54 Introduction fold radiated by_a_small_linear_antenna The —— Secular to the avg of the antenna, sett anton takes place in the direction Fight ansles tp #he ANE ot S See tp minimum when_the_polarangle_désrease Jancerstics may be used f efered in point to point communication. In_the point to see rive most of the energy radiated in one partisalat direction Seared to have greater directivity in a desired direction particularly which Hence to increase the field strength in_the desired diction _by mnganas excited simultaneously. Such a group of antennas is called array of antennas Sopiy antenna array. Thus antenna array can be defined NEE recied to get required high directivity in the desired direction. as the system of simul radiating system in which s In general, antenna array is the at a far distance from the radiating syste properly so as to get greater field strength combining radiations at point from all the antenn: fd produced by the antenna array at a far distance is the vector Produced by the individual antennas of the array. The individual el called element of an antenna array. tenn The antenna array is said to linear if the elements of the an uniform linear artay c ‘ ce along a straight line. The linear antenna array is Stid to be Xi the elements are fed with a current of equal magnitude w ith progressive & shuft along the line The lengtt dn general, the element in the antenna array is 4 dipole waved he length dipole may not be equal to the electrical wavelength. Tt the variation of the electri ical A length from % is within 5 % then it is assumed that the rad jation properties of indivi ‘dual elements are not affected (5-1)ON Wave Theory and Antenna 5-2 Antenna Array As the antennas may be used in various configurations such as straight line, circ, rectangle etc., many configurations of antenna arrays are possible. But practically limit, ed number of configurations are used extersively Hence antenna array is a radiating system in which individual array clemen, contribute to obtain maximum field strength in the desired direction; while cancelling the individual field strength in all other directions to get maximum directivity in the desire direction. 5.2 The Point Source The idea of point source used for describing antennas is based on looking upon the antenna as a volumeless emitter, located at a point, from a large distance where only the far field exists. It is worth mentioning that a point source does not necessarily mean an isotropic radiator. However, the isotropic radiator can be a point source. To understand the concept, we consider an antenna contained within a volume of radius a as in Fig. 5.1. As we are concerned only with the far field of the antenna, we may analyze the fields along an observation circle of large radius R. Antenna Observation circle Fig. 5.1 Antenna and observation circle Here the measurable fields are entirely transverse, and the power flow, or poynting vector is entirely radial. It is convenient in many situations to assume that the fields of the antenna are everywhere of this type even near the antenna. In fact, the assumption may be extrapolated even inward along the radii of the circle and assume the wave to be originating from a fictitious volumeless emitter, or ‘point source’ of the centre O of the observation circle. The actual field variation near the antenna, or the near field, is ignored and we characterize the source only interms of the far field it produces. In so far that the observations are made at a sufficient distance, any antenna, irrespective of its size or complexity, can be represented in this way by a single point source. The far field of th point source can be satisfactorily specified through the variation with angle of the powe" density or Poynting vector magnitude (power per unit area) from the antenna [P, (@, 0 doing so, the vector nature of the field can be disregarded, treating the radiation 2 * scalar quantity. |y Antenna Arrays 5 PO f i wie have seen that FoF @ point source (or in the far itd of NeMireams from tNe Source in radial tines, Conga cot) ed by & point source radiator, located a A rep as shown in Fig, 52 ystems 'y antenna) the radiated transmitting antenna, at the fhe origin of a spherical co-ordinate z P, (radial Polar Polar axis. component 2x1 + sino dp of poynting SS do vector or Element of area power density, Wim?, ds at radius r at radius r) ? sind a do ‘Area ds subtends a solid angle = sin d8 do Equatorial plane (a) (b) Fig. 5.2 Spherical co-ordinates for a point source of radiation in free space The radiated power density (W/m_) is the time rate of energy flow per unit area, also inown as the poynting vector P. It has only a radial component P,, with no components in either the @ or 6 directions, ie. Py = Py = 0. Thus, the magnitude of the poynting vector is only (| P| = P,). As applied to the isotropic radiator considered in section 2.3 , the radial component P, of the poynting vector is independent of @and6. A graph of P, at a constant radius as a function of angle is the power density pattern, usually called the Power pattern. Thus, for an isotropic radiator, the 3-dimensional power pattern is sphere. 