PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

(CHE3002)

Module 4
Lecture 15: Modes of control action

Dr.S.Karthika
Assistant Professor
(Senior Grade 1)
 What is a PID Controller?

 A PID controller is an instrument used in industrial control applications to regulate

temperature, flow, pressure, speed and other process variables. PID (proportional
integral derivative) controllers use a control loop feedback mechanism to control
process variables and are the most accurate and stable controller.
 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is the most common control algorithm
used in industry and has been universally accepted in industrial control. The popularity
of PID controllers can be attributed partly to their robust performance in a wide range
of operating conditions and partly to their functional simplicity, which allows
engineers to operate them in a simple, straightforward manner.
As the name suggests, PID algorithm consists of three basic coefficients; proportional,
integral and derivative which are varied to get optimal response.
PID controller
 History of PID Controller

 The first evolution of the PID controller was developed in 1911 by Elmer
Sperry. However, it wasn't until 1933 that the Taylor Instrumental Company
(TIC) introduced the first pneumatic controller with a fully tunable
proportional controller.

 A few years later, control engineers went eliminate the steady state error
found in proportional controllers by resetting the point to some artificial
value as long as the error wasn’t zero. This resetting “integrated” the error
and became known as the proportional-Integral controller. Then, in 1940,
TIC developed the first PID pneumatic controller with a derivative action,
which reduced overshooting issues.
 History of PID Controller

 However, it wasn’t until 1942, when Ziegler and Nichols tuning rules were
introduced that engineers were able to find and set the appropriate
parameters of PID controllers. By the mid-1950’s, automatic PID controllers
were widely adopted for industrial use.
 Today, most proportional and PID controllers are implemented either using
embedded microprocessors or microcontrollers, or as software running on a
PLC or larger supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system.
However, there are exceptions. Analogue PID controllers are still used for
high bandwidth and low noise applications, and pneumatic systems are still
available
Various control modes
 On/off or ‘Bang-Bang’ control
 This is the simplest form of closed loop control, and is exemplified by a domestic heating
system with a room thermostat. The thermostat compares the room temperature
measured value (MV) with its setpoint (SP) as adjusted by its user. The system uses the
MV feedback to close the loop. If the temperature is too low, it turns on the central
heating to heat the room until it reaches SP temperature. If the temperature exceeds the
SP, the heating will be turned off, and, possibly, air conditioning will be started for active
cooling.
 Practical thermostats have a hysteresis, or dead-band. This could typically be 4°C, so for a
setpoint of 20°C, the thermostat turns on at 18°C and below, and off at 22°C and above.
This exposes the limitations of on/off control; without hysteresis, the thermostat would
switch continuously, which may cause excessive wear and tear, and possibly intrusive
audible noise. Conversely, if the hysteresis gap is too wide, the room temperature will be
sub-optimal for much of the time.
Room heating
On/off control
 Proportional control

The proportional control mode changes the controller output in proportion to the error. If the
error increases, the control action increases proportionally.
 The proportional component depends only on the difference between the set point and the
process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The proportional
gain (Kc) determines the ratio of output response to the error signal. For instance, if the error
term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would produce a proportional response of
50.
 In general, increasing the proportional gain will increase the speed of the control system
response. However, if the proportional gain is too large, the process variable will begin to
oscillate. If Kc is increased further, the oscillations will become larger and the system will
become unstable and may even oscillate out of control.
 Proportional control
 If we have just a Proportional (P) controller, we can start by setting
the Kc gain to a modest value, such as 10. After applying the step
input, the output will be stable, but will approach the desired value
slowly. If Kc is increased to, say, 100, both the steady state error and
the rise time will be reduced – so far, so good. However, if we
increase Kc to 200, although the rise time and steady state error are
further reduced, overshoot starts to appear.
 From here on, further increasing Kc merely increases overshoot, with
no further reductions in rise time or steady state error. And overshoot
may eventually become underdamped oscillation, meaning that the
system will be unstable.
 Proportional control
The proportional controller has only one adjustable parameter, the controller
gain. The proportional controller produces an output signal (pressure in the
case of a pneumatic controller, current, or voltage for an electronic controller)
that is proportional to the error e. This action may be expressed as
 Behaviour of P controller

The controller output will saturate (level out) at pmax =15 psig or 20 mA at the
upper end and at pmin = 3 psig or 4 mA at the lower end of the output. The
ideal transfer function Eq. (9.5) does not predict this saturation phenomenon.
 Proportional control
The Proportional Band in The Proportional Band is 100%
is 20% and the Gain is 5. and the Gain is 1 The Proportional Band in
is 200% and the Gain is 0.5

M - A Constant which is the position of the valve when the error is zero (Bias)
 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL

 A PID controller can be configured to produce only a proportional action by turning off
the integral and derivative modes. Proportional controllers are simple to understand
and easy to tune: the controller output is simply the control error times the controller
gain, plus a bias. The bias is needed so the controller can maintain a non-zero output
while the error is zero (process variable at set point).

