UNIT I INSTRUMENTATION

Principles of measurements and classification of process

instruments, measurement of temperature, pressure, fluid flow,
liquid weight and weight flow rate, viscosity, pH, concentration,
electrical and thermal conductivity, humidity of gases.

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PROCESS INSTRUMENTS

Types of Instruments

Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement

(a)Direct Measurement: In this case the purpose and meaning of the

measurement are same. The meaning of the measurement is the determination
of the physical value and the purpose of measurement is to generate the
physical value of the medium of which the variable is to be measured.

(b)Indirect Measurement: In this case the meaning of the measurement and

the purpose of the measurement are different, but they are related with each
other.

1.1.1 Measuring Instruments For Process Control

The successful functioning of the control system depends on the accurate

measurement of controlled output and the effective transmission lines for the
quality production in the continuous manufacturing process. The
measurement of different process parameters like temperature, pressure, flow
rate, liquid level and composition are essential features for the quality control.
The quality of a product and the efficiency of the production in the industrial
manufacturing depend on the accuracy of the measurement which
consequently affects the functioning of the control system.

1.1.2 Transient Characteristics Of Instruments

The response of the instrument depends on the dynamic characteristics of an

instrument which can be determined by applying different forcing functions
such as step change or ramp or linear change, impulse change and sinusoidal
change in the measured variable. The dynamic characteristics of an instrument
indicate slowness or sluggishness in the response of the instrument because of
fluid capacitance resulting delayed response. The desirable transient
characteristics of an instrument are the speed of the response and fidelity. The
undesirable transient characteristics of an instrument are measuring lag and
the dynamic error. The speed of the response gives the rapidity of an
instrument for any change in the measured variable. The measuring lag gives
the delay in the response indicated by the instrument for any change in
measured variable. The dynamic error gives the difference between the input
and output variables indicated by the instrument at steady state condition. The
fidelity gives the degree in the change of the measured variable in the absence
of the dynamic error.

1.1.3 Elements of an Instrument

An instrument is a device used for the determination of the value of the

measured variable. The essential functions of the instrument are transmission
of the information of the measured variable to the comparator through the
transmission lines where it gives the range of the measured values. The
instruments have various elements to perform distinct functions for converting
the measured variable into a corresponding indication. The different elements
in an instrument are primary element, secondary element, manipulating
element and functioning element.

(a)Primary Element: In this part of the instrument which first utilizes the
energy from the medium from which the variable is to be measured and
producing a condition to represent the value of the measured variable of the
control system.

(b) Secondary System: In this part of the instrument the condition useful of
the function of the instrument is produced by the conversion of the condition
produced in a primary element.

(c) Manipulating Element: In this part of the instrument the given function of
the instruments is performed based on the condition of the secondary element.

(d) Functioning Element: In this part of the instrument signaling,

transmitting, indicating and recording is performed for the control system.

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS

1.2.1 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the fundamental parameter use to control the plant. The

temperature is the measure of the hotness or coldness of the substance.
Temperature represents the thermal state of the substance. The temperature
measurement of the body indicates whether it will lose or gain the heat from
other bodies. The heat flows from the hot body to cold body. Temperature is
measure of the degree of heat.

Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy in a body, which is the relative

hotness or coldness of a medium and is normally measured in degrees using
one of the following scales Fahrenheit (F), Celsius of centigrade (C), Rankin (R),
Kelvin(K).Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases
or the energy of the molecule is zero.

Fahrenheit scale was the first temperature scale to gain acceptance. It was
proposed in the 1709 by Fahrenheit. The two points of reference chosen for 0 to
100 degree were the freezing point of a concentrated salt solution (at a sea
level) and the internal temperature of oxen. This eventually led to the
acceptance of 32 degree and 212 degree (180 degree range) as the freezing and
boiling point, respectively of pure water at 1 atm (14.7 psi or 101.36kPa) for
Fahrenheit scale the temperature of the freezing point and boiling point and of
water changes with pressure.

Celsius or centigrade scale (C) was proposed in 1743 by Celsius ( Sweden), who
proposed the temperature readings of 0 to 100 degree (giving a 100 degree
scale) for the freezing and boiling points of pure water at 1 atm.

Rankin scale (R) was proposed in the mid 1800s by Rankin. It is a temperature
scale referenced to absolute zero that was based on the Fahrenheit scale, i.e., a
change of 1 degree R. the freezing and boiling point of pure water are 491.6
degree R and 671.6 degree R, respectively at 1 atm, Kelvin scale (K) named
after lord Kelvin was proposed in the 1849. It is referenced to absolute zero but
based on the Celsius scale, i.e., a change of 1 degree Celsius equal to change of
1 K. the freezing and boiling point of pure water are 273.15K and 373.15K.
The temperature and the heat flow are related by second law of the
thermodynamics which states that the heat flows of its own accord from a body
at the higher temperature to a body at the lower temperature.

1.2.1.1 Temperature Scales

The temperature scale is based upon the temperature at the lower fixed point
and the temperature at the upper fixed point. The temperature at the lower
fixed point is the temperature of ice when melting under in the pressure of 760
mm mercury.

The temperature at the upper fixed point is the temperature of the steam point
when the water is boiling under the pressure of 760 mm mercury.

The temperature difference between the temperature at ice point and the
temperature at the steam point known as the temperature fundamental
interval.

The temperature interval is the difference between the temperature of the ice
point and the temperature of the steam point and is divided into the number of
the equal parts to graduate the thermometer.

The different temperature scales are given as:

(i) Fahrenheit scale 0F.

(ii) Centigrade scale 0C.
(iii)Rankin scale 0R.
(iv) Kelvin scale K.

The different temperature scales conversions are:

To convert 0F to 0C 0C= (0F-32)5/9

To convert 0C to 0F 0F= (0C*9/5) + 32

To convert 0F to 0R 0R= 0F+459.6

To convert 0C to K K= 0C + 273.15
To convert K to 0R 0R= 1.8 * K

To convert 0R to K K= 0.555*0R
1.2.1.2 Temperature Measuring Devices

There are several methods of measuring temperature that can be categorized as

follows:
 1. Expansion of a material to give visual indication, pressure, or
dimensional change.
2. Electrical resistance change.
3. Semiconductor characteristic change.
4. Voltage generated by dissimilar metals.
5. Radiated energy.

Thermometer is often used a general term given to devices for measuring

temperature. Examples of temperature measuring devices are described below.

The temperature measurements are classified according to the method used.

The temperature measurement methods are:

1. Non-electrical methods
2. Electrical methods
3. Thermo electrical methods
4. Pyrometers
(1) Non-Electrical Methods

(a)Liquid in Glass Thermometer

Fig.1.1.Liquid in glass Thermometer

Construction and working

The mercury in glass thermometer is shown in Fig1.1 the mercury in glass

thermometer consists of small bore graduated glass tube. The bulb containing
mercury at the bottom. The heat is transferred through the bulb to the
mercury. The expands pushing the column of the mercury to higher value in
the capillary. The temperature scale graduated indicates the temperature of the
body.

Liquids in glass thermometer have the same principle as the mercury

thermometer. The liquids used have similar properties to mercury, i.e., high
linear coefficient of expansion, clearly visible, non wetting and nontoxic. The
liquid in glass thermometers is used to replace the mercury thermometer and
to extend its operating range. These thermometers give accurate value. The
different liquids have a limited operating range. The different liquids which can
be used for liquid in glass thermometer are xylene, ether and alcohol.

Advantages

 They are comparatively cheaper than other temperature measurement

devices.

 They are handy and convenient to use.

 Unlike electrical thermometers, they do not necessitate power supply or

batteries for charging.

 They can be frequently applied in areas where there is problem of

electricity.

 They provide very good repeatability and their calibration remains

unaffected.

Disadvantages

 They are considered inapt for applications involving extremely high or

low temperatures.

 They cannot be applied in regions where highly accurate results are

desirable.

 As compared to electrical thermometers, they are very weak and delicate.

Therefore, they must be handled with extra care because they are likely
to break.

 Besides, they cannot provide digital and automated results. Hence, their
use is limited to areas where only manual reading is adequate, for
example, a household thermometer.