'ntwo-dimensions, the pattern is a circle, as depicted in Fig. 5.3. seotropic source Fig. 5.3 Polar power patter of isotropic $2Wave Theory and Antenna 5-4 Antenna Array, We have already mentioned that an isotropic source is not physically realiy, even the simplest antenna has directional properties. ic. they radiate more ener BY im som, directions than in others. The power pattern of such a source can have able ang | a shape as Shown | in Fig. 54 for example, where Pj, is the maximum value of P, 0=0 . Fig. 5.4 Relative power pattern The total power P (W) radiated by a point source is the integral over the surface of the sphere of the radial component P, of the average poynting vector. In equation form, P= ffP-as = fp, ds () where ds is an infinitesimal element of area of sphere given by sin @ d@ do(m?). (See Fig. 5.4). In case of the isotropic radiator, P, is independent of 6 and @, so that, P= P, ff ds = P, xdnr2 or P= Q The expression already mentioned in equation (1) of section 3.8. The radiation intensity U, or power per unit solid angle, is obtained by multiplying the power density P, by the square of the radius r at which it is measured. Thus U=rP, @ and P= f J Usino do dg=ff ude | where dQ is the element of solid angle in steradians. Interms of radiation intensity U: the power radiated is given by the integral of the radiation intensity U over a solid angle of 4x. Every different types of antenna has its own power pattern, We have already see" the power pattern of an isotropic radiator. As applied to the same, P = 4nU, @Theory and Antenn? Boe Antenna Arrays wav (W/P,) is the radiation intensity of the isotropic source, u re VO we onsider a few other types of sources. Let us ice with hemispheric power pattern : soul y auch a source, the radiation intensity equals a constant Uy, in the upper For ye and is zero in the lower hemisphere, as shown in the three dimensional Nem Fig. 55 (a) and its two dimensional cross section of Fig. 5.5 (b). diagram © i Hemispheric 6 i o t \ CPN Ce ‘ Isotropic @ ) © Fig, 5.5 Hemispheric power patterns, (a) and (b) and comparison with isotropic 9. pattern (c) The total power radiated in this case is the radiation intensity integrated over a hemisphere, or ann/2 P= JJ aes J J Um sin 0 d0 do =2n Um (6) 0 0 Earlier, in section 2.8, we defined directivity of a source as the ratio of its maximum ‘adiation intensity to its average radiation intensity. The directivity of a source may also be Stated as the ratio of its maximum radiation intensity to the radiation intensity of an ‘solropic source that is radiating the same total power. Then the total power P radiated by 8 hemispheric source can be compared with the total power radiated by an isotropic ‘ource taken as reference, like 2m Um = 4m Uy uU " Un = 2= Directivity D ” The power patterns of a hemispheric source and an isotropic source are compared on a for the same power radiated by both, in Fig. 5.5 (c). A directivity of 2 Power per unit solid angle U,, in one hemisphere from the hemispheric the power per unit solid angle Uy from an isotropic source radiating the er. Source is twice Se total pow, a, Wave Theory and Antenna 5-6 Antenna Arrays ii) Source with sine (doughnut) power pattern : Next we consider a source having a radiation intensity pattern given by U = Uy sind which is shown in Fig. 5.6. In 3-dimensions, the pattern is a figure of revolution of ¢, pattern around the polar axis and has the shape of a doughnut e=0 Polar axis Fig. 5.6 Sine power pattern The total power radiated is ann Un J J sin20 d0 do=n? Up, 0) 00 P " Again, equating this to the power radiated by an isotropic source taken as a reference, we have 4nUy Um d =m an¢ D U, (10) iii) Source with sine squared (doughnut) power pattern : Another source is one with a sine-squared radiation intensity or power pattern which is given by U = Un sin?0 (ll) Shown in Fig. 5.7, this pattern bears considerable inter: t because it is the pattem produced by a short dipole coincident with the polar (0 = 0) axis.Fig. 5.7 Sine squared power pattern al power radiated is The tot one F; P= Um ff sin 6 do do= 5 Um 00 \fP is assumed to be the same as for the isotropic source, SnUm = 4p Um _3_ and D= qragrs iv) Source with unidirectional cosine power pattern : Antenna Arrays a. (12) w- (13) Next we consider a source with a cosine radiation intensity that is given by U = Up cos® .. (14) The word unidirectional means that the radiation intensity U has a value only in the per hemisphere (00 Wave Theory and Antenna 5-14 Antenna Att ag The relative power pattern is given by E ) - 1 m = (F my of radius unity as shown in Fig. 5.14 g Ty ing © Plane which, in the equational plane, is a circle magnitudes of the two field quantities Eg and Ey a equal a = 45° and depen the time phase between the two components, the field in this direction could cr is same, irrespective of the phase elliptically or circularly polarized. The pow 5.5 Phase Pattern For a given frequency assuming that the field has a harmonic time variation, the j, field due to a source, in all direction, can be completely specified knowing the followin, quantities : 1. Magnitude of the azimuthal component Ey of the electric field as a function ¢ r, 6 and @. 