 The drawback is offset, which is a sustained error that cannot be eliminated by

proportional control alone. Under proportional-only control, the offset will remain
present until the operator manually changes the bias on the controller’s output to
remove the offset. This is known as a manual reset of the controller.
 Proportional control

 Although the P-only controller does offer the advantage of faster response time, it
produces deviation from the set point. This deviation is known as the offset, and it is
usually not desired in a process. The existence of an offset implies that the system
could not be maintained at the desired set point at steady state. It is analogous to the
systematic error in a calibration curve, where there is always a set, constant error that
prevents the line from crossing the origin.
 The offset can be minimized by combining P-only control with another form of control,
such as I- or D- control. It is important to note, however, that it is impossible to
completely eliminate the offset, which is implicitly included within each equation.
 Integral control


The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a small
error term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral response
will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect is to drive the
Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between the
process variable and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when
integral action saturates a controller without the controller driving the error signal
toward zero.
 Although integral action can eliminate the steady state error, it can strongly contribute
to controller output overshoot and possible instability. Nevertheless, PI control can be
suitable for some processes, where system speed is not important. However, where
instability is a potential concern, the solution is to implement a PID controller by adding
a Derivative component.
 Integral control
 The need for manual reset led to the development of automatic reset, known as the
integral control mode. The function of the integral control mode is to increment or
decrement the controller’s output over time to reduce the error, as long as there is any
error present (process variable not at set point). Given enough time, the integral action
will drive the controller output until the error is zero.
 If the error is large, the integral mode will increment/decrement the controller output
at a fast rate; if the error is small, the changes will be slow. For a given error, the speed
of the integral action is set by the controller’s integral time setting (Ti). If the integral
time is set too long, the controller will be sluggish; if it is set too short, the control loop
will oscillate and become unstable.
 Most controllers use integral time in minutes as the unit of measure for integral
control. Some use integral time in seconds, and a few controllers use integral gain (Ki)
in repeats per minute.
 Why integrator reduces steady state error?

 Integral controller or I-controller is mainly used to reduce

the steady state error of the system. The integral component
integrates the error term over a period of time until the error
becomes zero. This results that even a small error value will
cause to produce high integral response. At the zero error
condition, it holds the output to the final control device at its
last value in order to maintain zero steady state error, but in
case of P-controller, output is zero when the error is zero.
 Derivative control
 Derivative components act on the rate of change of the error signal.
The more error changes or the longer the derivative time, the larger
the derivative factor becomes. The effect of this is to counteract the
overshoot caused by P and I. When the error is large, the P and the I
will push the controller output.
 This controller response makes error change quickly, which in turn
causes the derivative to counteract the P and the I more aggressively.
A properly used derivative allows for more aggressive proportional
and integral factors. Larger derivative time makes the derivative more
aggressively dampen P and I.
 Derivative control
 Derivative control is rarely used in controlling processes, though it is often used
in motion control. It is very sensitive to measurement noise, it makes trial-and-
error tuning more difficult, and it is not absolutely required for process control.
However, using a controller’s derivative mode can make certain types of control
loops – temperature control, for example – respond faster than with PI control
alone.
 The derivative control mode produces an output based on the rate of change of
the error. It produces more control action if the error changes at a faster rate; if
there is no change in the error, the derivative action is zero. This mode has an
adjustable setting called Derivative Time (Td). The larger the derivative time
setting, the more derivative action is produced. If the derivative time is set too
long, however, oscillations will occur and the control loop will be unstable. A Td
setting of zero effectively turns off the derivative mode. Two units of measure
are used for the derivative setting of a controller: minutes and seconds.
 Derivative Response

Most practical control systems use very small derivative time (Td),
because the Derivative Response is highly sensitive to noise in
the process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy
or if the control loop rate is too slow, the derivative response can
make the control system unstable
PID control
Controller selection guidelines
ON/OFF
 Popular because of its simplicity. In general it functions
satisfactorily if the process has a large capacitance and
minimum dead time. It will accommodate load changes to
some extent, but such changes should not be rapid or large.
Cycling at the new load will have a different average value
depending on the direction of the load change. In industry,
ON-OFF control is ideally suited, for example, to the control
of temperature in a cooking kettle where the only load
changes are due to changes in ambient temperature. The
capacitance is large and the load changes are small.
Controller selection guidelines

Proportional control
 It reduces cycling below that of ON-OFF control. It does a
particularly good job when process capacitance is large and dead
time small. These characteristics promote stability and allow the use
of a narrow proportional band, which gives faster corrective action
and less offset.
 When the process has these favorable characteristics, proportional
control can even make moderate load changes tolerable. When the
proportional band must be made wider, however, even a small load
change leads to offset
 Controller selection guidelines

PI control
 The primary advantage of proportional-plus-reset is that it will eliminate offset
with load changes. It can be used even when process capacitance is small and
load changes are large. The main limitation of a proportional-plus-reset
controller is its inability to prevent overshoots due to reset accumulation.
 When reset action responds to a large enough error or one that exists for a
long time, by putting the valve into saturation (either fully open or fully
closed), it is subsequently unable to change the direction of the valve motion
until the error changes sign, that is, until the process variable crosses the
setpoint. This is usually too late to prevent overshooting of the process
variable. It is a problem found particularly in the start-up of processes, but any
large or rapid load change may cause it.
Controller selection guidelines

PID control
 Rate action can be very useful in minimizing overshooting of the
process variable when the controller is trying to compensate for large
or rapid load changes. It is also useful in preventing overshoot of the
process variable in the start-up of batch processes. On very slow
moving processes rate will have minimal affect. On noisy processes,
such as flow, rate will amplify the noise and result in continual
overcorrection. It has been most widely used for temperature
control, and least on pressure or flow applications. In recent years,
however, its use has been more widespread across all control
applications.
Application of control modes
A pneumatic proportional controller is used to control the cold stream outlet
temperature within the range of 60 to 120˚F. The controller gain is adjusted so that the
output pressure goes from 3 psig (valve fully closed) to 15 psig (valve fully open) as the
measured temperature goes from 71 to 75 ˚F with the set point held constant. A)Find the
controller gain Kc. B) If the gain of the controller is changed to 0.4 psi/ ˚F. Find the error
in temperature that will cause the control valve to go from fully closed to fully open.
 Problem 1

Solution
 https://www.power-and-beyond.com/pid-controller--
definition-and-explanations-a-915227/
 https://www.techbriefs.com/component/content/arti
cle/tb/pub/features/articles/20013
Thank you