OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER & LINEAR IC’S (18EE46)

Module-3
Syllabus

Signal Generators: Triangular / rectangular wave generator, phase shift

oscillator, saw tooth oscillator.
Comparators & Converters: Basic comparator, zero crossing detector,
inverting & non-inverting Schmitt trigger circuit, voltage to current converter
with grounded load, current to voltage converter and basics of voltage to
frequency and frequency to voltage converters.
OP-AMP COMPARATOR:
 The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue
voltage level, or some preset reference voltage, VREF and produces an output signal based
on this voltage comparison. In other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the
magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which is the larger of the two.
 Comparators are widely used in the circuits such as digital interfacing, Schmitt triggers,
discriminators, voltage level detectors and oscillators.
 A non-inverting 741 IC op-amp comparator circuit is shown in the figure below.
 It is called a non-inverting comparator circuit as the sinusoidal input signal Vin is applied
to the non-inverting terminal.
 The fixed reference voltage Vref is given to the inverting terminal (-) of the op-amp.
 When the value of the input voltage Vin is greater than the reference voltage Vref the
output voltage Vo goes to positive saturation and when the value of the input voltage Vin
is lesser than the reference voltage Vref, the output voltage Vo goes to negative
saturation.
 Thus, output voltage Vo changes from positive saturation point to negative saturation
point whenever the difference between Vin and Vref changes. This is shown in the
waveform below.

VOUT = AV (Vin - Vref)

Circuit Diagram:

Waveform:
The comparator can be called a voltage level detector, as for a fixed value of Vref, the voltage
level of Vin can be detected. The circuit diagram shows the diodes D1 and D2. These two
diodes are used to protect the op-amp from damage due to increase in input voltage.
Resistance R1 is connected in series with input voltage Vin and R is connected between the
inverting input and reference voltage Vref. R1 limits the current through the clamp diodes and
R reduces the offset problem
Comparator Characteristics
1. Operation Speed – According to change of conditions in the input, a comparator circuit
switches at a good speed between the saturation levels and the response is instantaneous.
2. Accuracy – Accuracy of the comparator circuit causes the following characteristics:-
(a) High Voltage Gain – The comparator circuit is said to have a high voltage gain
characteristic that results in the requirement of smaller hysteresis voltage. As a result
the comparator output voltage switches between the upper and lower saturation levels.
(b) High Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) – The common mode input
voltage parameters such a noise is rejected with the help of a high CMRR.
(c) Very Small Input Offset Current and Input Offset Voltage – A negligible
amount of Input Offset Current and Input Offset Voltage causes a lesser amount of
offset problems. To reduce further offset problems, offset voltage compensating
networks and offset minimizing resistors can be used.
Current to Voltage Converter:
A Current to Voltage Converter will produce a Voltage proportional to the given current. It is
special application of Inverting Amplifier in which input Current is converted into
proportional output Voltage. Common uses of Current to Voltage Converter is Digital to
Analog Converter (DAC).
DAC using Current to Voltage Converter:
The above circuit shows the combination of DAC and current is Voltage Converter. The eight
bit binary signal is the input to MC1408 DAC, and V9 is analog output of Current to Voltage
Converter. The output of MC1408 is current I0, which depends on logic state (0 or 1).

This means that I0 is zero when all the input are logic 0 and I0 is maximum when all inputs
are logic 1. The variations in I0 can be converted into a desired output voltage range by
selecting a proper value of RF. Since V0 = I0*RF.

The output voltage V0 from current is Voltage Converter is Positive. To minimize overshoot
and ringing, RF is connected in parallel with the Capacitor C.

SE-NE 5018 Digital to Analog Converter: In the figure, the SE/NE 5018 circuit is
configured for unipolar output (0V to 10V). For 12 bits of resolution as well as current and
voltage outputs, hybrid D/A converters such as DATEL DAC-H2 series is used. For the
correct selection of the D/A converter out of the lot, some important specifications of the
converter must be known.
Specifications:

Resolution – It is determined by the number of input bits of the D/A converter. That is, an 8-
bit converter has 28 possible output levels. Thus, its resolution is 1 part in 256. We can also
say that resolution is the value of the LSB.