2. Magnitude of the polar component Eg of the electric field as a function oj r, 6 and @. . Phase lag of Ey behind Eg as a function of and 0. wo Phase lag of either field component behind its value of a reference point as 2 function of r, 0 and ¢. In the far field considerations, we consider every source of radiation as a point source. Hence the above four quantities completely specify the far field of a point source. Also, te amplitudes of the field components at any distance can be obtained from the knowledge ¢! their amplitude of a particular radius, using the inverse distance law. Consider the pattern of a directional antenna with maximum radiation in z-direction 6 =0°. The three dimensional field pattern of such a radiator is shown in Fig. 5.15, whe there is a major lobe containing most of the radiation and minor lobes contributing radiation in other directions. This pattern is symmetrized in and is a function of 8 alonery and Antenne Seis) Antenna Arrays Main lobe axis, o=0 field pattern / Main beam | ormain tobe Fig, a ig. 6.15 Three dimensional field pattern of a directional antenna with maximum radiation in z-direction at 0 = 0 The own thee dimensional version of this radiation pattern is shown in Fig. 5.16 (a). Also lhe ne the polar and decibel forms in Fig. 5.16 (b) and (c) respectively. ty of the lobe is also indicated. (Refer Fig. 5.16 on page no 5-16.) and 4). A null is formed Tt '5 observed that the polarity of the side lobes alternate (- (+) are equal. the magnitude of the field of one lobe (-) and the adjacent lobeWave Theory and Antenna Decibels (dB) i R 8 1 8 ~40 L AL ~180° 120-60" o 0 (degrees) (c) Decibel pattern Fig. 5.16 Patterns showing alternate phasing (+ and -) of pattern lobes- nd Antenna 5-17 Antenna Arrays a neon us Forms of Antenna Arrays 56 vari Jy various forms of the antenna array are used as radiating systems. Some of onc ised forms are as follows. sical er oadsde Array End fire Array collinear Array parasitic Array Broadside Array 564 B form of the antenna array is one of the most important practical forms used in TS he broadside array is the array of antennas in which all the elements are placed practi feet each other and the direction of maximum radiation is always perpendicular to erie consisting elements. A typical arrangement of a Broadside array is as shown in the Fig. 5.17. Maximum radiation Antenna Ag [--~ Axis of antenna array Maximum radiation Fig. 5.17 Broadside array of antennas , A broadside atray consists number of identical antennas placed parallel to each other ns sigh line. This straight line is perpendicular to the axis of individual antenna. It an own as axis of antenna array. Thus each element is perpendicular to the axis of nay. All the individual antennas are spaced equally along the axis of antenna ; Spacing between any two elements is denoted by ‘d’. All the elements are fed ea with equal magnitude and same phase. As the maximum radiation is Pater fon proadsde direction ie. perpendicular to the line of axis of array, the radiation agement broadside array is bidirectional. Thus we can define broadside array as the Seas of ag ntenmaS in which maximum radiation isin the ditection perpendicular to “ay and plane containing the elements of array.quan 5-42 Antenn, la Wave Theory and Antenn: tn, Expressions ‘Sr No. Parameter 1 Direction of Major Lobe dinax = 90° &F 8inax = 270° 2. Magnitude of Major Lobe n 47, ma 3. Direction of Minor Lobe min = 208 [« =| aan 4 Direction of Subsidary Maxima | = cos ' [ n wane) a (or Side Lobes) : 5. Beamwidth of Major Lobe BWFN = BS - 2 tad = a ® & 6. Half Power Beam Width HPBW = BWEN : ts vas 573 (HPBW) Tz 4) , ane 7. Directivity Dee (3) - () Table 5.1 Summary of n element uniform linear broadside array > Example 5.1: A linear broadside array consists of four equal isotropic imphase poin sources with spacing equal to z Calculate the directivity and beam width if the total lengi of the array ish Solution : For broadside array, directivity D is given by, D= 23) where L = Total length of array, Xr Substituting value of L, we get, Xr D = 2/=/= (i)- The beamwidth of major lobe is given by, BWFN = @ Similarly half power beamwidth is given by rad = 2 rad or BWFN. = 1146° or rs of Cons a ris Sim ThAntenna Arrays of n Elements with Equal Spacing and Currents Equal in Magnitude but with Progressive Phase Shift - End Fire Array “ger n number of identical radiators supplied with equal current which are not in “ shown in the Fig. 5.27. Assume that there is progressive phase lag of id radians 43 Array oP Fig. 5.27 End fire array Consider that the current supplied to first element A.) be Ig. Then the current supplied AL is given by, e~ ibd Similaly the current supplied to A.> is given by, 1, = I,-e7 4 =[lo eB] =1y-e7 PM Th Ws the current supplied to the last element is given by, a Tqey = Ip 7 i-DBa Slectric field produced at point P, due to Ag is given by, = TdLsino |B? eBro ww (I) ° * “Froe, |) 15-44 Antenna Arr an Wave Theory and Antenna Then the electric field produced at point P, due to A, is given by, _ IdLsind [ B? | .-iBr1 ipa Ei = Gnoe |!" But 1 = td cose z, = [dbsind B? | = i9(r o-dcos) , Bd 1 = “Groey |'% ; 2) 4 E, = [saan [ie] eo) ete ee Frat, |) % . E, = Ep: 0 iba(cose-t) ” 1 0 e Let w = Bd(cosé-1) = Ey ei¥ Ey io @ 5 The electric field produced at point P, due to A» is given by, E, = Ey:e2¥ : Similarly the electric field produced by A... is given by, Ey = Ey el ~8 Thus the resultant field at point P is given by, Eq = Ey +E, +E) +..+Eyy Ep = Ey +Eyel¥ +Ey 0i2¥ +...+Ey el(-)¥ Ey = Ey [1eelv +el2¥.ctelloDv] 6 Using the concept of exponential series studied in previous section, we can write, @)Antenna Arrays \d fire array where currents supplied to the antennas are equal in amplitude or the ne ges progressively through array, the phase angle is given by, : put te PhS w = Bd(cos$-1) of the end fire array, the condition of principle maxima is given by, case ye0ie Bd(coso-1) = 0 (9) In (10) ie.cos@ = 1 ie oe ay 1us ¢=0° indicates the direction of principle maxima, Also it indicates that the on radiation is along the axis of array or line of array. 