FREE SPACE propagation of electromagnetic CIRCULAR POLARIZATION if the polarization

waves is often called radio frequency (RF) vector rotates 360˚ as the wave moves one
propagation or simply radio propagation. wavelength through space and the field
strength is equal at all angles of
polarization.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE is electrical
energy that has escaped into free space.
electromagnetic waves travel in a straight ELLIPTICAL POLARIZATION is when the field
line at approximately the speed of light and strength varies with changes in polarization.
are made up of magnetic and electric fields A rotating wave can turn in either direction.
that are at right angles to each other and at If the vector rotates in a clockwise direction,
right angles to the direction of propagation. it is right handed, and if the vector rotates
in a counterclockwise direction, it is
Properties of radio waves
considered left handed.
 Frequency
 Intensity
 Direction of travel RAY and WAVEFRONTS are aids to
 Plane of polarization illustrating the effects of electromagnetic
wave propagation through free space.

RADIO WAVES are a form of

electromagnetic radiation similar to light RAYS are used to show the relative direction
and heat. They differ from these other of electromagnetic wave propagating;
raditions in the manner in which they are however, it does not necessarily represent
generated and detected and in their the propagation of a single electromagnetic
frequency range. A radio wave concist of wave.
traveling electric and magnetic fields, with
the energy evenly divided between the two
types of fields. A WAVEFRONT shows a surface of constant
phase of electromagnetic waves. A
wavefront is formed when points of equal
The POLARIZATION of a plane phase on rays propagated from the same
electromagnetic wave is simply the source are joined together.
orientation of the electric field vector in
14-1
respect to the surface of the earth. If
polarization remains constant, it is A wavefront with a surface that is
described as linear polarization. perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. When a surface is plane, its
wavefront is perpendicular to the direction
HORIZONTAL POLARIZATION if the electric of propagation. The closer to the source,
field is propagating parallel to the Earth’s the more complicated the wavefront
surface, the wave is said to be horizontally becomes.
polarized.

A point source is a single location from

VERTICAL POLARIZATION if the electric field which rays propagate equally in all
is propagating perpendicular to the Earth’s directions
surface, the wave is said to be vertically
14-2
polarized.
Several rays propagating from it, and the
corresponding wavefront. The wavefront
generated from a point source is simply a permittivity of air or free space is
−12
sphere with radius R and its center located 10 F
approximately 8.85 × .
at the point of origin of the waves. m

In free space and a sufficient distance from

the source, the rays within a small area of a
POWER DENSITY is the rate at which energy
spherical wavefront are nearly parallel.
passes through a given surface area in free
Therefore, the farther from a source, the
space. Power density is energy per unit time
more wave propagation appears as a plane
of are and is usually given in watts per
wavefront.
square meter.

MAGNETIC FIELD is an invisible force field

FIELD INTENSITY is the intensity of the
produced by a magnet, such as a conductor
electric and magnetic fields of an
when current is flowing through it.
electromagnetic wave propagating in free
Magnetic fields are continuous.
space. Electric field intensity is usally given
in volts per meter and magnetic field

The strength of a magnetic field (H) intensity in ampere turned per meter
m( )
At

produced around a conductor (such as wire

or an antenna) is expressed as: Power density is expressed as
2
1 P=EH W /m
H=
2 πd
Where
Where

 H= magnetic field (ampere turns per  P = power density ( ) W

m
2

meter)
 d = distance from wire (meters)  E = rms electric field intensity ( mv )
 H = rms magnetic field intensity

ELECTRIC FIELDS are also invisible force ( )

At
m
fields produced by a difference in voltage
potential between two conductors. Electric
field strength (E) is expressed: The CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE of a
q lossless transmission medium is equal to the
E=
4 πe d
2 square root of the ratio of its magnetic
permeability to its electric permittivity.
Where Characteristic impedance of free space is
V


E= electric field strength
m
q = charge between conductors
Z s=
√ μ0
ϵ0
(coulombs) SPHERICAL WAVEFRONT
F
 ϵ = permittivity A point source that radiates power at a
m
 d = distance between conductors constant rate uniformly in all directions.
(meters) Such a source is called isotropic radiator. A
true isotropic radiator does not exist.
However, it is closely approximated by an
Permittivity is the dielectric constant of the omnidirectional antenna. An isotropic
material separating the two conductors. The radiator produces a spherical wavefront
with radius R.
 isotropically, although it is not necessary;
however, it is necessary that the velocity of
Point A and B are an equal distance from
propagation in all directions be uniform.
the source. Therefore, the power densities
Such a propagation medium is called an
at points A and B are equal. At any instant
isotropic medium.
time, the total power radiated, Pr , watts, is
uniformly distributed over the total surface
of the sphere. Therefore, the power density
WAVE ATTENUATION is when the waves
at any point on the sphere is the total move farther away from each other, and
radiated power divided by the total area of consequently, the number of waves per unit
the sphere. The power density at any point area decreases. None of the radiated power
on the surface of a spherical wavefront is: is lost or dissipate because the wavefront is
moving away from the source; the wave
Prad
P= 2 simply spreads out or disperses over a
4π R
larger area, decreasing the power density.
Where The reduction in power density with
distance is equivalent to a power loss.
 Prad = total power radiated (watts)
Because the attenuation is due to the
 R = radius of the sphere
spherical sphreding of the wave, it is
 4 π R = area of the sphere
2
sometimes called space attenuation of the
wave.

