V, is applied to the (+) input terminal so that the effective
signal at this terminal is less than 0.7 V, i.e. ([B Vsat +(-V)] < 0.7 V), the output of the op
amp will switch from + Vaat to - Vsat. The diode will now get reverse biased and the capacitor
starts charging exponentially to -Vsat through the resistance R. The voltage at the (+) input
terminal is now -BVaat. When the capacitor voltage v, becomes just slightly more negative
than - BVnt, the output of the op-amp switches back to + Vsat The capacitor C now starts
charging to + V. through R until v, is 0.7V as capacitor C gets clamped to the voltage.
Various waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.11 (b, c, d).
The pulse width T of monostable multivibrator is calculated as follows: 5Chapter
The general solution for a single time constant low pass RC circuit with V, and V; as initial
and final values is,
Vpe tlRC (5.13)
Vo = V + (V
For the circuit, V, = -Vat and V; = Vp (diode forward voltage).
The output v, is,
Veat)etRC
V, = -Vat + (Vp + (5.14)
at t = T,
(5,15)

Therefore,
(Vp + V. de-TRC
-B Veat =-Vat +
 After simplification, pulse width T is obtained as
(l+VpVat)
T = RCIn 1-B
where B= RR, + R,)
If. V > Vp and R, = R, so that B= 0.5, then
T = 0.69 RC
For monostable operation, the trigger pulse width T, should be much less
pulse width of the monostable multivibrator. The diode D, is used to avoid than T, th
by blocking the positive noise spikes that may be present at the differentiated maltrigger
functioning
It may be noted from Fig. 5.11 (b) that capacitor voltage v, reaches its inp
at T'> T. Therefore, it is essential that a recovery time T"-T quiescent value
be allowed to elapse b
the next triggering signal is applied. The circuit of ig. 5.11 (a) can be modified to achi
voltage to time delay conversion as in the case of square wave generator. The monostal.
multivibrator circuit is also referred to as time delay circuit as it generates a fast transitir
at a predetermined time T after the application of input trigger. It is also called agatin
circuit as it generates a rectangular waveform at a definite time and thus could be usei h
gate parts of a system.
5.6 TRIANGULAR WAVE GENERATOR
A triangular wave can be simply obtained by integrating a square wave as shown in Fig
5.12 (a). It is obvious that the frequency of the square wave and triangular wave is the same
as shown in Fig. 5.12 (b). Although the amplitude of the square wave is constant at V,at
the amplitude of the triangular wave will decrease as the frequency increases. This i
because the reactance ofthe capacitor C, in the feedback circuit decreases at high frequencies
A resistance R, is connected across C, to avoid the saturation problem at low frequencies as
in the case of practical integrator.
R R,-10R,
V sat

OV
R3
R
-Vslt
Roomp

(a)
(b)

Fig. 5.12 (a) Triangular waveform generator (b) Output waveform

shown in Fig
is
Another triangular wave generator using lesser number of components The outpu'
integrator.
input
5.13 (a). It basically consists of atwo level comparator followed by anapplied to the (-) back
fed
of the comparator A, is a square wave of amnplitude t Vgat and is Waveis

terminal of the integrator A, producing a triangular wave. This triangular

as input to the comparator A, through a voltage divider RR3.
 Comparatnrs and Wavefor Generators 221

(a)
Fig. 5.13 (a)
Triangular waveform
Initially, let us generator using lesser components (hb) Waveforms
integrator A,
consider
will be a that the output of
roltage divider R,Rg is atnegative going ramp
cOmparator A, is at The output of the
a voltage + as shown in Fig 5.13(b). Thus one end of the
At a time t =t,, when the negative Vsat and the other at the negative going ramp of A
at point P going
becomes slightly less than ramp attains a value of-Vames the effective voltage
saturation to
negative saturation level 0V. This switches the output of A, from positive
Vsat the output of A, increases -Vot: During the time when the output of A, is at
voltage at point P becomes just in the positive direction.
Vat: The cyCIe repeats and above 0 V, thereby switching And the
at the instant t
output of A, from-
the
to
frequency of the Square wave and generates a triangular waveform. It
can be seen thtt a
of the trianguar wave depends triangular wave will be the same, However, the amplatude
voltage level oi Aj The output voltageupon the RC value of the
integrator A, and the output
of A, can be set to desired
zener diodes. l ne frequency of the level by using appropriate
triangular
The effective voltage at point P during waveform can be calculated as follows:
the time when output ofA, is at +Vt level is
by, given
-Vramp + R, R2+ R¡-+Vt -(-Vramp (5.18)
At t = tË, the voltage at point P becomes equal to zero.
Therefore, from Eq (3.18),
5Chapter
-Vramp =
R3
R2(+ Vat) (5.19)

Similarly, at t = t, when the output of A, switches from - Vat to + Vt.