 “Temperature readings should be noted immediately after removal

because a glass thermometer can be affected by the environmental
temperature, heat produced by the hand holding it, cleaning, etc. This
temperature should be recorded because a glass thermometer does not
offer a recall of the measured temperature.”
  Reading temperature via liquid-in-glass thermometers call for brilliant
eyesight.

 Liquid element contained in a glass thermometer may be perilous or

risky to health owing to their potential chemical spills.

 These thermometers display temperature either in Celsius or Fahrenheit

scales. Thus, temperature conversion would be needed if the temperature
reading is wanted in some other scale.

Applications

Liquid-in-glass thermometers are mainly employed in Navy and Marine

Corps in different configurations. They are also applied in meteorological
and oceanographic applications, where they are generally calibrated by
graduations eternally engraved into the glass.

(b) Bimetallic thermometer

(a) (b)

Fig.1.2. Bimetallic thermometer

Construction and working

The principle that metals are pliable and the metals have different coefficients
of thermal expansion. The two strips of dissimilar such as brass and invar
which is copper-nickel alloy are welded together. The change in length of
metals as the temperature changes is shown in Fig.1.2 (b). Bimetallic strips are
usually configured as a helix for compactness and used with a pointer to
indicate the temperature as shown in Fig1.2 (a).
  The different metals have different coefficient of the thermal expansion.
The bimetals expands to the different length as the temperature rises.
The bimetallic strip bends towards the side of the low coefficient of
thermal expansion. The one end of the bimetallic strip is fixed. The
displacement of the other end of the bimetallic strip is proportional to the
total change in temperature.

The displacement of the bimetallic strip is used is deflect the pointer over a
calibrated scale to the indicated the temperature. The Bimetallic thermometer
is relatively slow to respond and less accurate. It cannot be used to the give
remote indication in analog application. The bimetallic thermometer has
hysteresis and drift. The bimetallic thermometer is tough and less costly.

Advantages

 The bimetallic thermometer is easily installed and maintained.

 Wide temperature ranges are available.
 The bimetallic thermometer has good accuracy.
 The cost is very low.
 It has nearly linear response.

Disadvantages

 It is suitable at local mounting only.

 Indicators are used to display.
 Calibration is disturbed if roughly handled.

Applications

 For various household appliances such as ovens etc.

 Thermostat switches
 Wall thermometers
 Grills
 Circuit breakers for electrical heating devices
(c)Liquid in metal thermometer

Invented by German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit is a thermometer

consisting of mercury in a glass tube. Calibrated marks on the tube allow the
temperature to be read by the length of the mercury within the tube, which
varies according to the temperature. To increase the sensitivity, there is usually
a bulb of mercury at the end of the thermometer which contains most of the
mercury; expansion and contraction of this volume of mercury is then
amplified in the much narrower bore of the tube. The space above the mercury
may be filled with nitrogen or it may be a vacuum. Range: Covering a wide
temperature range from -38 °C to 356 °C, although the introduction of a gas
into the instrument can increase the range to 600 °C or beyond.

Advantages

1. Mercury is a naturally opaque liquid (Silver). This means that it can be

directly utilized in its pure form.

2. Mercury does not wet glass. When it moves up and down in the capillary
strong cohesive properties of mercury do not allow it to leave any traces on the
inside of the capillary.

3. Mercury is a liquid metal. As a metal it has high conductive properties that

allow it to be more sensitive than the alcohol in glass thermometer.

Disadvantages

1. Mercury poses a potential toxic hazard if the glass container is ruptured.

Applications

Designed specifically for the foundry industry, to measure molten metal

temperatures at the furnace, or pour, without disrupting the process, the
Liquid Metal Temperature Measurement System is a stand-alone system that
can also be utilized for automated process control and has the flexibility to be
configured to monitor and display up to four separate pour temperatures
simultaneously.

(2) Electrical Methods

The electrical temperature instruments generally used are:

a. Resistance thermometer
b. Thermistor

(a) Resistance Thermometers

 Fig.1.4. Resistance Thermometers

These thermometers work on the principal that electrical resistance varies in

pure metals with accord to temperature. Thermal vibrations hinder the flow of
electrons in a metal. As the temperature increases, the resistance also
increases, and this very idea is the central concept of this thermometer.
Generally, they make use of platinum wires for the thermometer, however
copper, nickel and rhodium alloy can also be sometimes used for different
temperature ranges. They are known for their high accuracy. However, they are
expensive than liquid in glass thermometers.

Advantages

1. Depending on the metal being used resistance thermometers are able to

cover extensive temperature ranges. Maximum values are generally related
to the melting points of the metal used.

2. Variation of resistance with temperature is stable over an extensive

temperature range.

3. Very accurate

Disadvantages

1. Compared to liquid in glass thermometers, they tend to be expensive.

2. Require other equipment to measure temperature.

3. They exhibit high heat capacities thus they are not sensitive to temperature
change meaning that they cannot be used to measure rapid temperature
changes.

Applications

 Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing

 Food Processing
  Stoves and grills
 Textile production
 Plastics processing
 Petrochemical processing
 Micro electronics

(b) Thermistor

Thermistor is special type of resistor, whose resistance varies more significantly

with temperature than in standard resistors. Generally, the resistance
increases with the temperature for most of the metals but the thermistors
respond negatively i.e. the resistance of the thermistors decrease with the
increase in temperature. This is the main principle behind thermistor. As the
resistance of thermistors depends on the temperature, they can be connected
in the electrical circuit to measure the temperature of the body. Thermistors
are mainly used as temperature sensors, inrush current limiters, self-resetting
over-current protectors and self regulating heating elements.

A thermistor is made from a semiconductor material. It is shaped into a disc, a

rod or a bead. Bead thermistors may be only a few millimeter in diameter.
Some bead thermistors have the bead enclosed in a glass capsule. The symbol
of Thermistors can be represented as follows:

Fig.1.5.Thermistor Symbol

Types of Thermistors:

There are mainly 2 types of thermistors namely Positive-temperature coefficient

(PTC) and Negative-temperature coefficient (NTC).

Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC): PTC thermistors increase their

resistance as the temperature rises. The relationship between resistance and
temperature is linear, as expressed in the following equation:

Delta R = k (delta T) where delta R is the change in resistance, delta T is the

change in temperature and k is the temperature coefficient. When k is positive,
it causes a linear increase in resistance as the temperature rises.
PTC Uses: PTC thermistors can be used in place of fuses for circuit protection.
As the circuit heats up, resistance increases to prevent overload. They are also
used as timing devices in televisions. When the unit is switched on, the
degaussing coil is activated to eliminate the magnetic field; the thermistor
automatically switches it off when the temperature reaches a certain point.

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC): Many NTC thermistors are made

from a pressed disc or cast chip of a semiconductor such as a sintered metal
oxide. They work because raising the temperature of a semiconductor increases
the number of electrons able to move about and carry charge – it promotes
them into the conduction band. The more charge carriers that are available,
the more current a material can conduct.

This is described in the formula: I = n.A.v.e, Where I = electric current

(amperes) n = density of charge carriers (count/m³) A = cross-sectional area of
the material (m²) v = velocity of charge carriers (m/s) e = charge of an electron
(e=1.602 \ times 10 ^ {-19} coulomb) .The current is measured using an
ammeter. Over large changes in temperature, calibration is necessary. Over
small changes in temperature, if the right semiconductor is used, the
resistance of the material is linearly proportional to the temperature. There are
many different semiconducting thermistors with a range from about 0.01
Kelvin to 2,000 Kelvin’s (- 273.14 °C to 1,700 °C).

NTC Uses: NTC thermistors, on the other hand, are used as current-limiters
and temperature monitors in digital thermostats and automobiles.

