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Signal Generators

Signal generators are classified into various types including low-frequency, radio-frequency, function, pulse, and sweep frequency generators, each serving specific applications in electronics. Function generators produce sine, square, and triangular waveforms using an integrator and Schmitt trigger circuit, while pulse generators create adjustable pulse waveforms. The document also discusses the conversion of triangular waves to sine waves and the operational principles of these circuits.

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15 views11 pages

Signal Generators

Signal generators are classified into various types including low-frequency, radio-frequency, function, pulse, and sweep frequency generators, each serving specific applications in electronics. Function generators produce sine, square, and triangular waveforms using an integrator and Schmitt trigger circuit, while pulse generators create adjustable pulse waveforms. The document also discusses the conversion of triangular waves to sine waves and the operational principles of these circuits.

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Signal Generators

Unit IV
Introduction
Signal generators usually found in electronics laboratories may be classified as:
• Low-frequency (LF) sine-wave generators - Usually have a maximum output
frequency of 100 kHz and an output voltage adjustable from 0 to 10 V.
• Radio-frequency (RF) sine-wave generators - Circuit techniques employed for
RF signal generation are substantially different from those used in LF
instruments. RF screening is necessary. Also, RF generators are normally
equipped with an output level meter and a Calibrated attenuator.
• Function generators - Usually LF instruments which provide three types of
output waveforms: sine, square, and triangular.
• Pulse generators - Produce pulse waveforms, and controls are provided for
adjustment of pulse amplitude, pulse repetition frequency, and pulse width,
have facilities for adjustment of rise time, fall time, delay time, and dc bias level
• Sweep frequency generators - Sine wave output that increases gradually from
a minimum frequency to a maximum frequency over a selected time period. A
ramp voltage with an amplitude proportional to the instantaneous frequency is
also generated. Investigation of circuit frequency response is a major
application of this instrument.
Function Generators – Block diagram
Function Generators – Basic Circuit
• Produces sine, square, and triangular waveform outputs (Sometimes a ramp waveform is
also generated).
• Output frequency and amplitude are variable, and a dc offset adjustment may be
included.
• Uses an integrator and a Schmitt trigger circuit to generate a triangular wave. And square
wave
• Diode Circuits employed to convert to sine wave .
• The arrangement is shown in Figure 1 (on next slide).
• The Schmitt trigger circuit is a non-inverting type.
• When the input voltage increases to the upper trigger point(UTP), the output suddenly
rises from its most negative level to its most positive level.
• Similarly, when the input goes to the lower trigger point (LTP), the op-amp output voltage
rapidly drops to its most negative level.
• The inverting input terminal of the Schmitt op-amp is grounded (voltage gain ~ 200 000).
• Very small voltage difference is required between inverting and non-inverting terminals
to drive the op-amp output to saturation in either a positive or negative direction.
• If 𝑉𝐶𝐶 and 𝑉𝐸𝐸 are ±15 V, the output is typically ± 14 V.
Circuit diagram

• A basic function generator circuit consists of an integrator and a Schmitt


trigger circuit.
• The integrator output is a negative-going ramp voltage when the Schmitt
output is positive, and vice versa.
• The Schmitt output changes state when the integrator output ramp reaches
the Schmitt upper or lower trigger point.
Working
• The minimum voltage difference between the inverting and non-inverting input terminals
to produce output saturation is:
14 𝑉
𝑉𝑖 = = 70𝜇𝑉
200000
• Refer to the integrator section - In this circuit the op-amp non-inverting terminal is
grounded, and the inverting terminal is connected via capacitor 𝐶1 to the amplifier output.
• If 𝐶1 were replaced by a short circuit, the op-amp would behave as a voltage follower.
• Both the output and inverting input terminals would be at ground level because the non-
inverting input is grounded.
• With 𝐶1 in circuit and with zero charge on 𝐶1 the circuit again behaves as a voltage follower.
• All three terminals of the op-amp are at ground level.
• Now suppose that 𝐶1 becomes charged with a terminal voltage of 1 V. + on the right side
and - on the left side.
• The inverting input terminal still remains at ground level, and the output is +1 V with
respect to ground.
• The circuit voltages remain stable at these levels while 𝐶1 terminal voltage remains
constant.
• Similarly, if 𝐶1 is charged to -1V with the opposite polarity (+ on the left, - on the right), the
inverting terminal remains at ground level and the output voltage becomes -1 V with
respect to ground.
Working
• Now assume that a positive input voltage (+ 𝑉1 ) is applied to 𝑅2 as shown in Figure 1.
• The left-hand terminal of 𝑅2 is at + 𝑉1 while the right-hand terminal is at ground level
(because the non-inverting input remains at ground).
• Therefore, all of + 𝑉1 appears across 𝑅2 , and a constant current ‘𝐼2 ’ flows through 𝑅2 :
𝑉1
𝐼2 =
𝑅2