Vramp = -R2 (-Vat)= R2 (V) (3.20)

R3 R3
Therefore, peak to peak amplitude of the triangular wave is,
v, (pp) = + Vramp -(-Vramp) = 2 Rs
The output switches from -Vamp to +Vramp in half the time period T2 hutina
ne values in the basic íntegrator equation
 Linear Integrated Circuits
222

1
RC

T/2 V, (T
1
UPp) = R,C2

", (pp)
Or,
T = 2 R{Oi Vt (520
(5.21), we get
Putting the value of v, (pp) from Eq.

T= 4RC,R2
R3
Hence the frequency of oscillation f is,
R_
(52
T 4RC,Rg

5.7 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SINE WAVE OSCILiA

feedback in amplifersi
The basic structure of sine wave oscillators based on the use of
frequency selective feedher
shown in Fig. 5.14. It consists of an amplifier with gainA and atransfer ratio B. It mar k
network (having inductor or capacitive components)
with the
noted that the loop is incomplete as the terminal 2
is not connected to terminal 1 T
understand the operation of the circuit, consider the situation where
an input signal :is
applied at the input terminal 1 of the amplifier, so that the output
v, = A u;, The feedback
The
signal v, at terminal 2, therefore is v,= Aß v,.
quantity AB, therefore, represents the loop gain of
1
Basic
of A and B are adjusted amplifierA
the system. If the values
so that AB = 1, the feedback signal v, will be 2 v,=Aßv,
identically equal to the externally applied signal v,
If the terminal 2is now connected to terminal 1 Frequency
and the external signal v; is removed, the circuit selective
feedback
will continue to provide output as the amplifier can network, B
not distinguish whether v; is coming from external
source or from the feedback circuit. Thus, output Fig. 5.14 Basic structure of a
signal can be continuously obtained without any feedback oscillator
input signal if we can satisfy the condition on the
loop gain, that is, (5.24
Aß = 1 satisted
be
This is called Barkhausen criterion for oscillations. The condition AB = 1canthus provides
only at one specific frequency, f, for the given component values. The circuit by Eq. (5.24
output at frequency, f, where the circuit components meets the condition given
We may rewrite Eg. (5.24) as
 Comparators and Waveform Generators 223

AÇo,) Bjo,)) = 1 0
There are infact two conditions in Eq. (5.25), one on phase and other on the magnitude
the loop gain which needs to be simultaneously satisfied to achieve oscillation. Thus,
A19ning to Eq. (5.25) the total phase shift of the loop gain should be zero or multiples of
the
magnitude of the loop gain, AB should be equal to
unity. That is
|AB| = 1 5.26)
ZAB = 0° or multiples of 2t (527)
The condition |AB| = 1is usually diffcult to maintain in the circuit as the values of A
snd Bvary due to temperature variations, aging of components, change of supply voltage ete.
FIA8| becomes less than unity, the feedback signal U goes on reducing in each feedback
eeand the oscillations will die down eventually. In order to ensure that the circuit sustains
Kllations inspite of variations, the circuit is designed so that |AB| is slightly greater than
S Now, the output amplitude will go on increasing with every feedback cycle. The signal,
aNer, can not go On increasing and gets limited due to the non-linearity of the device, that
e the transistor enters into saturation. Thus it is the non-linearity of the transistor
guSe of which the sustained oscillations can be achieved. The value of Aß is usually kept
eater by about 1 to 5% to ensure that |AB| does not fall below unity. In explaining the
rinciple of oscillation in Fig. 5.14, we had assumed that we first connect a signal source to
Sart the oscillations and later remove it. In apractical oscillator, however, it is not done so.
The output waveform is obtained as soon as power is turned on. Actually, there is noise
simal always present at the input (i.e. base) of the transistor due to temperature (called
Jshnson's noise) or variation in the carrier concentration (Schottky noise). The noise signal
t the frequency at which the circuit satisfies the condition |AB| = 1 is picked up and
Lmplified. Since |AB| >1 in the
reuit, the output signal goes
n inereasing until it is limited
the onset of non-linearity of
2e transistor (as transistor
ters into saturation) as shown Noise voltage at
5Chapter
LFig. 5.15. the frequency for
which |AB| =1 Oscillations grow
There are different types of as JABI >1 Amplitude becomes
constant as transistor
Ce-wave oscillators available goes into saturation
Kcording to the range of
Squency. The RC-phase shift Fig. 5.15 Showing constant output amplitude as transistor
goes into saturation (|AB| > 1)
scillators can provide
encies varying from a few hertz to several hundred kHz. LC oscillators are suitable for
requencies up to hundreds. of MHz. Here we will discuss only two types of audio
tequency RC phase shift oscillators.
Phase Shift (Oseillator
The circuit of
an RC-phase shift oscillator is shown in Fig. 5.16(a). The op-amp is used in
erting mode and therefore provides 180° phase shift. The additional phase of 180° is
 224 Linear Integrated Circuits

provided by the RC feedback network to obtain a R

total phase shift of 360°, The feedback network
consists of three identical RC stages. Each of the R,