Non-linearity or Linearity Error – It is the difference between the actual output of the
DAC and its ideal straight line output. The error is normally expressed as a percentage of the
full-scale range.

Gain error and Offset Error – The deviations in the feedback resistor of the current to
voltage resistor is the main reason for gain error, while, offset error implies that the output of
the DAC is not zero when the binary inputs are all zero. This error stems from the input
offsets (V and I) of the op-amp as well as of the DAC.
Settling Time – The time needed for the DAC output to be within +/- 1/2LSB from zero to
full scale input value is called settling time.

Applications:
1. Digital to Analog Converter
2. Sensing current through Photo Detector such as Photo Cell, Photo Diodes, Photo
Voltaic (PV) Cells
3. Microcomputer interfacing
4. CRT Graphics Generation
5. Programmable Power Supplies
6. Digitally controlled gain circuits
7. Digital Filters
Voltage to Frequency Converter:
 A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is an oscillator whose frequency is linearly
proportional to a control voltage.
 It is also very useful for telemetry applications, since the VFC, which is small, cheap and
low-powered can be mounted on the experimental subject (patient, wild animal, artillery
shell, etc.) and communicate with the counter by a telemetry link as shown in Figure 1.

There are two common VFC architectures:

 The current-steering multivibrator VFC and
 The charge balance VFC (Reference 1).
The charge-balanced VFC may be made in asynchronous or synchronous (clocked) forms.
There are many more VFO (variable frequency oscillator) architectures, including the
ubiquitous 555 timer, but the key feature of VFCs is linearity—few VFOs are very linear.

Figure 1 shows the basic connection diagram for frequency to-voltage conversion. R1 sets the
input voltage range. For a 10V full-scale input, a 40kΩ input resistor is recommended.
Other input voltage ranges can be achieved by changing the value of R1. R1 should be a
metal film type for good stability.
FREQUENCY OUTPUT PIN:
The frequency output terminal is an open-collector logic output. A pull-up resistor is
usually connected to a 5V logic supply to create standard logic-level pulses. It can, however,
be connected to any power supply up to +VCC. Output pulses have a constant duration and
positive-going during the one shot period. Current flowing in the open-collector output
transistor returns through the Common terminal. This terminal should be connected to logic
ground.
IC9400 as VFC /FVC:
 The TC9400/TC9401/TC9402 are low cost voltage-to frequency (V/F) converters,
utilizing low power CMOS technology.
 The converters accept a variable analog input signal and generate an output pulse train,
whose frequency is linearly proportional to the input voltage.
 The devices can also be used as highly accurate frequency- to-voltage (F/V) converters,
accepting virtually any input frequency waveform and providing a linearly proportional
voltage output.
Working:
 The TC9400 V/F converter operates on the principal of charge balancing. The operation
of the TC9400 is easily understood by referring to Figure 3-1.
 The input voltage (VIN) is converted to a current (IIN) by the input resistor. This current is
then converted to a charge on the integrating capacitor and shows up as a linearly
decreasing voltage at the output of the Op Amp.
 The lower limit of the output swing is set by the threshold detector, which causes the
reference voltage to be applied to the reference capacitor for a time period long enough to
charge the capacitor to the reference voltage. This action reduces the charge on the
integrating capacitor by a fixed amount causing the Op Amp output to step up a finite
amount. (q = CREF x VREF),
 At the end of the charging period, CREF is shorted out. This dissipates the charge stored on
the reference capacitor, so that when the output again crosses zero, the system is ready to
recycle. In this manner, the continued discharging of the integrating capacitor by the input
is balanced out by fixed charges from the reference voltage.
 In addition, the accuracy of the output pulse width does not directly affect the linearity of
the V/F. The pulse must simply be long enough for full charge transfer to take place.