Testing of a Thermistor: This is just a sample and rough test for basic
understand about how to test a thermistor. The analog multimeter has to be
kept in resistance mode. The multimeter terminals are to be connected to the
thermistor leads. We need not concentrate on polarity here. Now, heat the
thermistor by moving the heated soldering iron tip to it. Now you can observe
that the multimeter reading increases or decreases smoothly depending o
whether the thermistor under test is PTC or NTC. Of course, it happens only for
a healthy thermistor. For faulty thermistors, we may observe the following
things. The change in reading will never be smooth or there will not be any
change at all. For a short thermistor, the meter reading will be always zero
where as for an open thermistor the meter reading will be always infinity. As I
mentioned earlier, it is just a rough test. For perfect confirmation, we need to
follow some process of measuring the temperature and corresponding
resistance reading and that has to be compared with the thermistor’s
temperature resistance characteristics provided by the manufacturer.
Advantages

 Thermistors are highly sensitive so can detect small changes in

temperature very easily.

 Provide fast responses, can be done in seconds.

 Low cost and easy to use.

 Can record more than one measurement therefore allowing you to see
comparisons.

Disadvantages

 Computer errors may cause the readings to be inaccurate.

 Require a form of power, such as batteries.

 Need to be sterilized

Applications

 We can also use NTC thermistors to monitor the temperature of an

incubator.
 Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and
to monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging.
 We regularly use NTC thermistors in automotive applications.
 NTC thermistors are used in the Food Handling and Processing
industry, especially for food storage systems and food preparation.
Maintaining the correct temperature is critical to prevent food borne
illness. NTC thermistors are used throughout the Consumer Appliance
industry for measuring temperature. Toasters, coffee makers,
refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc. all rely on thermistors for proper
temperature control.
 We can regularly use the Thermistors in the hot ends of 3D printers; they
monitor the heat produced and allow the printer’s control circuitry to
keep a constant temperature for melting the plastic filament.  NTC
thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature
measurements of the order of 10 K.
 NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power
supply circuits.
3. Thermoelectrical methods

(a)Thermocouple

A thermocouple is a device made by two different wires joined at one end,

called junction end or measuring end. The two wires are called thermo
elements or legs of the thermocouple: the two thermo elements are
distinguished as positive and negative ones. The other end of the thermocouple
is called tail end or reference end in Fig.1.6. The junction end is immersed in
the environment whose temperature T2 has to be measured, which can be for
instance the temperature of a furnace at about 500°C, while the tail end is held
at a different temperature T1, e.g. at ambient temperature.

Fig.1.6. Thermocouple

Because of the temperature difference between junction end and tail end a
voltage difference can be measured between the two thermo elements at the tail
end: so the thermocouple is a temperature-voltage transducer.

The temperature vs voltage relationship is given by:

where Emf is the Electro-Motive Force or Voltage produced by the

thermocouple at the tail end, T1 and T2 are the temperatures of reference and
measuring end respectively, S12 is called See beck coefficient of the
thermocouple and S1 and S2 are the See beck coefficient of the two thermo
elements; the See beck coefficient depends on the material the thermo
element is made of. Looking at Equation it can be noticed that:

1. A null voltage is measured if the two thermo elements are made of the
same materials: different materials are needed to make a temperature
sensing device,
 2. A null voltage is measured if no temperature difference exists between
the tail end and the junction end: a temperature difference is needed to
operate the thermocouple,

3. The See beck coefficient is temperature dependent.

In order to clarify the first point let us consider the following example when a
temperature difference is applied between the two ends of a single Ni wire a
voltage drop is developed across the wire itself. The end of the wire at the
highest temperature, T2, is called hot end, while the end at the lowest
temperature, T1, is called cold end.

Fig1.7. Emf produced by a single wire

When a voltmeter, with Cu connection wires, is used to measure the voltage

drop across the Ni wire, two junctions need to be made at the hot and cold
ends between the Cu wire and the Ni wire; assuming that the voltmeter is at
room temperature T1, one of the Cu wires of the voltmeter will experience along
it the same temperature drop from T2 to T1 the Ni wire is experiencing. In the
attempt to measure the voltage drop on the Ni wire a Ni-Cu thermocouple has
been made and so the measured voltage is in reality the voltage drop along the
Ni wire plus the voltage drop along the Cu wire.

The Emf along a single thermo element cannot be measured: the Emf
measured at the tail end in Fig1.6. Is the sum of the voltage drop along each of
the thermo elements. As two thermo elements are needed, the temperature
measurement with thermocouples is a differential measurement.
Note: if the wire in Fig1.7 was a Cu wire a null voltage would have been
measured at the voltmeter.

The temperature measurement with thermocouples is also a differential

measurement because two different temperatures, T1 and T2, are involved. The
desired temperature is the one at the junction end, T2. In order to have a useful
transducer for measurement, a monotonic Emf versus junction end
temperature T2 relationship is needed, so that for each temperature at the
junction end a unique voltage is produced at the tail end.

However, from the integral in Equation it can be understood that the Emf
depends on both T1 and T2: as T1 and T2 can change independently, a
monotonic Emf vs T2 relationship cannot be defined if the tail end temperature
is not constant. For this reason the tail end is maintained in an ice bath made
by crushed ice and water in a Dewar flask: this produces a reference
temperature of 0°C. All the voltage versus temperature relationships for
thermocouples are referenced to 0°C.

Fig.1.8 A measuring system for thermocouples

In order to measure the voltage at the tail end, two copper wires are connected
between the thermo elements and the voltmeter: both the Cu wires experience
the same temperature difference and as a result the voltage drops along each of
them are equal to each other and cancel out in the measurement at the
voltmeter.

The ice bath is usually replaced in industrial application with an integrated

circuit called cold junction compensator: in this case the tail end is at
ambient temperature and the temperature fluctuations at the tail end are
tolerated; in fact the cold junction compensator produces a voltage equal to the
thermocouple voltage between 0°C and ambient temperature, which can be
added to the voltage of the thermocouple at the tail end to reproduce the
voltage versus temperature relationship of the thermocouple.

Advantages

 Very wide temperature range (1.2 K to 2300 deg C)

 Fast response time
 Available in small sheath sizes
 Low initial cost
 Durable

Disadvantages

 Decreased accuracy comparing to RTD

 More susceptible to RFI/EMI
 Recalibration is difficult
 Requires expensive TC wire from sensor to recording device
 Difficult to verify
 Not as stable as RTD

Applications

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry. Applications include

temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and
other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and
businesses as the temperature sensors in thermostats, and also as flame
sensors in safety devices for gas-powered major appliances.

4. Pyrometers

(a) Radiation Pyrometer

The wavelengths measured by the device are known to be pure radiation

wavelengths, that is, the common range for radioactive heat. This device is
used in places where physical contact temperature sensors
like Thermocouple, RTD, and Thermistors would fail because of the high
temperature of the source.

The main theory behind a radiation pyrometer is that the temperature is

measured through the naturally emitted heat radiation by the body. This heat
 is known to be a function of its temperature. According to the application of the
device, the way in which the heat is measured can be summarized into two:

1. Total Radiation Pyrometer: In this method, the total heat emitted from the
hot source is measured at all wavelengths.

2. Selective Radiation Pyrometer: In this method, the heat radiated from the
hot source is measured at a given wavelength.

As shown in the figure below, the radiation pyrometer has an optical system,
including a lens, a mirror and an adjustable eye piece. The heat energy emitted
from the hot body is passed on to the optical lens, which collects it and is
focused on to the detector with the help of the mirror and eye piece
arrangement. The detector may either be a thermistor or photomultiplier tubes.
Though the latter is known for faster detection of fast moving objects, the
former may be used for small scale applications. Thus, the heat energy is
converted to its corresponding electrical signal by the detector and is sent to
the output temperature display device.

Fig.1.9. Radiation Pyrometer

Advantages

 The device can be used to measure very high temperatures without direct
contact with the hot source (Molten metal).
  The biggest advantage is that the optical lens can be adjusted to measure
temperature of objects that are even 1/15 inch in diameter and that too
kept at a long s=distance from the measuring device.

 The sight path of the device is maintained by the construction of the

instrument components, such as the lens and curved mirrors.

Disadvantages

 The radiation pyrometer is complex in nature.

 It has non linear scale.
 It has possible errors due to pressure to intervening gases or vapors that
absorb radiation.
 Emissivity of target material affecting measurement.

Applications

 The radiation pyrometer is used for temperature above the physical

operating range of thermocouples.

 It is used for measurement of temperature in exhaust, flues etc. in

heating system.