1. magnitude of the major lobe The maximum radiation occurs when y = 0. Thus we can write, |Major lobe| = [Major lobe] =n ++(12) where, nis the number of elements in the array. Thus from above equations it is clear that the field component at point P is ‘r’ times the individual field in the direction $= 0°. 3. Nulls The ratio of the total field to the individual field is given by, Ey sinny Ey 0 sing. To find direction of minima, equating ratio of magnitudes to zero, sinn¥We Theory and Antenna soy, Thus condition of minima is given by, Ay, ann but sin $ #0 Hence we can write, sinny = 0 ie n¥ = £m, where m= 1, 2,3, Substituting value of y from equation (9), we get, peales=s) one Put B= 3, we get M4 nd _ Fos) = tm Note that value of (cos ~1) is always less than 1. Hence it is always negative, Hg only considering ~ve values, RHS., we get *S (cos-1) m ie. cosg-1 = ie coso = where m = Constant = 1, 2,3 n = Number of elements in array d = Spacing between element in meter 2 = Wavelength in meter ‘Thus equation (15) gives direction of nulls. Consider equation (14), 608 Onin “1Antenna 5-47 Antenna Arrays eons 2 ' wove on LHS. interms of half angles, we get essing term ° asin? 2 thd (coso-1 2sin? ) mA * ond a ma sin 2 = *V2nd min = sin-?) + ,/ min = sin—"| 4 .subsidary maxima (or side lobes) (16) ‘he directions of the subsidary maxima or side lobes can be obtained if in equation (8), sin n¥) = 41 7m oa nv = 43%, 258 4 2 2/7*2 «(17) Hence n-¥ = $ is skipped because with this value of n $ we get sin n= 1 which ithe direction of principle maxima. Thus we can write, ny 2 Putting value of y from equation (9), we get, nBd(cos 61) Set) £Qm+1)5 nBd(cos@—-1) = +(2m+1)n Rijs oe 7 We get, an Balog = £Qm+1)r he cosg—1 = tQm+ D544 7 ws tQm+5, where m = 1, 2, 3y.s 2Wave Theory and Antenna 5-48 ‘ ~ Ary jmilar to previous case value of (cos @ - 1) is always less than 2er0 i, ve, Hence only considering negative values on the RHSS. of above eg ation, is y | We pep way, a cos 0-1 = -(2m+1)5°5 a a cos @ = 1-(m+1) 575 Qm+In Le. Aye noe [: Ind (lg Equation (18) represents directions of the subsidary maxima or sides lobes, 5, Beamwidth of major lobe The beamwidth of the end fire array is greater than that of broadside ara. Beamwidth = 2x Angle between first nulls and maximum of the major lobe i. 8 min From equation (16), If Onin is very low, then we can write sin Pin = San, Using this property in above equation we get, (20) But nd = L ie. length of the antenna array, so equation (20) becomes, _ , [am 2m ~Q) tan = PR The beamwidth between first nulls is given by, (2) BWEN = 26min =42.| 2 Ymin = £2 7h Expressing BWEN in degrees, we get«preci similar t© Goma = Ue gor end fire arrays Una Gpmax = 2nBd on( 2)-4 Gpmax = 2°50) a But nd = L = Length of array L Gpmax = 4(3) = Land Uy the broadside array, the directivity for the end fire array is given by, = 2nBd 1 2nBd Anteni (24) ‘St No. Parameter Expressions T 1. | Direction of Major Lobe max 2 _| Magnitude of Major Lobe 3. | Direction of Minor Lobe -1 mi 21,23... son co 12h orm Direction of Subsidary Maxima (or Side Lobe) = cos 1 1-(2m 04] where me ty 2iSie ‘2nd Beamwidth of Major Lobe (BWEN) —L X, a [2 degree curecse(gnsiae 6 ear x) \Wave Theory and Antenna 6. | Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) 7. | Directivity X oea(t) ——™~ Table 5.2 Summary of n element uniform linear end fire array vim Example 5.2: An end fre array with elements spaced at > and with aces ae ~ vents. right angles to the line of array is required to have directivity of 36. Determine an ke : and width of major lobe. 2Y lene, Solution : For end fire array, the directivity is given by p+ 36 = 4(F) L= 9% BWFN = +2 Putting m = 1, L= 9A we get, BWEN = + 242 = 0.9428 rad or BWEN = +1146 |2™ Gi) a Putting m = 1 and L = 91, we get BWFN = + nse 2 = 54,02°ry and Antenna 5-54 Antenna Arrays wore of n Elements with Equal Spacing 44 Array ide and Progressive Phase shift ed Directivity and Currents with Equal - End Fire Array with mpl increas : vious section, we discussed the oy te son, it is clear that th Js discuss view “form end fire array if the wnifo nditions of ie Maximum. radiation Progressive phase sh; the end fire array. From the can be obtained along the axis ' ift & between the elements is of the vent ee tBd= -Bd for maximum in = 0° direction | =_+ Bd for maximum in @ = 1g9° direction found that the field produced in the direction @ = 0° is Maximum; but the viv is not maximum, In many applications it is necessary to have the maximum oe ivity of the linear array. prssible direct =) In 1938, Hansen and Woodyard a - (sa!) (444) for maximum in 9 = 0° -- Q) and 2.94 a = + [pas = )= +845) or maximum in = 18 ; my Note that with above conditions also maximum. possible directivity cannot be achiev: agnitude That means the maximum may not even occur at = 0° and 180°, its magnit maimum may cally the 'y not be unit and even side lobe level may not be ~ 13.46 dB. Basically ni ts in the array. “aitta level and side lobe level, both depend on 'n’ ie. uae element ae The en directivity due to Hansen-Woodyard conditions can be y "sing equation ven as below. (2) alog with assumptions for |y| values given as bel For maximum radiation along 9 = 0° : 7 n ly = [Bdcos +a yo. 3) |¥| = [Bdcos +0 4_:g9=™* [v1 = [Bacos@ +p tays= = and (4) Il = [Bdcos9+6gg° = a Even though equations (3) and (4) represent conditions obtained fro me only, the precaution must be taken to fulfil the condition | y|=m for each amt 0 uray. In 4 for an anay of m element the condition yl=7 can be saisied by using equating =0" and §=180" by selecting the spacing between two