SELF START CIRCUIT:

 The TC9400 contains a "self-start" circuit to ensure the V/F converter always operates
properly when power is first applied.
 In the event that, during power-on, the Op Amp output is below the threshold and CREF is
already charged, a positive voltage step will not occur.
 The Op Amp output will continue to decrease until it crosses the -3.0V threshold of the
"self-start" comparator.
 When this happens, an internal resistor is connected to the Op Amp input, which forces
the output to go positive until the TC9400 is in its Normal Operating mode.

Frequency to Voltage Converter:

 Figure 4 shows the VFC32 connected as a frequency-to voltage converter.

 The capacitive-coupled input network C3, R6 and R7 allow standard 5V logic levels to
trigger the comparator input.
 The comparator triggers the one-shot on the falling edge of the frequency input pulses.
Threshold voltage of the comparator is approximately –0.7V.
 For frequency input waveforms less than 5V logic levels, the R6/R7 voltage divider can
be adjusted to a lower voltage to assure that the comparator is triggered.
 The value of C1 is chosen from Figure 2 according to the full-scale input frequency. C2
smoothens the output voltage waveform.
 Larger values of C2 reduce the ripple in the output voltage.
 Smaller values of C2 allow the output voltage to settle faster in response to a change in
input frequency.
 Resistor R1 can be trimmed to achieve the desired output voltage at the full-scale input
frequency.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
 The VFC32 operates on a principle of charge balance.
 The signal input current is equal to VIN/R1. This current is integrated by input op amp
and C2, producing a downward ramping integrator output voltage.
 When the integrator output ramps to the threshold of the comparator, the one-shot is
triggered. The 1mA reference current is switched to the integrator input during the one-
shot period, causing the integrator output ramp upward. After the one-shot period, the
integrator again ramps downward.
 The oscillation process forces a long-term balance of charge (or average current) between
the input signal current and the reference current. The equation for charge balance is:

 The values suggested for R1 and C1 are chosen to produce a 25% duty cycle at full-scale
frequency output. For full-scale frequencies above 200 kHz, the recommended values
produce a 50% duty cycle.

IC9400 as VFC /FVC:

 The TC9400/TC9401/TC9402 are low cost voltage-to frequency (V/F) converters,
utilizing low power CMOS technology.
 The converters accept a variable analog input signal and generate an output pulse train,
whose frequency is linearly proportional to the input voltage.
 The devices can also be used as highly accurate frequency- to-voltage (F/V) converters,
accepting virtually any input frequency waveform and providing a linearly proportional
voltage output.
Working:
 The input frequency is applied to the Threshold Detector input (Pin 11). As discussed in
the V/F circuit section, the threshold of Pin 11 is approximately (VDD + VSS)/2 ±400mV.
Pin 11's input voltage range extends from VDD to about 2.5V below the threshold.
 If the voltage on Pin 11 goes more than 2.5 volts below the threshold, the V/F mode start-
up comparator will turn on and corrupt the output voltage.
 The Threshold Detector input has about 200mV of hysteresis. In ±5V applications, the
input voltage levels for the TC9400 are ±400mV, minimum.
 If the frequency source being measured is unipolar, such as TTL or CMOS operating
from a +5V source, then an AC coupled level shifter should be used.
 When used as an F/V converter, the TC9400 generates an output voltage linearly
proportional to the input frequency waveform. Each zero crossing at the threshold
detector's input causes a precise amount of charge (q = CREF ∞ VREF) to be dispensed into
the Op Amp's summing junction. This charge, in turn, flows through the feedback
resistor, generating voltage pulses at the output of the Opamp.
 A capacitor (CINT) across RINT averages these pulses into a DC voltage, which is linearly
proportional to the input frequency.
 Prepared By, Antheesh R, Department of EEE

REFERENCES:
Sl No Title Author Publisher Year
1. Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits Ramakant A Gayakwad Pearson 4th Edition 2015
2. Operational Amplifiers and Linear ICs David A. Bell Oxford 3rd Edition 2011
Linear Integrated Circuits; Analysis,
3. B. Somanthan Nair Wiley India 2013
Design and Applications