INVERSE SQUARE LAW is the total power Wave attenuation is generally expressed in
distributed over the surface of the sphere terms of the common logarithm of the
remains the same. However, because the power density ratio dB loss.
area of the sphere increases in direct
P1
proportional to the distance from the γ a=10 log
P2
source squared, the power density is
inversely proportional to the square of the the reduction in power density due to the
distance from the source. Therefore, the inverse law presumes free space
power density at any point on the surface of propagation and is called wave attenuation.
the outer sphere is The reduction in power density due to non
free-space propagation is called absorption.
P rad
P 2= 2
4 π R2

and the power density at any point on the Wave attenuation due to absorption
inner sphere is depends not on the distance from the
radiating source but, rather, on the total
P rad
P 1= distance that the wave propagates through
2
4 π R1 the atmosphere. In other words, for a
Therefore homogeneous medium, the absorption
experienced during the first mile of
Prad propagation is the same as for the last mile.

( )
2 2 2
P 2 4 π R2 R2 R1 In more practical situation (an
= = 2=
P1 Prad R1 R2 inhomogeneous coefficient) the absorption
4 π R21 coefficient varies considerably with location,
thus creating a difficult problem for radio
It can be seen that as the distance from the
systems engineers.
source doubles the power density decreases
by a factor of 22 or 4. When deriving the
inverse square law of radiation, it was
Ray wavefront propagation may be altered
assumed that the source radiates
from free-space behavior by optical effects
such as refraction, reflection, diffraction and A-. therefore, wavefront (A’B’) is tilted or
interference. Using rather unscientific bent in a downward direction. Because a ray
terminology, refraction can be thought of as is defined as being perpendicular to the
bending, reflection as bouncing, diffraction wavefront at all points.
as scattering, and interference as colliding.

REFRACTION is sometimes referred to as the

Whenever a ray passes from a less dense to
bending of the radio-wave path. The ray
a more dense medium, it is effectively bend
does not actually bend. Electromagnetic
toward the normal.
refraction is actually the changing of
direction of an electromagnetic ray as it
passes obliquely from one medium into
Whenever a ray passes from a more dense
another with different velocities of
to a less dense medium, it is effectively bent
propagation.
away from the normal. The angle of
incidence is the angle formed between the
incident wave and the normal, and the
The velocity (v) at which an electromagnetic
angle of refraction is the angle formed
wave propagates is inversely proportional to
between the refracted wave and the
the density of the medium in which it is
normal.
propagating. Therefore, refraction occurs
whenever a radio wave passes from the
medium into another medium of different
The amount of bending or refraction that
density. Refractive index is the square root
occurs at the interface of two materials of
of the dielectric constant and is expressed
different densities is quite predictable and
n=√ k depends on the refractive index of the two
materials. The refractive index is simple the
Where
ratio of the velocity of propagation of light
 n = the refractive index (unitless) ray in free space to the velocity of
 k = equivalent dielectric constant propagation of a light ray in a given
relative to free space (vacuum) material. Refractive index is

and c
n=
v

√
k = 1−
81 N
f2 Where

Where  n = refractive index (unitless)

 c = speed of light in free space (
 N = number of electrons per cubic 8m
3 ×10 )
centimeter s
 f = frequency (kHz)  v = speed of light in a given material

( )
m
s
14-5

Refraction of a wavefront at a plane

Refraction also occurs when a wavefront
boundary between two media with different
propagates in a medium that has a density
densities. It can be seen that ray A enters
gradient that is perpendicular to the
the more dense medium before ray B.
direction of propagation.
therefore, ray B propagates more rapidly
than ray a and travels a distance B-B’ during
the same time that ray A travels distance A-
14-6
Wavefront refraction in a transmission
medium that has a gradual variation in its
refractive index. The medium is more dense
near the bottom and less dense at the top.
Therefore, rays travelling near the top travel
faster than rays near the bottom and, the
wavefront tilts downward. The tilting occurs
in a gradual fashion as the wave progress.

REFLECTION means to cast or turn back, and

reflection is the act of reflecting.
Electromagnetic reflection occurs when an
incident wave strikes a boundary of two
media and some or all of the incident power
does not enter the second material. The
waves that do not penetrate the second
medium are reflected.

14-7

Electromagnetic wave reflection at a plane

boundary between two media. Because all
the reflected waves remain in medium 1,
the velocities of the reflected and incident
waves are equal.

Reflection also occurs when the reflective

surface is irregular or rough; howeves, such
a surface may destroy the shape of the
wavefront. When