elements as, ) for n-1)a a= =) a ( nj}é 6) If the number of elements is considerably large, then we can write, a aa 6 Hence for large uniform array, the Hansen-Woodyard conditons illustrate enhanced directivity if the spacing between the two adjacent elements is approximately }/4 Consider n element array. The array factor of the n-element array is given by, ny 1/8" (AF), = |] —- a) sin. zz Buty = Bd cos 6+0.. Putting in equation (7), we get n sin > (Bdcoso+a) (an, = 4 ise 8) | sin 5 dcos+0) For smaller values of y we can approximate sin Y= ¥. Hence for small value of ¥, equation (8) becomes, J ae sng Bema) 7 Bdcos +0) BI int (AF), = pez ecmsee) A) BiBdcose+a)— ntenna 5-53 Antenna Arrays neo and A essive phase shift be & = ~ pd, where p is constant. Then equation (9) cet he prog poo” sin 5 (Bd cos 6 ~ pd) (AF) y = Nae ~ x Bd cos o— pd) sin 4B coso-p) (AP, = hae (10) *F Gos 6—p) ted = q, Hence equation (10) becomes, 2 _ sin q(Bcoso-p) (Pn = ~G@Bcosd—p) (11) _ Z = q @cosd— p). Hence equation (11) becomes, sinZ (AF), = —Z --(12) The radiation intensity is given by, inZ7? ue) = Kang? = [952] 23) At @= 0, the radiation intensity is given by, sinZ]? _[sinq(®-p) 7 Ud =0) = [ | = [Sacer Zz a®-p) 4) Dividinig equation (13) by (14), we get, . 2 ve) , = [ AB=p)_ sin q@Bcos>~p) sinq(B-p) q(Bcoso-p) Let z = q @-p), then equation becomes Z_sinzP UO), = [sz Z ] -(15) The directivity of the array factor is given by, = 4®U mx _ Umax 16) : Pad (Pra 4m the average radiation intensity is given by, | Uy = Tara JUG) sind do do a0Wave Theory and Antenna 5-54 Antenna Aa U, = Waza} [Syzsne do : v= 3[atseen| adensep ' Uy= GeO | where v= 9 8p) rm When the g(v) is plotted against v, its minimum value appears when v= q6-p)=B-p=-147 Hence SI ~ (pas 228) --(19) ‘Thus equation (19) gives the condition for the end fire array with enhanced directivity based on Hansen Woodyard conditions. “The variation of g(v) as a function of v is as shown in the Fig. 5.28. atv) 20 Vv -05 -10 -15 -2.0 Fig. 5.28 Variation of g(v) as a function of v aa oy 3 Antenna 5-55 Antenna Arrays oe sem for 4 element end fire array with equal amplitude and * spacing for ne fold ry jg as shown in the Fig, 5.29. oe airect 0= 90" = 270° fo, 529 Field pattern for 4 element end fire array with increased directivity 5i4.t Directivity of End Fire Array with Increased Directivity yor an end fire array with increased directivity and maximum radiation in @ = 0° econ, the radiation on intensity for small spacing between elements (d << 2) is given by 2 = wld) [F241 #515] 0.878 Uo = Ta ---(20) Multiplying numerator and denominator quantities by 2n in equation (20), we get, y, = 0:878x2n _ 1.7560 Fe n ) nBdxin InnBd Inpd Uy oss (ae a o ose0 (45) (21) Thus the directivity is given by, D = Umax _ 1 Up rT 050 (5)ve Theory and Antenna -56 ‘ Wave 5 But, Bes | where L = (n= 1) d=nd (23) Following Table 5.3 gives the comparison between broadside array, end fire array end fire array on the basis of directivity. and I Broadside Array End Fire Array Hansen-Woodyard | EndFire Aray | Directivity D=2n (3) D= 1.789 [+] Uw) led = 1.789 is ( >a) Table 5.3 Comparision of directivity of n element uniform, linear array 5.15 Phased Arrays In case of the broadside array and the end fire array, the maximum radiation can be obtained by adjusting the phase excitation beween elements in the direction normal and along the axis of array respectively. That means in other words elements of antenna ary can be phased in particular way. So we can obtain an array which gives maximum raidation in any direction by controlling phase excitation in each element. Such an array commonly called phased array. The array in which the phase and the amplitude of most of the elements is variate provided that the direction of maximum radiation (beam direction) and pattern share along with the side lobes is controlled, is called as phased array 050) 518" Suppose the array gives maximum radiation in direction = y where then the phase shift that must be controlled can be obtained as follows V = kdcosd +0 |g.9, =0 skdcos@ +a = 0 —— (1) k d cos 64Se 5- Arrays ana anton 57 Antenna Array: p00 1) it is clear that the maximum radiation can be achieved in any we ation (1) : ‘ from eT gressive phase difference between the elements is controlled. The 10} ai the as y operates on the same principle, sie pases Consider a three element array as a » dipos shown in the Fig. 5.30. The element of , 2 dipoles ( 3 a2 array is considered as * dipole. All the | cables used are of same length. All the / Element switch three cables are brought together at yp? common feed point. Here mechanical {92 eit NLL / / switches are used. Such switch is installed one at each antenna and one at a common feed point. All the *Yy’ Feed point switch switches are ganged together. Thus by th 2 operating switch, the beam can be } To receiver shifted to any phase shift. To make operation reliable and - jca) simple, the ganged mechanical switch Fig, 5.30 nae aN food oem es! is replaced by PIN dipole which acts as electronic switch. But for precision in suas the number of cables should be minimised. in many applications phase shifter is used instead of controlling phase by switching atis. It can be achieved by using ferrite device. The conducting wires are wrapped ‘mand the phase shifter. The current flowing through these wires controls the magnetic sidwithin ferrite and then the magnetic field in the ferrite controls the phase shift. The phased array for specialized functional utility are recognized by different