(b) Optical pyrometer

Basic Principle of optical pyrometer

The principle of temperature measurement by brightness comparison is used

in optical pyrometer. A colour variation with the growth in temperature is taken
as an index of temperature. This optical pyrometer compares the brightness of
image produced by temperature source with that of reference temperature
lamp. The current in the lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is
equal to the brightness of the image produced by the temperature source.
Since the intensity of light of any wave length depends on the temperature of
the radiating object, the current passing through the lamp becomes a measure
of the temperature of the temperature source when calibrated.

Construction of optical pyrometer

The main parts of an optical pyrometer are as follows:

 Fig.1.20.Optical Pyrometer

An eye piece at one end and an objective lens at the other end. A power source
(battery), rheostat and millivoltmeter (to measure current) connected to a
reference temperature bulb. An absorption screen is placed in between the
objective lens and reference temperature lamp. The absorption screen is used
to increase the range of the temperature which can be measured by the
instrument. The red filter between the eye piece and the lamp allows only a
narrow band of wavelength of around 0.65mui.

Operation of optical pyrometer

When a temperature source is to be measured, the radiation from the source

is focused onto the filament of the reference temperature lamp using the
objective lens. Now the eye piece is adjusted so that the filament of the
reference temperature lamp is in sharp focus and the filament is seen super
imposed on the image of the temperature source. Now the observer starts
controlling the lamp current and the filament will appear dark as in Fig (a) if
the filament is cooler than the temperature source, the filament will appear
bright as in Fig(b) if the filament is hotter than the temperature source, the
filament will not be seen as in Fig (c) if the filament and temperature source are
in the same temperature.
 Fig.1.21.Image of temperature Source

Hence the observer should control the lamp current until the filament and the
temperature source have the same brightness which will be noticed when the
filament disappears as in Fig (c) in the superimposed image of the temperature
source ( that is the brightness of the lamp and the temperature source are
same). At the instance, the current flowing through the lamp which is indicated
by the millivoltmeter connected to the lamp becomes a measure of the
temperature of the temperature source when calibrated.

Advantages

 Physical contact of the instrument is not required to measure

temperature of the temperature source.
 Accuracy is high + or – 5’C. Provided a proper sized image of the
temperature source is obtained in the instrument, the distance between
the instrument and the temperature source does not matter.
 The instrument is easy to operate.

Disadvantages

 Temperature of more than 700’C can only be measured since

illumination of the temperature source is a must for measurement.
 Since it is manually operated, it cannot be used for the continuous
monitoring and controlling purpose.

Applications

 Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of molten metals or

heated materials.
  Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of furnace and hot
bodies.

1.2.2. MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

1.2.2.1 Pressure Measurement Liquid Manometers

Technically a manometer is any device used to measure pressure. However, the

word manometer is commonly used to mean a pressure sensor which detects
pressure change by means of liquid in a tube. Manometers are differential
pressure sensors. A differential pressure sensor measures the difference
between a pressure being applied to it and a reference pressure (often
atmospheric pressure). Differential pressure is a comparison of one pressure to
another. There are many forms of flow meters. For flow in closed channels
(such as pipes), the most commonly used, and the devices we shall consider
here, are:

(a) Liquid column (manometer)

Fig.1.22. Liquid column (manometer)

The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to

the pressure difference.

Liquid column gauges consist of a column of liquid in a tube whose ends are
exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight (a
force applied due to gravity) is in equilibrium with the pressure differential
between the two ends of the tube (a force applied due to fluid pressure). A very
simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side of which is
connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure (which might be
the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The difference
in liquid level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a
column of fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic pressure
equation, P = hgρ. Therefore, the pressure difference between the applied
pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer can be found
by solving Pa − P0 = hgρ. In other words, the pressure on either end of the liquid
(shown in blue in the figure) must be balanced (since the liquid is static) and
so Pa = P0 + hgρ.

In most liquid column measurements, the result of the measurement is the

height, h, expressed typically in mm, cm, or inches. The h is also known as
the pressure head. When expressed as a pressure head, pressure is specified in
units of length and the measurement fluid must be specified. When accuracy is
critical, the temperature of the measurement fluid must likewise be specified,
because liquid density is a function of temperature. So, for example, pressure
head might be written "742.2 mmHg" or "4.2 inH2O at 59 °F" for measurements
taken with mercury or water as the manometric fluid, respectively. The word
"gauge" or "vacuum" may be added to such a measurement to distinguish
between a pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure. Both mm of
mercury and inches of water are common pressure heads which can be
converted to S.I. units of pressure using unit conversion and the above
formulas.

If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may

have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer
working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired
except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid (for example across
an orifice plate or venturimeter), in which case the density ρ should be
corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured.

Although any fluid can be used, mercury is preferred for its high density
(13.534 g/cm3) and low vapour pressure. For low pressure differences, light oil
or water are commonly used (the latter giving rise to units of measurement
such as inches water gauge and millimeters H2O. Liquid-column pressure
gauges have a highly linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response
because the fluid in the column may react slowly to a pressure change.

When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate
the vacuum if its vapor pressure is too high. When measuring liquid pressure,
a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from
mixing but this can be unnecessary, for example when mercury is used as the
manometer fluid to measure differential pressure of a fluid such as water.
Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few Torr (a
few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately 1,000,000 Pa).
Advantages

 Simple Construction

 Low Cost

 Very accurate and sensitive

 It can be used to measure other process variables.

Disadvantages
 Fragile in construction
 Very sensitive to temperature changes
 Error can happens while measuring the h
Applications
 Used in the maintenance of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems, low pressure pneumatic or gas systems.
 Construction of bridges, installing swimming pools and other engineering
applications.
 Climate forecasting.
 Clinical applications like measuring blood pressure and in
physiotherapy.
 Piezometers are used to measure the pressure in pipes where the liquid
is in motion.

(b) Ionization Gauge

The triode tube is connected to the point of pressure measurement. The triode
tube is having the cathode, grid and plate. The plate is a negative terminal and
the grid is maintained at a positive potential. It is based on the principle that
the heat lost by conduction and convection through the gas surrounding the
filament is depending on the temperature of the heated filament. The electrons
emitted at the hot cathode by thermionic emission moves towards the grid and
get collected at the pole giving the positive ion current which is measured by
potentiometer. The amount of positive ion current is proportional to the
pressure of the gas present for constant electron current and the pressure of
the gas is measured by calibration. The ionization gauge is used to measure
low pressure between 2 to 0.01 micron.
(c) Pirani Gauge

It is used to measure the pressure of the gas like argon, air, water vapour,
helium, acetylene and hydrogen gases for pressure range between 20 to 200
microns. The working principle of the gauge is based on that heat is lost by the
conduction and convection from a heated filament wire is depending on the
pressure of the gas surrounding on the filament. The tungsten filament is
connected to the low-pressure point. The tungsten filament installed in the
tube at a pressure less than one micron. The other end of the pirani gauge is
having the temperature compensation cell. The difference in the voltage is
created is measured by the potentiometer and is calibrated in the terms of gas
pressure. It cannot be used for temperature above 240-degree C. because at
higher temperature of the filament the organic vapor gets decomposed and
resulting the deposition of the vapor on the filament and affecting the
calibration of the gauge.

1.2.3. MEASUREMENT OF FLUID FLOW

(a) Turbine Meter

There have extremely rapid development in turbine mater in recent years,

partly because of advance in electronic technology and the case with which the
output may be used to indicate rate of flow or be integrated to give total flow.
An exploded view of the meter is shown.

Turbine flow meter are volume flow meter and available in wide ranges. The
output is usually in the form of a digital electrical signal whose frequency is
directly proportional to flow rate and whose total count is proportional to the
total quantity as each pulse represents a discrete volume.

A feature of turbine is a hydraulically supported turbine rotor. A permanent

magnet sealed inside the rotor body is polarized at 900 to the axis of the
rotation. As the rotor rotates so does the magnet and therefore a rotating
magnetic field is produced. This produces an a.c. voltage pulse in the pickup
coil located external to the meter housing. The frequency of this voltage is
directly proportional to the rate of flow. The pulse can be totalized by a counter
to give value of total flow over a particular interval of time.
 Fig.1.23. Turbine Meter

Advantages

 The output is in electrical digital form which leads itself admirably to

line or radio telemetry for recording or control at a distant point.
 Passage of rotor past the pick up coil produce an emf which can be
converted to a d.c. analog voltage by a D/A converter for indication on
conventional d.c. instrument or recorded on a potentiometeric recorder.
 The pulse output may be summed on a simple counter giving totalized
flow without loss of accuracy. The error is approximately ±0.5%.