RC stage provides a 60° phase shift so that the

total phase shift due to feedback network is 180°.
It is not necessary that all the three RC sections
are identical so long the total phase shift is 180°. Reomp
However, if we use non-identical stages, it is
possible that the total phase shift is 180° for more
than one frequency. This phenomenon can lead to C
undesirable inter-modal oscillations. R R R

The feedback factor ß of the RC network can be

Feedtars
calculated by writing the KVL equations from Fig. /netwok
5.16 (b). Fig. 5.16 (a) Phase shift oscillator

1
I,R+ |-I,R =V, (5.28)

1
-I,R+1, 2R +-1,R
sC =0 (6.29)
V,

1
0-1,R +1,|2R+=6
sC
(530)
Fig. 5.25 (b) Calculating Bfrom the phase
shift network
and V= 1,R (5.31)
Solving Egs. (5.28), (5.29) and (5.30) for I, we get
V,R's°Ca
I, = 1+ 5sRC + 6sC²R +s°c®R (5.32)

and V,= 1_R=

V,R'sC (5.33
1+5sRC+ 6s°c²R +s°c®R®
(5.34
6 5 1
1+ +
sRC

Replacing s= jo, s= -0 and s = jo°, we get

1 (5.35)

B= 6 5 1
1 +
jo RC oR°c? jo'R°CA
(5.36)
1
(1-5a')+ja(6 - a²)
 Connarators ani Wbuofor Generators 225

8 tsRC
For Aß
- l, slhould be real,
that is the
o?- 6 imaginary term in Fa muat ho oro Ths

That is,

of
The frequency oscillation, fo, is therefore
1 given by
fo=
2r RC 6
a = 6 in Eq. (539
Putting
(5.36), we get
B = 1
29
The negative sign indicates that (540)
the feedback network
So, 1 produces a phase shift of 180.
29
Since
|AB| 1
Therefore, for sustained oscillations.
|A| > 29
That is the gain of the (541)
is kept greater than 29 inverting op-amp should be atleast 29, or
to ensure that variations R, = 29 R. The gain A,
1. otherwise oscillations will die in circuit parameters will
For low frequencies (< 1 out. not make A,B|
kHz),
LMM 318 or LF 351 should be used.op-amp 74l may be used, however, for
high frequencies,
Example 5.4
Design a phase shift oscillator of Fig.
5.15 to oscillate at 100 Hz.
Solution
Le C = 0.1 uF. Then from Eq. (5.25)
1
R= =6.49 k2
J6 2n (10-7)(100)
Use R 6.5 k2
0 prevent loading of the amplifier by RC network, R, s 10R
Therefore, let RË =10 R=65 k2
Since R, = 29 RË
R¹ = 1885 k2
 226 Linear Integrated Circuits

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Another commonly used audio frequency
oscillator is a Wien bridge oscillator. The C.
circuit is shown in Fig. 5.17. It may be noted
that the feedback signal in this circuit is
connected to the non-inverting (+) input
terminal so that the op-amp is working as a C,
non-inverting amplifier. Therefore, the
feedback network need not provide any phase
shift. The circuit can be viewed as a Wien
bridge with aseries RC network in one arm
and a parallel RC network in the adjoining
arm. Resistors R, and Ry are connected in the Fig. 5.17 Wien bridge oscillator
remaining two arms. The condition of zero
phase shift around the circuit is achieved by
balancing the bridge.
The circuit has been redrawn to show the
bridge network in Fig. 5.18. The output ac R
signal of the op-amp amplifier is fed back to Z
point Aof the bridge. The feedback signal, V, B
across the parallel combination R,C, is applied
to the non-inverting input terminal of the op
amp. The gain of the op-amp amplifier is R
C
A = 1+ Rp (5.42)
R,
and feedback factor, B from Fig. 5.18 is
Fig. 5.18 Wien bridge oscillator showing
(5.43) the bridge network

1_sR{C, +1
where Z= R+:sC, sC,

Rq
1+sR,C,
Putting the values of 2, and Z, in Eq.(5.43), we get

R,I1+ RC,s)
1+sl{O,
1+ sR{C,
 Comparators and Waveform Generators 227

sR,C, (547
1+ s(R,C, +R,C, + R,C,) +
s*R,R,CC2
Putting
s = j0,

B= joR,C, (5.48)
1+ joR,C, +R,C, +R,C,) -
In order B to be a real quantity
o'R,RCC2
1- o'R,R,C,C, =0
Thus, tthe frequency of oscillation,
1
fo = (5.49)
2r R,R,CC,
and B= R,C, (5.50)
RC, + R,C, + R,C,
For RË = Rz =R and C, = C = C,
1
fo = 2RC (5.51)