names “ila frequency scanning array, retroarray and adoptive array. Tie aray in which the phase change is controlled by varying the frequency is called ‘quency scanning array. This is found to be the simplest phased array as at each «tt Separate phase control is not necessary. A simple transmission line fed frequency “Ming array as shown in the Fig. 5.31. omic lament of the scanning array is fed by a transmission line via directional ane wit ar the directional couplers are fixed in position, while the beam scanning *eling — Tequency change. To avoid reflections and to obtain pure form of the Hrantage a ie the transmission line is properly terminated of the load. The main *iches ang re frequency scaning array is that there are no moving parts and no eg Phase shifters are required. Mana? Which au Nene the tacts as a Wave inci tomatically reflects an incoming signal back to the source is called Tetroreflector similar to the passive square corner reflector. That rent on the array is received and transmitted back in the same aeWave Theory and Antenna 5-58 Antenna Dipole elements of array g + To receiver Directional couplers, Matched teminations Fig. 5.31 Freqeuncy scanning line fed phased array. direction. In other words, each element of the retroarray reradiates signal which is any the conjugate of the received one. Simplest form of the retroarray is the Van Atta anay 2 3 shown in the Fig. 5.32 in which 8 identical EB dipole elements are used, with pairs formed between elements 1 and 8, 2 and 7, 3 and 6, 4 and 5 using cables of equal length. If the wave arrives at angle @ say then it gets transmitted in the same direction. Direction of reception and reradiation =— 8 identical 4 dipoles Cables with equal length between pairs of elements Fig. 5.32 Van Atta retorarray while An array which automatically turn the maximum beam in the desired direction turn the null in the undesired direction is called adoptive array. The adpotive ary =o itself in the desired direction with awareness of its environment. In modem oa arrays, the output of each element in the array is sampled, digitized and then Pr using computers. Such arrays are commonly called smart antennasd Antenna 5-59 ory Antenna Arrays tern Multiplication Method 16 revious sections, We have discussed antenn; in dation pattems of the same. Other th, arrays and the methods of ‘an this straight f jg another simple method of ht forward mathematical ui here is antes SIP obtaining the same patterns of the arrays, This , tern multiplication meth Si nas atte ‘ethod. This met} ; got is HOW" jecause it makes possible to draw the pat rns al inthe oy | ' patterns of complicated it most by inspection. arrays y, all a i , consid , piste this method, consider 4 element array of equispaced identical antennas as ig. 5.33. Let the spacing betw i a in the Fig. 5 pacing between two units be d = 5 Also assume that all gown i . ents are supplied with equal magnitude currents which are in phase. pee ep Fig. 5.33 Four element linear array 4s the point P at which the resultant field has to be obtained is far away, we can “re the radiation from the antenna in the form of parallel lines. The radiation pattern of the antennas (1) and (2) treated to be operating as a single ‘ait 'S@8 shown in the Fig. 5.34 (a). Similarly the radiation pattern of the antennas (3) and “Feel 5 distance apart and fed with equal current in phase, treated to be operated as ‘ing a a eats agin as shown in the Fig. 5.34 (a). Now instead of considering two separate "*() and 2), we can replace it by a single antenna located at a point midway : : oa (3) as shown in the Fig, 5.34 (c). Similarly replacing antennas (3) and (4) by “le an ‘ae ae having same pattern as shown in the Fig. 5:34 (6) a vigy cot” Pattern ie. figure eight pattern spaced distance + apa “ajgy “WAL currents in phase is as shown in the Fig. 534 (b)- i re i sultiplication of pattern as "™ of four element array can be obtained as the multi! Now both the antennas rt from each other, Now the resultant baWave Theory and Antenna 5-60 Artem a, shown in the Fig. 534 (@). Note that this multiplication is polar graph, a for different values of a (@) Radiation pattern of two (b) Radiation pattern of two i a antennas spaced at distance > and antennas spaced at distance ) and fed with equal currents in fed with equal currents in Phase phase Array of 4 identical elements. Replacement of array by two single antennas placed at distance 2. apart (6) Antenna (®) and @) and @) and (4) replaced by single antenna separately » bb (d) Multiplication of pattern Fig. 6.34 Illustration of pattern multiplication method 4ce and Antenna S54 Antenna Arrays no) 1 it jnonia form linear array, to increase the directivity, the array length has to be 5 post of a the array length increases, the secondary or side lobes appear in the But rene special applications, it is desired to have single main lobe with no a ae means the minor lobes should be eliminated completely or reduced to sit evel #8 ue ee eee se gach pattern, the array is arranged in such a way that the broadside array Array to achiev’ rongly at the centre era from edges. Let us consider array of the two ore s ite vephase point sources spaced 55 apart. Then the far-field pattern is given by, igen F cos® E = cos 5 cos -() she pate has no minor lobes as shown in the Fig. 5:35. +. a= 4 —___- Fig, * pa Pattern for two point sources with equal amplitude in-phase current ‘ondary ee 4-element array, the resultant pattern shows four side lobes. The Fatem have a @ppear