Disadvantages

 Error may be caused by excessive frictional torques. Also errors arise on

account of wear and corrosion of bearings. This calls for special design
of bearing.
 The turbine is subject to variations in performance caused by the
characteristics of the liquid, friction or bearing, etc. when the flow rates
approach zero, the slippage may amount to 100% i.e. the turbine stalls
and registers zero output. Therefore at low flow rates, there is a
possibility of large errors.

Applications

 The precision measurements required for cryogenics

 Hygienic, mixing, and batching in dairies, distilleries, and breweries
 Uses regarding petrochemicals
 Measuring ultrapure water in pharmaceuticals
 Hydraulics
 Monitoring fuel consumption with automobiles and in aerospace
(b)Electromagnetic flow meter

Electromagnetic flow meters are particularly suitable for the flow

measurement of slurries, sludge and any electrically conducting liquid.

A schematic diagram of an electromagnetic flow meter is shown.

Fig.1.24. Electromagnetic Flow Meter

It consist basically of a pair of insulated electrode buried flush in the opposite

sides of a non-conducting, non-magnetic pipe carrying the liquid which flow is
to be measured. The pipe is surrounded by an electromagnetic which produces
a magnetic field. The arrangement is analogous to a conductor moving across a
magnetic field. Therefore voltage is induced across the electrode. This voltage is
given by: E=Bl ν volt where B= flux X density; Wb/m2, l = length of conductor =
diameter of pipe; m, and ν = velocity of conductor (flow); m/s

Thus, assuming the constant magnetic field, the magnitude of the voltage
appearing across the electrodes will be directly proportional to the velocity.

Non-conducting pipe has to be used as the output voltage gets short

circuited if metallic pipes are used. This is true when liquids of low
conductivity are being measured. But when liquids of high conductivity are
measured the short circuiting has no effect. Stainless steel pipes can then be
used. The voltage produced is small especially at low flow rates. Therefore,
the meter relies greatly on a high gain amplifier to convert the induced
voltage into a usable form.

Advantages

 They respond only to the velocity of Fluid .Independent Density

Viscosity and Static Pressure
  High Rangebility 10:1

 Bidirectional Flow Measurement

 Fluid Temperature range -40 Deg C to +260 Deg C

 Pressure Drop is negligible

 Wide Variety of Size

Disadvantages

 Conductivity of the process fluid should be greater the 2 micromhos

per centimeter

 Special care is required for erosive application

 Difficulties in on site calibration

 High cost

 Large Sizes are very heavy

Applications

 They are useful in quantification of potable water

 They can be used at construction sites of the flow measurement of slurries
 They are useful at petroleum plants to measure the flow rate of combustible
fuels
 They are useful in measuring displacement of explosive liquids, paints, and
abrasives

1.2.4. MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID WEIGHT

(1) Electrical Methods.

The direct conversion to liquid level position to electrical signal is used in

instances. The measurement is generally done by two conversions, so that the
liquid level is de indirectly. The first conversion usually is liquid level to a
displacement through a float in a liquid or a loaded plate in contact into an
electrical signal by a secondary transducer connected to plate. There are,
however, applications where this is not possible and hence other like optical or
or gamma rays are used. The electric transducers used for level measurements
are Resistive, Inductive, and Capacitive.

(a)Resistive Methods.

This method uses mercury as conductor as shown. A number of contact rods

are placed at various liquid levels. As head h increases, the rising level of
mercury above the datum, shorts successive resistors R and increases the
value of h directly.

Fig.1.25. Resistive Method

Advantages

 Where there is a need for a fairly continuous record of the level, more
and more contact rods can be added, with separate signal outputs for
each contact rod. The signal can be used for indication and also for
initiating some control action to actuate valves or pumps as well as
warming lights and alarms depending upon the level.
 The system use low voltage to eliminate The system uses danger to the
operators and to prevent arcing at the contact points.
 The signal can be transmitted to any desired point.
 These transducers can be used in pressurized without Packing glands or
shafts.
  The unit is simple to calibrate since the distance between the levels
contact rods can be measured and the indicated value may be checked
for each measured value.

Disadvantages

 Due to arcing at the contact point, it is not safe to use this transducer in
explosive atmosphere
 In order to have a step less indication of the liquid level, an extremely
large number of contact rods are needed.
 The contact rods are corroded by corrosive liquids. In addition, the
electric charges promote corrosion.
 These system also present difficulties when there is saturated vapour
above the liquid phase.
 Any changes in the conductivity of the liquid causes serious errors.

Applications

This method is used if the resistivity of the liquid whose level is to be measured
is very high and the contact sets cannot be mounted in the tank. For a fairly
large conductive liquid the ranges of contact with resistances may be directly
mounted in the tank. With increasing level, more number of probes is shorted
by the liquid giving a lower value of resistance. Such type is used in mineral
processing units to distinguish the layers of pulp, froth, air etc. Also because
city supply of water, sewage, or sea water has high conductivity this method
can effectively be used in these cases.

(b)Inductive Methods

The inductive level transducers are mainly used for measurement conductive
liquids employing variable permeability method. The arrangement shown in
Fig.1.26 uses coils L1 and Lr wound around a steel tube containing the liquid.
The coils are connected in see a resistance and the circuit is energized by an
alternating current source. The inductance of each coil is initially equal say
about 250 µH. One coil says L1 acts as the search coil. It can be set at a
predetermined level. The inductance of the search coil changes rapidly as the
conducting liquid moves into the plane of the coil. The method works well
because the tape material is weakly magnetic and the liquid metal is a
conductor which allows eddy currents to flow in it. The relationship between
the output voltage liquid level is essentially non-linear.

Fig.1.26. Inductive Methods (permeable method)

Another method uses the loading of secondary winding of a transformer. This

method is applicable to good electrical conducting materials like mercury. This
is shown in Fig. 1.26.

Fig.1.26. Inductive Methods

(Loading of secondary winding of a transformer)

A coil is wound round one core of a two limbed transformer. The mercury
column surrounding the iron core forms the secondary of the transformer. The
resistance of the secondary winding depends upon the height of the mercury
column and therefore the power consumption as monitored on the primary side
is indicative of the liquid level.

(c)Capacitive Methods

1. Variable Area Method: The area capacitive transducer is used for

measurement of levels of both solids and liquids. The electrical conducting
container containing the materials is used as one connection point of the
transducer the other point is a metal rod completely covered by insulating
material inside the container. The insulating material acts as the dielectric
medium and the capacitance varies linearly with the height of the material.

The relationship is given by C= 2πεһ/ loge (d2/d1)

Where ε = permittivity of the insulator F/m,

h = height of material m.

d1 = diameter of the metal rod m, and

d2 = external diameter of the insulator m.

The container should be earthed to avoid any danger of electric shock to the
personnel and to prevent any errors due to external metallic objects.

2. Capacitive voltage Divider Method: In case, the conductivity of a liquid is

high, its surface can be used as one electrode of the capacitor. The other
electrode is a fixed reference plate parallel to the surface of the liquid. A system
incorporating these features is shown in Fig.1.27. This uses an auxiliary
electrode P1 placed at a fixed distance above the reference electrode P2.The two
electrodes P1 and P2 are electrically insulated
from each other. An ac, voltage is applied between the liquid and the electrode
P1.

Potential of electrode P2 with respect to earth Eo = Ei (C1/C1+C2) V

Capacitance C2 is inversely proportional to the distance between the liquid

surface and P2. Thus the output voltage decreases with rise of liquid level and
therefore the relationship between them is non-linear.