1
and B= 3 (5.52)

Since |AB| > 1for sustained oscillations,

|A| > 3
Since A = 1+
Rs
3 = 1+
R3
0r, Rp = 2kg (5.53)
R,
t the gain |A| > 3, sometimes oscillations
ep growing and it may clip the output
sinew ave. This problem is eliminated by a R,
Dractical Wien bridge oscillator with adaptive
negative feedback as shown in Fig. 5.19. In this
ircuit., resistor R, is initially adjusted to give
a gain 8o that Oscillations start. The output
signal grows in amplitude until the voltage
across Ra approaches the cut-in voltage of the Fig, 5.19 Practical Wien bridge oscillator with
diode. As the diodes begin to turn-on (one for adaptive negative feedback
 Conparators and Wavefor
Generators 235

Fig. P. 5.6
In a Schmitt Trigger
And RË if VUT = circuit of Fig. 5.8 (a)
The Schmitt Trigger VrefsAoL = 100,000 and hysteresis of 0.1 Vis desired Calcalate V
if V, = 0.7 V, VTcircuit of Fig. 5.8 (a) uses 9 V
loop gain is 1000
=0 and R,
the and V zener diodes. Caleulate RR, and
(a) In Schmitt Trigger circuit of 0.2 V.
Calculate R/R, and V,ref Fig. 5,8 (a), v, =
8V, VT 4V and V 3V.
b) Calcuiate the value of
(c) Calculate Vref for V.
ref S0 that VT
VUT is negative.
510. For the non-inverting
= -V.
circuit shown in Fig. P. Schmitt comparator R,
threshold levels VuT and VT 5.10, calculate the
hysteresis V. and the
11\In the square wave oscillator
of Fig. 5.10 (a),
calculate the frequency of oscillation
10 k2, R, = 11.6 k2, R = if R, =
100 kQ, C = 0.01
uF.
5.12. Design a square wave oscillator
for
The op-amp is a 741 with supply f= 1kHz. Fig. P. 5.10
15 V. voltages t
513. Design a monostable multivibrator
on for 0.5 second each time it is with trigger pulse shaping which will drive a LED
pulsed. 5Chapter
Experiment 5.1
2) To study the operation of 741 op-amp
D) To design a Schmitt trigger for Vur = as+0.5
a comparator.
Vand VLr =0.5 V and show its use for
generating a square wave output.
la) Comparator
PROCEDURE
*onnect the circuit shown in Fig. E. 5.1 (a) and adjust the 10 k2 potentiometer so that
Vree = +0.5 V.
2.
3. Adjust the signal generator so that v, = 2V Pp sine wave at 1 kHz.
Using a CRO observe the input and output waveform simultaneously. Plot the output
waveform.
 Linear Integrated Circuits
236

Vref =- 0.5V. Repeat step 3

4. Adjust the 10 ks2 potentiometer so thatVer= 0V and observe the output
5. To make a zero crossing detector, set
(b) Schmitt Trigger
waveforms,
Design: In Fig. E. 5.1 (b)
R2 -Vsat
R, +R,
R
and (-Vsat)
R, + R
For 741, with supply voltages = t15 V, the saturation voltage +Vat =t14 V
So, 0.5 V = -(14V)
R, + R2
Or, R, = 27 R,
Choose, R, = 1kQ
So, R, = 27 kQ (take a 50 kS2 pot)
+15 V
o +15 V 3
R=R,||R, (2)
1 k2
7
741
2
3
741
4 Vo 27 k2
Ki`50 ks% IN 750
-15 V Pot.)
kO
o-15 V
(1) AIN 750
V,=7.5 V
R,(1 k)
Pin 7 O Pin 4
10kQ
(a) (b)
Fig. E. 5.1 (a) Comparator (b) Schmitt trigger
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit of Fig. 5.1 (b) with the values obtained in the design. Please noe
Fig. E. 5.1 (b) has been numbered for PSPICE simulation given in Computer prugt
2. Adjust the signal generator so that v; = 2Vpp sine wave at 1 kHz.
3. Plot the input and output waveforms.
to get
4. Connect two zener diodes (IN 750, V, = 7.5 V) at find value of R,
the output and
the same values of Vr and VLT
Computer Program 5.1 (Schmitt Trigger) belew
Figure E. 5.1 (b) has been numbered for PSPICE simulation and its listing is shown
without

The input and output waveforms have been shown in Fig. C, 5.1 (a) and (b)for (i)
zener diodes (ii) with zener diodes,