in the resultant pattern, because the elements producing group Ses prodec ine Bteater than one-half wavelength. So in d-element array, the : tween ge, Patter are spaced a full wavelength apart. So if we reduce the “aned, the two elements to one half wavelength then only the primary lobes are “plication vetttant pattern can be obtained by using the concept of the pattern : *iN¢ arrangement is as shown in the Fig. 5.36(a). In this arrangement, two ara A "ased YS are spaced 4 distance apart from each other. Such atray produces adiati n Pattern with no secondary lobes. a, Wave Theory and Antenna 5-62 A tena Ay TR 1 ' 1 1 (') 2 QQ 4 at te (' go te at 2 s ' jadi}! ' For 2 element Arrangement of 4-elements (b) Pattern for 2-element array on a opecing and 4-element array 2 Fig. 5.36 Array of 4-elements with spacing 7 Producing no secondary lobes Here antenna 2 and 3 coincide at the centre as shown in the Fig. 5.36 (a). Hence it cy be replaced by a single element carrying double current compared with other elemens Thus as shown in the Fig. 5.36(b), the resultant array consists three elements with curren ratio 1: 2: 1. The same concept can be extended further by considering three element array as a unit and with a second similar three element array spaced half-wave length from it. This results in 4element array as shown in the Fig. 5:37. In this array, the current ratio is given by 1:3:3:1 Fig. 5.37 Four element array If we continue this process, we can obtain the pattern with arbitrarily large directivity without minor lobes. But it is necessary to adjust the amplitudes of the currents. In the array corresponding to the coefficient of the binomial series. This concept was fist Proposed by John Stone in 1929. As the secondary or side lobes in the linear broadside arrays can be eliminated totally when the amplitude of the currents in the radiating Sources are proportional to the coefficients of the binomial series. This coefficients can be displayed by Pascal's triangle as given in Table 5.4, for different number of sources ie." in array.5- Antenna Arrays .d Antenna 63 in ie 5.4 Pascal's triangle displaying coefficients of the binomial series Tat . eral, the pattern for the binomial array is given by, Ingenes” E= ew ood (2) = n = Number of sources in the array. whe 548 Effect of Uniform and Non-uniform Amplitude Distributions In the synthesis of antenna, it is often required to have narrowest main lobe for a ven evel of the side lobes. In other words, we can say that while designing antenna aray it is often required to determine the current ratios resulting the smallest side lobe we fora specified beamwidth of the principal lobe. But these two characteristics of the antenna are related to each other, so any improvement in any one characteristic seers the other one. Prof. C.L. Dolph suggested that for a linear inphase broadside amas, fora specified side lobe level it is possible to minimise the beam width of main bis and vieversa. The improvement in the above antenna characteristics proposed by Yel. CL Dolph was based on Tchebyscheff polynomials. Thus according to him, if the beamwidth between first nulls is specified, then the side lobe level can be minimised. The current distribution that produce such a pattern is called Dolph-Tchebyscheff stibution or simply Tehebyscheff distribution, Thus the Tchebyscheft distribution Hovides a compromise between two conflicting properties. Such a value is considered to be an optimum condition, The antenna arrays based on the Dolph-Tchebyscheff ‘rbution are called Dolph Tchebyscheff arrays which produce optimum current ‘stiuton ‘hat results in the narrowest beamwidth for a specified side lobe level and rast. The Tehebyscheff distribution proposed by Prof. C.L. Dolph is based on ae Polynomials. The alternative spelling to the Russian name Tchebyscheft is ne yshev and thus the Dolph-Tehebyscheff arrays are simply called Chebyshev : “coding to Prot, CLLDolph, the current distribution is optimum provided that ance a *etween two successive array elements dis less than or equal to * According to ®proach, i 5 PPtOach, it is practical very difficult to reduce side lobe level without sacrificing the ly very ; ae7 Toe = @)y, PHM W9 944, 509 =g Suumansqng 1-978097 = xt . 1-880 = 92 500 ‘Kyadord ounewoUDsiA &q ing é naan (@z)s00 = ©), 2 (11-809-2)509 = (2 OWENS wy wou yy (.59)s09= (4 s009)509 = GH ‘aust ued 26 (&-1) vonento wos) wou 1 = wy supe (0) s0 = (x), (@u)s00 = (x)0y ‘aio UR aM URN, $09 = g (1-502 )s00 = (x) 2p ‘au uso am ‘(e1) wonenbo wos) usu 9 = w 997 "W Jo sanyes juazaysIp 205 speruoustod S961 seo sou sm 1 w oF 9 wo4 a8uMs yin hime meee 39H xo1- r-soou)soo = 6)" | swonaead f ON SPUEG euuoquy pue A001 One (Antenna Arrays and Antenna (io ston oe cng a 4, Then from equation (1-a), - Ty(x) = €08(3.cos x) T,(x) = cos(38) we (- 6= cos ) pe tigonometic PFOPETIY, COS35= 4.6059 5-3 cag5 T,(x) = 400858-3cosé rating 5= cos”!x, we can write, tt Ty (x) = 4x3 -3x UL 6) 24. Then from equation (1-a), we can write, T(x) = cos(4cos'x) um T(x) = cos 48 ee jr the trigonometric property, cos 48 = 2 cos22§~1 T,(x) = 2cos?28-1 fut cos25=2cos?6—1, hence the polynomial becomes, TX) = 2(2 cos*6-1)° -1 T,(x) = 2[4cos* 8-4 cos?5+1]-1 Ty(x) = 8.cos*8-8 cos?5+1 Substituting 8 = cos“1x, we can write, [10 = et-a8H | 6 \ow the polynomials with higher values of m can be obtained by using recurssive ima sven by, Tryst (9) = 2 Tm (X)= T1009 “a “ceo obtain T(x), put m = 4 in equation (7), we get Tea) = T(X)=2xT4()-Th 109 BX) = 2xTy(x)- T(x) t, Polynomials T, (x) and T(x) in above equation, we Be! Tx) = ax[ 8x4 8x? ]-[?