Fig.1.27.Capacitive voltage divider method

1.2.5. MEASUREMENT OF WEIGHT FLOW RATE

(a)Venturimeter

Venturimeter is a well-known flow measurement device which uses differential

flow meter and Bernoulli’s principle to measure flow rate inside a pipe. A
venturimeter mainly consist of a short pipe which has two conical parts joined
by a short uniform cross section in between known as “Throat”. The two
conical portions have the same diameter but one having larger length and
smaller cone angle and other having the opposite as shown. The conical parts
are called as Convergent and Divergent part. The venturimeter is always used
in such a way that the upstream flow takes place through short conical portion
and the downstream through the larger one. If h is the piezometric head
difference between inlet and throat of diameter d1 and d2 respectively.

Fig.1.28.Venturimeter

Fig.1.29. Herschel standers type venturimeter

Above fig shows the general dimensions of a Herschel standers type

venturimeter. Venturimeter is usually made of cast iron, bronze or steel. The
converging part is made shorter by employing large cone angle (19° - 21°) while
diverging section is longer with lower cone angle (5° - 15°). The high-pressure
tap is located at starting of the Venturimeter and low-pressure tap located in
the middle of throat sections .Accuracy of this type flow meter ranges from
±0.25% to ±3%.
 Fig.1.29. Pressure variation along the pipeline for Venturimeter tube

Venturimeter provides a definite power improvement in power losses.

Venturimeter tube has a smooth entry as well as a smooth exit. Unlike
the orifice meter, the fluid jet after passing through the restriction (throat) of
venturimeter expands to a large area gradually. So this type of flow meter
experiences lesser pressure drop as compared to that of the orifice. The
expanding section of venturimeter returns the flow near to its original pressure.

Venturimeter flow rate equation

Theoretical flow rate

Actual flow rate,

a1 , a2 = Area of cross-section at inlet and throat

g – Acceleration due to gravity
h – Pressure head difference
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
Advantages

 High-pressure recovery. Low permanent pressure drop.

 High coefficient of discharge.

 Smooth construction and low cone angle help to solid particles flow
through it. So it can be used for dirty fluids.

 It can be installed in any direction horizontal, vertical and inclined.

 More accurate than orifice and flow nozzle.

Disadvantages

 Size, as well as cost is high

 Difficult to inspection due to its construction

 Nonlinear

 For satisfactory operation, the venturimeter must be proceeded by long

straight pipes.

 Its maintenance is not easy

 It cannot use in pipe that has small diameter (70mm)

Applications
Venturimeter used in a wide variety of applications that includes gas, liquids,
slurries, suspended oils and other processes where permanent pressure loss is
not tolerable. It is widely used in large diameter pipes such as found in the
waste treatment process. It allows solid particles flow through it because of
their gradually sloping smooth design; so they are suitable for measurement of
dirty fluid. It is also used to measure fluid velocity.
(b) Orifice meter

Fig.1.30.Orificemeter

The material for orifice is selected such a way that its sharp edges and surface
are not deformed due to corrosion and erosion. This is a thin, flat circular plate
with a circular hole concentric to the pipe; this is bolted to the flanges of two
pipes. A square edged (90°) orifice can be used for measuring bidirectional flow.
Orifice plate thicker than 3.175mm frequently beveled 45° at the downstream
edge to facilitate smooth flow of fluid. The beveled orifice is, of course,
unidirectional. Sometimes a drain or vent hole is provided where plates meet
the pipe to avoid accumulation gas and air bubbles in the tube. A differential
manometer is connected at both upstream and downstream side of the flow.

The typical designs of orifice plates are

 Concentric orifice plate

 Eccentric orifice plate
 Segmental orifice plate
 Quadrant edge orifice plate

Fig.1.31.Types of Orifice Plate

Concentric orifice plate

A concentric sharp edged orifice plate is the simplest and least expensive of the
head meters. It is usually made of stainless steel. Other materials like nickel,
Monel, etc. used when it is needed a good corrosive resistant property. The
accuracy of these type orifices is very high.

Eccentric orifice plate

It is similar to the concentric orifice plate except for the offset hole which is
bored tangential to a circle. Location of the bore prevents accumulation of solid
materials or foreign particles and makes it useful for measuring fluids
containing suspended solid particles. The eccentric orifice is less accurate and
has a high number of uncertainties when to compare to the concentric orifice
plate. It is used when liquid consists of a large amount of gas dissolved in it.

Segmental orifice plate

This is used for the same type of services as an eccentric orifice plate. It has a
hole which is a segment of a circle. It is used with fluid containing more solid
particles in it. They are more expensive than the eccentric orifice.

Quadrant edge orifice plate

This type is used for flaws of dense fluid such as crudes, slurries, and viscous
flows. Its edges are rounded to form a quarter circles. They are useful in the
pipe have a low diameter (less than 2 inches). The drain hole is provided or
located the bottom when gases are measured, to allow condensate to pass in
order to prevent its building up at the Orifice plate. Similarly, a vent hole is
located at the top when liquids are measured so that gases can pass and thus
avoid gas pocket.

Advantages

 Simple in construction, the standards for construction and calibration

are readily available.

 They are cheap; their price does not increase dramatically with size.

 Easy to install and remove.

 They are efficient and reliable for many years.

 Available in many materials.

  Easy to measure flow rate, because it produces the considerable pressure
drop across the orifice.

 They can be used in a wide range of sizes.

 Their characteristics are well known and predictable.

Disadvantages

 Relatively high permanent pressure drop.

 Their characteristic may change due to erosion and corrosion.

 It may cause clogs in slurries. Not good with fluid having high viscosity.

 The fluid must be in single phase and homogeneous.

 Square root characteristics.

Coefficient of discharge of the orifice is about 0.6 - 0.75 and it causes loss of
head about 60 - 70%.

Applications

Orifice plates are most commonly used to measure flow rates in pipes, when
the fluid is single-phase (rather than being a mixture of gases and liquids, or of
liquids and solids) and well-mixed, the flow is continuous rather than
pulsating, the fluid occupies the entire pipe (precluding silt or trapped gas), the
flow profile is even and well-developed and the fluid and flow rate meet certain
other conditions. Under these circumstances and when the orifice plate is
constructed and installed according to appropriate standards, the flow rate can
easily be determined using published formulae based on substantial research
and published in industry, national and international standards.

1.2.6. MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY

(a)U-tube viscometers
These devices are also known as glass capillary viscometers or Ostwald
viscometers, named after Wilhelm Ostwald. Another version is the Ubbelohde
viscometer, which consists of a U-shaped glass tube held vertically in a
controlled temperature bath. In one arm of the U is a vertical section of precise
narrow bore (the capillary). Above there is a bulb, with it is another bulb lower
down on the other arm. In use, liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by suction,
and then allowed to flow down through the capillary into the lower bulb. Two
marks (one above and one below the upper bulb) indicate a known volume. The
time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between these marks is
proportional to the kinematic viscosity. Most commercial units are provided
with a conversion factor, or can be calibrated by a fluid of known properties.
The time required for the test liquid to flow through a capillary of a known
diameter of a certain factor between two marked points is measured. By
multiplying the time taken by the factor of the viscometer, the kinematic
viscosity is obtained.
Such viscometers can be classified as direct flow or reverse flow. Reverse flow
viscometers have the reservoir above the markings and direct flow is those with
the reservoir below the markings. Such classifications exist so that the level
can be determined even when opaque or staining liquids are measured,
otherwise the liquid will cover the markings and make it impossible to gauge
the time the level passes the mark. This also allows the viscometer to have
more than 1 set of marks to allow for an immediate timing of the time it takes
to reach the 3rd mark, therefore yielding 2 timings and allowing for subsequent
calculation of Determinability to ensure accurate results. The use of two
timings in one viscometer in a single run is only possible if the sample being
measured has Newtonian properties. Otherwise the change in driving head
which in turn changes the shear rate will produce a different viscosity for the
two bulbs.

Fig.1.32.U tube Manometers

Advantages
1. Simple in construction
2. Low cost hence easy to buy.
3. Very accurate and sensitive
4. It can be used to measure other process variables.
Disadvantages
1. Fragile in construction.
2. Very sensitive to temperature changes.
3. Error can happen while measuring the height.
Applications

 Viscometers have wide and varied applications in the materials science

and chemical industries for materials such as oil, asphalt, plastics, wax,
paints, coatings, and adhesives. They are also used for food and
beverages and personal-care products such as cosmetics, shampoo, and
toothpaste.