• 𝐼2 is selected very much larger than the input bias current to the-operational amplifier.
• Consequently, virtually all of 𝐼2 , flows into 𝐶1 , charging it with a polarity: + on the left, - on
the right.
• As 𝐶1 charges, its voltage increases linearly, and because its left-hand (+) terminal is at
ground level, the op-amp output voltage decreases linearly.
• When the polarity of 𝑉1 is inverted, 𝐼2 is reversed, and 𝐶1 commences to charge with the
opposite polarity.
• This causes the integrator output voltage to reverse direction.
Working
• Returning again to Figure 1, it is seen that the integrator input voltage is derived from
the Schmitt trigger output.
• Also, the integrator output is applied as an input to the Schmitt circuit.
• To understand the combined operation of the two circuits, assume that the Schmitt
output (𝑉3 ) is +14 V and that the integrator output is at ground level.
• 𝑉1 is positive because the Schmitt output is +14 V, and consequently, 𝐼2 is charging 𝐶1 : +
on the left, - on the right.
• Thus, the integrator output voltage (𝑉2 ) is decreasing linearly from ground level.
• When 𝑉2 arrives at the LTP of the Schmitt, the output voltage of the Schmitt switches
rapidly to 𝑉3 = -14 V.
• This causes 𝑉1 to reverse polarity and results in 𝐼2 reversing direction.
• Now 𝐶1 commences to charge in the opposite direction, and 𝑉2 increases linearly from
the LTP (see the waveforms in Figure 1).
• 𝐶1 continues to charge in this direction until the integrator output becomes equal to the
Schmitt UTP.
• When V, arrives at the UTP, the Schmitt output immediately reverses polarity once again
to 𝑉3 = + 14 V.
• 𝑉1 is now positive once more and 𝐼2 charges 𝐶1 with a polarity that makes 𝑉2 go in a
negative direction once again.
Conversion to Sine wave

• A triangular wave is converted into an approximate sinusoidal waveform is illustrated in Figure 2.


• If diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 and resistors 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 were not present in the circuit of Figure 2, 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 would
simply behave as a voltage divider.
• In this case, the output from the circuit would be an attenuated version of the triangular input wave:
𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
• With 𝐷1 and 𝑅3 in the circuit, 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 and resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 , still behave as a simple voltage divider
until 𝑉𝑅2 exceeds +𝑉1.
• At this point 𝐷1 becomes forward biased, and 𝑅3 is effectively in parallel with 𝑅2 .
• Now,
𝑅2 ||𝑅3
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ||𝑅3
• Output voltage levels above + +𝑉1. , are attenuated to a greater extent than levels below +𝑉1. .
Conversion to sine wave
• Consequently, the output voltage rises less steeply than without 𝐷1 and 𝑅3 in the circuit [see Figure 2].
• When the output falls below +𝑉1. diode 𝐷1 is reverse biased, 𝑅3 is no longer in parallel with 𝑅2 , and the
attenuation is once again 𝑅2 /(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ).
• Similarly, during the negative half-cycle of the input, the output is 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖 [𝑅2 /(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )] until 𝑉𝑜 goes
below −𝑉1. .
• Then, 𝐷2 becomes forward biased, putting 𝑅4 in parallel with 𝑅2 and making:
𝑅2 ||𝑅4
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ||𝑅4
• With 𝑅3 = 𝑅4 , the negative half cycle of the output is similar in shape to the positive half-cycle.
• When six or more diodes are employed, all connected via resistors to different bias voltage levels [see
Figure 2 b], a good sine-wave approximation can be achieved.
• With six diodes, three positive bias voltage levels, and three negative bias levels, the slope of the output
wave changes three times during each quarter cycle.
• Assuming correctly selected bias voltages and resistor values, the output wave shape is as shown in Figure
2 b.
Change of Frequency

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