-*] T(x) = 16 x5 -16x3 +2x—4x3 + 3x Sbstatng“gx Aq uaasl st speayra reruiousjod aq ypny aa > oxy peau UO Of eNOS HouDsKaryry op“ |x) vo ah € soup. ea ap oso eC FOHPSGENPL J9PIO yl a “t > |x) ise Mt at ‘ T Poe = sme 27 mom aE seRAEUKed a py 6 jue suundod Sure BPUAEE HHMPSKGPL 9A JO SHEUADEIMD ay Loe ‘oanpods: (@) Paw (e) g's Sit a49 ut uMoys se axe wo sagen op po wo 2) ousted HoKexsGaypy, Jo SsUDDEERYD oy, “PDO 20 toHa lng ng wo w jo anqea SUL WH JO anfea ayy Se auIeS st TeruoUKjod HayDsKqay>}, Jo aax%ap ayy 36 + € 021 9X ZBP + x 91S ~ gx 992 = (9) a 1 2E= yx 001 = 962— gx ez = OAL Paar HL 99+ ZL x49 = (x) lew j 18+ or ze =A ar %9 + eX 02- gx Ob = (x). seu te 8) =u r= OE rar be = 4 gow | x= (9h baw TOR o=u Swoyoy se pazumns aq we sqewousjod youpsKqoyp] Uy STL TXBI+ yXBF- 9X ze = OL OdtL-OD8LT = OD°L LOE = O)L=OL “a8 9m (2) uonenbo uy ¢ = wand (4) %s rEg OL Ma act ex 00= X91 = 094 rr rr . oy 99-S ‘euuajuy pue A0oys OEM x 40 = guso ‘soos aun q wont ae sr wag, segan asa “garsor=(¥-sow)so = 6)" | sg van ersousod yoxpsigoPs PPI qt !PISICD SHOT TPIwouktod parpaseny ‘ap yo stoor amy Aq vows axe waned HeMpsKqayp, ay ve capnygydure auses Jo 24° $9491 299] aps agp ce uraped wmuspdo payle> st (2) pur (e) ge's “Big aun UE UMOUS yed ay TE aoN 1. < x oon ayy ut 1 Suqpunyxo agoy HU ayy 1 > x worSax ayy ur Susie S990] aps(a (0x Sunpapas Aqqenns Sq yuamaambar aaifap ed se pansjas aq ue> PUM : cones &q aqoy weur ax Mofaq axe saqoy z0uR {repuoses asoyy) Aapun oy jens apmidure ours Jo soqot sour Crepes =HL( ‘saqoy apis Suey (t ‘agoy sofeut 240 ‘separ PH waged e save (3)41 renmousjod ayy uay “e 0} eq Patten wou Pue "x IIe age vain v Aes yiod Sresigze Sze oxy paren st x uoyas () pur (8) ‘e's Se AH HOH lw Jo Sonjea ppo pue uane 10} sjeiwioufjod yayoshqouo4 8's “SH Pro w (a) yong we) Sheuy euusuy———————e 5-68 Wave Theory and Antenna Antenng tn ive. mé = c Ys 1 fe md = (2k-1)5 _ Qk-1)n ke fe B= where k= 1,2, 3, Examples with Solutions wm Example 5.3: For two element array consisting identical currents in phase, obtain positions of maxima and minima distance of separation d = . radiators cary, Ving. ony of the radiation pate al Solution : i) Maxima : If $=+ $ we get the maxima. Also, another condition for maxima is given by, 14 cosp = O47 But d = 2, thus the condition becomes, Tcoso = 0, tn ie cos = 0 or cosp=t) if m#0 e=5 or 6=0 or o=n Thus the positions of maxima are But d=4, nm 3 Toosg = +2 is o tpt 1 3 cos@ = +2 s ® tyots Thus the positions of minima are, 9 = £60° or + 129°5-69 Antenna Arrays a exal gece a apart and current in one radiator lags behind other by 9° wit cor the two element array with A /4 separated radiators fed with currents of n't Fat phase difference of 9 we can write, wae a ® = 2eos[a( 4 Jomo 2] a 90 =" rad 2 = 20s Fen] ) ama: The maximum radiation is possible if Maxima + Tos b— os Foose e [fooe-4] = 0, EM) ome ie es b=1 oF cos@=5 oF cosd=-3 But cos 9 1, selecting appropriate value of cos @, we get, cos = 1 = 0 ... Only location of maximum radiation. Minima : The minimum radiation is possible if Lr ws[joxe-§]-0 T ocp_t ie [josef] ie Feosg = EF, ‘e cos = cos @ = -1 .. Neglecting other values as cos > + 1. TS . Only location of null radiation. ee e Plot the radiation pattern completely, additional points are required. Thus te ) F different values of 6 . bPo Wave Theory and Antenna 30 60 90 120 180 The radiation patter for the given antenna array is as shown in the Fig. 539, From the radiation pattem shown in the Fig, 5.39 it is clea only in front direction and no radiation on back side. Such unidirectional antenna. it that antenna is Tadiatin, ‘YPe of antenna is cies = 120° g=007 y= 60" 9= 270° Fig. 5.39 Radiation pattern : ators dim Example 5.5: 4 broadside array of identical antennas consists 8 ae ae Separated by distance 2/2. Find radiation field in a plane containing # showing directions of maxima and null, Solution : Given :n=8, d = 22 1) Major lobe For broadside array, is of er | to axis the direction of maxima is along the direction normal the array. Hence the dit rection of the major lobe is given by, 9=90 and 9 = 270°nna oo ante Antenna Arrays Ne major lobe itu’ fe oi wn rude of the major lobe is given by, ewe = 8 iis . 9 ns of mulls are given by, the cost e™ Omin = tua where m = 1, 2, 3, nin, = 00871] ee 75.52? and 104.47° pare ly Oring ’ afm] a], @@ seem =2 ning = 8 feRa feels = 60° or 120° Form=3, ming = COS” |: le cos“ 280 = 414° and 138.6 4) Subsidary maxima (Side lobes) The direction of side lobes is given by, Ne oo SE", where m = 1, 2, 3, .+ ~~ 2nd Form=1, 9, = cos 2A@+D |. wf §]= 6797° and 112° 2xBx4 8 Frem=2, ¢, = cost] x +P = cos" 35] 51.31° and 128.68° 2xBx4 8 Fe ™M=3, 45 = cos et = wf 5] = 28,95° and 151° 2x8x4 8 Som The radiation pattern for the broadside array of 8 identical isotropic radiators is as "nthe Fig, 540,SO * 5-72 Wave Theory and Antenna Antenna An 404.47" int 75.52" ys = 120° 9 ming 60° ng 7 = 67.970 ne" 60 ing = 138.8 8 min 41.45 Directions © mint ' 9 ming = Nulls 44 10.49 = side lobe = 270° Fig. 5.40 um> Example 5.6: A broadside array consists four identical half wave dipoles spaced 50 om apart. If the wavelength is 0.1 m and each element carries rf. current of equal magnitude # 0.25 A and same phase, calculate power radiated and half power beamwidth of the mr lobe. Solution : Given : Number of elements = 4 = Wavelength = 0.1 m a> s " = Spacing between any two elements = 50cm = 05m I = Curent = 0.25 A }) Power radiated is given by, Pha = 0? Ry)