 Measuring viscosity is important when considering process conditions for

materials that need to be pumped or piped. Viscosity also affects dipping
and coating performance, which is particularly relevant to paints and
inks.

 Viscosity is a very useful indirect measure of material properties

including molecular weight and density, both of which affect flow
behavior. Viscometers can therefore be used to monitor batch
consistency and quality control.

(b) Say bolt Viscometer

Fig.1.33.Saybolt Viscometer
Efflux cup viscometers are most commonly used for fieldwork to measure the
viscosity of oils, syrups, varnish, paints and Bitumen emulsions. The testing
procedure is quite similar to the capillary-tube viscometers where efflux time of
a specified volume of fluid is measured through fixed orifice at the bottom of a
cup to represent the viscosity of the fluid. Since the viscosity of Newtonian
liquid are independent of dimensions of viscometer used, it is possible to
convert the efflux times to kinematic viscosities by conversion charts or by
formulas suggested by the equipment manufacturers.

To obtain high accuracy the liquid holding vessel and orifice are temperature
controlled by immersing them in a thermostatically controlled bath. The say
bolt viscometer, one of the efflux cup viscometers is the standard instrument
for testing petroleum products. There are three types of orifices available-
Universal, Furol, Asphalt.

The furol and asphalt orifices, respectively, have an efflux time of

approximately, one-tenth and one-hundredth that of the universal orifice. The
cup orifice combination should be selected to provide an efflux time within the
range of 20 to 100 seconds. Of these types, the universal orifice (say bolt
universal viscometer) is most commonly used and its efflux time is designated
as say bolt universal seconds (SUS).The universal viscometer measures the
time required for 60 cc of sample fluid to flow out through an orifice having
dimensions of 0.176 cm in diameter and 1.225 cm in length. Say bolt universal
seconds (t) can be converted to kinematic viscosity (v) by the following
equations:

When t < 100 seconds, v = 0.226t - 195/t Centistokes

When t > 100 seconds, v = 0.220t - 135/t Centistokes

The viscosity determinations should be conducted in a room free from drafts

and rapid changes in temperature the highest degree of accuracy.

Advantages

 It has a digital meter to measure temperature and so reading is more

accurate and precise.
 The coils wrap around the container uniformly so uniform temperature
can be obtained.
 Viscosity can be directly compared for two or more liquids.
Disadvantages

 The main disadvantage of the capillary tube viscometer is the errors that
arise due to the variation in the head and other parameters.
 Efflux cup viscometers have some inherent inaccuracies.

Applications

 Efflux viscometers are most commonly used field work to measure the
viscosity of oil, syrups, varnish and paints.
 It is used for testing petroleum products

1.2.7. MEASUREMENT OF pH

Many industrial processes require that the acidity or alkalinity of solutions be

measured and controlled if the process is to proceed effectively and efficiently.
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of aqueous solution is determined by the
relative concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the solution.

When the hydrogen ions predominate, the solution is acidic. Where the
hydroxyl ions are in the majority the solution is alkaline. Since the product of
the hydrogen ion and hydroxyl-ion concentration in any such solution has a
constant value, measurement of the hydrogen-ion concentration indicates not
only the acidity of a solution but its effective alkalinity as well.

The dissociation constant is the product of hydrogen (H+) ions and hydroxyl
(OH)- ions and this product is always equal to 10-14

Hydrogen ion concentration is measured scale called pH scale.

pH value of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion

concentration.

pH=-log10(H+)

This scale ranges from 0 to 14.

For example suppose the hydrogen ion concentration 10-14. Hydroxyl ion
concentration is the 100 as the product of two has to be 10-14. The pH value for
is such a solution is: pH = - log10 (10-14) = 14. On the other hand, suppose the
hydrogen ion concentration is 100. This means that the pH value for this
solution is pH = -log (100) = 0.

Therefore the hydrogen ion concentration can be measured on a pH scale

which varies from 0 to 14. In a neutral solution, the concentrations of both
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are equal ie. both are 10-7. Therefore, for a neutral
solution pH = -log (10-7) = 7.

Thus a neutral solution like pure water has a pH value of 7.

Supposing the solution is acidic, therefore the hydrogen ion concentration is

more. Suppose it is 10-5 d therefore the hydroxyl ion concentration is10-9.

The pH value for this solution is: pH = -log10 (H+) = log10 (10-5) = 5.

Thus for acidic solutions the pH value lies between 0 to 7. In case of alkaline
Solution the pH value is between 7 to 14.

For alkaline solutions the hydroxyl Ion concentration is more. Supposing

hydroxyl ion concentration is 10-2 and hence the hydrogen ion concentration is
10-12. The pH value for this solution is: pH log10
(10-12)= 12.

Thus we conclude hydrogen ion concentration is measured on this scale (the

pH scale) that ranges from 0 to 14. On when the neutrality is 7.00, the value
obtained and ion are equal balances each other, as is the case with pure water.
As the solution becomes more acidic, its pH scale reading decreases below 7.
As the solution becomes more alkaline, its pH scale reading increases above 7.

The measurement of pH value is K C obtained by immersing a pair of

electrodes Solution into the solution to be measured and measuring the voltage
developed across them. The action is somewhat similar to that of a mercury
voltaic cell where a pair of dissimilar electrodes is immersed into an electrolyte.

In the pH cell, one of the electrodes, called the reference electrode, is at a

constant Liquid diffusion opening potential regardless of the pH value of the
solution under test. The potential of the other electrodes, called the measuring
electrode, is determined by the pH value of the solution. Thus the potential
difference between the two electrodes depends upon the pH value of the
solution.
 Fig.1.34 Schematic diagram of electrodes

The reference electrode [See Fig.1.34 (a)] is made of glass and consists of an
inner assembly containing a solution of calomel (mercury chloride) and
mercury. This assembly is surrounded by a glass tube, and the space between
the two contains an accurate solution of potassium chloride (KCI. A tiny
opening in the bottom of the electrode permits the potassium chloride to diffuse
very slowly into the solution under test. In this way, electrical contact is made
between this solution and the calomel solution of the electrode.

The measuring electrode (also known as the glass electrode) is somewhat

similar to the reference electrode [See 1.34 (b)]. However, the mercury calomel
element is surrounded by a buffer solution of constant pH. The bottom of the
outer tube has no opening. Instead, it tapers down to a tip made of thin glass
of special composition. At this tip a potential difference is developed between
the buffer solution and the solution under test because of the difference in the
pH value of the two solutions. Since the pH value of the buffer solution is
constant, the net potential of this electrode is a function of the pH value of the
solution being tested.

Both electrodes are mounted to form an assembly that is inserted into the
solution. The difference of potential between the electrodes, which is a function
of the pH value of the solution under test, may be measured by a voltmeter
calibrated, in units of pH value or, after amplification it may be employed to
actuate some control device.
1.2.8. MEASUREMENT OF CONCENTRATION

(a) Mass spectrometer

It is used in the analysis of aliphatic and cyclic hydrocarbon compounds and

in the synthetic rubber manufacture, in petroleum refining, propylene
manufacture. In this instrument the sample of the gas at 40 microns mercury
is introduced into the ionization chamber in which the vacuum is maintained
at less than 40 microns mercury absolute pressure. The gas is combined with
the electrons emitted from the filament in the chamber and transformed into
ions, neutral fragments ions are positively charged move towards the plate
where the electric potential field accelerate the ions both the plates resulting in
a parallel beam. The ion beam deflecting in a circular path because of the
presence of magnetic field in a circular tube. The radius of the circular path is
depending on the mass and velocity of the ion. Number of such beams is
formed having different specific mass of ion. By accelerating the voltage at the
two plates the selection of a beam to strike the collector can be fixed and the
ions give the charge to the collector plate which is amplified and recorded by
the potentiometer and the intensity of the ion beam for different mass of the
ion is recorded giving the spectrum. The analysis of the spectrum gives the
composition of the gas by comparing the spectrum of pure substance. The
method is useful in micro chemistry for analysis of very small sample of gas.

(b)Emission Spectrometer

The instrument used for the analysis of the magnesium, aluminum and
inorganic metallic compounds containing potassium, boron, calcium, cobalt,
iron and lithium. In this instrument the solution is atomized by introducing
into a burner. The emitted light is concentrated through filters using a lens on
photo tube which is used to measure the spectral line intensity which is
calibrated with the intensity of the spectral line of known pure substance. By
comparing the spectrum of the known substance with the unknown substance
gives the composition of the unknown substance.

1.2.9. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

The common laboratory conductivity meters employ a potentiometric method

and four electrodes. Often, the electrodes are cylindrical and arranged
concentrically. The electrodes are usually made of platinum metal. An
alternating current is applied to the outer pair of the electrodes. The potential
between the inner pair is measured. Conductivity could in principle be
determined using the distance between the electrodes and their surface area
using Ohm's law but generally, for accuracy, a calibration is employed using
electrolytes of well-known conductivity.

Industrial conductivity probes often employ an inductive method, which has

the advantage that the fluid does not wet the electrical parts of the sensor.
Here, two inductively-coupled coils are used. One is the driving coil producing
a magnetic field and it is supplied with accurately-known voltage. The other
forms a secondary coil of a transformer. The liquid passing through a channel
in the sensor forms one turn in the secondary winding of the transformer. The
induced current is the output of the sensor.

Another way is to use 4 –electrode conductivity sensors that are made from
corrosion resistant materials. Benefit of 4 –Electrode conductivity sensor
compared to inductive sensor is scaling compensation and ability to measure
low (below 100 µS/cm) conductivities, a feature especially important when
measuring near 100% Hydrofluoric acid.

Fig.1.35.Electrical conductivity meter

The conductivity of a solution is highly temperature dependent, therefore it is

important to either use a temperature compensated instrument, or calibrate
the instrument at the same temperature as the solution being measured.
Unlike metals, the conductivity of common electrolytes typically increases with
increasing temperature.

Over a limited temperature range, the way temperature affects the

conductivity of a solution can be modeled linearly using the following formula:

Where

T is the temperature of the sample,

 Tcal is the calibration temperature,

σT is the electrical conductivity at the temperature T,

σTcal is the electrical conductivity at the calibration temperature Tcal,

α is the temperature compensation slope of the solution.

Applications

Conductivity measurement is a versatile tool in process control. The

measurement is simple, fast and most advanced sensors require only a little
maintenance. The measured conductivity reading can be used to make various
assumptions on what is happening in the process. In some cases it is possible
to develop a model to calculate concentration of the liquid. Concentration of
pure liquids can be calculated when the conductivity and temperature is
measured. The preset curves for various acids and bases are commercially
available. For example, it is possible to measure the concentration of high
purity hydrofluoric acid using conductivity based concentration measurement
[Zhejiang Quhua Fluorchemical, China Valmet Concentration 3300]. Benefit of
conductivity and temperature based concentration measurement is the
superior speed of inline measurement compared to on-line analyzer.

Conductivity based concentration measurement has limitations. The

concentration-conductivity dependence of most acids and bases is not linear.
Conductivity based measurement can’t determine on which side of the peak the
measurement is and therefore the measurement is only possible on linear
section of the curve. Kraft pulp mills use conductivity based concentration
measurement to control alkali additions to various stages of the cook.
Conductivity measurement won’t determine the specific amount of alkali
components but it is a good indication on the amount of effective alkali (NaOH
+ ½ Na2S as NaOH or Na2O) or active alkali (NaOH + Na2S as NaOH or Na2O)
in the cooking liquor. The compositions of the liquor vary in different stages of
the cook. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a specific curve to each
measurement point or use commercially available products.

The high pressure and temperature of cooking process combined with high
concentration of alkali components puts a heavy strain on conductivity sensors
that are installed in process. The scaling on the electrodes need to be taken
into account, otherwise conductivity measurement drifts causing increased
calibration and maintenance need.
1.2.10. MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

(a)Gas Analyzer

When the chemical purity of a gas is being measured, the thermal conductivity
gas analyzer is used. The operation of this type of analyzer is based on the vast
difference in heat conductivity among gases. Fig 1.36 shows the basic for a
thermal conductivity gas analyzer.

Fig.1.36.Gas Analyzer

Note that a balanced bridge circuit is formed with two sensing resistors acting
as balanced legs the bridge. One sensing resistor is by the gas to be analyzed,
whereas the other resistor is surrounded by a reference gas (such as oxygen,
pure atmosphere etc.). Where practical, both gases are maintained at the same
pressure, water content, and so forth.

The bridge is first balanced by exposing both resistors to the same gas. Current
flows through both sensing resistors, as well as through resistors P and Q.
Resistor Q are adjusted for a "balance" or "zero ser condition on the meter.
Then the resistors are exposed to the reference sample and gas sample.

The gas sample contains elements having a different thermal conductivity than
the reference w the bridge will be In some cases, the meter reads out in terms
of the thermal conductivity, in the indication is on or good. bad basis.

(b) Thermistors

For this application two thermistors are connected in the adjacent arms of a
Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig.1.37. The bridge supply is about high
enough to raise the thermistors above ambient temperature, typically to about
150°C. One thermistor is mounted in a static area to provide temperature to be
measured.

Fig.1.37.Thermistor

1.2.11. MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY

Humidity

Humidity is the measure of water vapour present in a gas. It is usually

measured as absolute humidity, relative humidity or dew point temperature.

Absolute Humidity

It is the mass of water vapour present per unit volume.

Relative Humidity

It is the ratio of water vapour pressure actually present to water vapour

pressure required for saturation at a given temperature. The ratio is expressed
in percent. Relative humidity (RH) is always dependent upon temperature.

(a) Hygrometers

A hygrometer measures the value of humidity directly. Generally, the output of

a Hygrometer is used to indicate relative humidity.
Several materials exhibit changes in electrical properties that are caused by
humidity. These are frequently used in transducers that are designed and
calibrated to read relative humidity directly.

1. Resistive Hygrometer

Some hygroscopic salts exhibit a change in resistivity with humidity. The most
common is lithium chloride. This, with a binder, may be coated on a wire or on
electrodes. Resulting resistance changes cover a wide range, e.g. 104 to 109 S2
as the humidity changes from 100 to 0 per cent. This makes it impractical to
design a single element to operate from 1 to 100 percent relative humidity
Instead several elements arc used, each in a narrow range, with provision for
switching elements. Resistance is measured either with a Wheatstone bridge or
by a combination of current and voltage measurements.

Most of these must not be exposed to conditions of 100 percent humidity as

the resulting condensation may damage the device. Either they must be
operated in a constant temperature environment or temperature corrections
must be made. These are accurate to within ±2.5 per cent or ±1.5 percent in
some cases. Response times are typically of the order of a few seconds. These
are currently the most common electronic hygrometers.

A typical resistive hygrometer is shown in Fig. 1.38. It shows a mixture of

lithium chloride and carbon which acts as conducting film. This is put on an
insulating substrate between metal electrodes.

Fig.1.38.Resistive hygrometer

The resistance of the element changes when it is exposed to variations in

humidity. The higher the relative humidity, the more moisture the lithium
chloride will absorb, and the lower will be its resistance.

The resistance of the sensing unit is a measure of the relative humidity.

Resistance should be measured by applying a c. to the Wheatstone bridge. D.C.
voltage is not applied because it tends to breakdown the lithium chloride to its
lithium and chlorine atoms. The current flow is a measure of the resistance
and b.nce of the relative humidity.

2. Capacitive Hygrometer

Some hygroscopic materials exhibit a change in dielectric constant with

humidity changes. In addition, the presence of water vapour in air changes the
dielectric constant of the mixture. In either case, the changes are small, and
the change in capacitance is usually measured by including it as the
frequency-determining element in an oscillator, heterodyning this signal with a
beat frequency oscillator, and measuring the resulting difference frequency
these transducers have response time of about 1 s.

3. Microwave Refractometer

For secondary standards, a system consisting of two cavities, each of which is

coupled a klystron, may be employed. One cavity contains dry air, the other
contains the mixture to be measured. The change in dielectric constant
changes the frequency of one oscillator. This difference is measured
electronically. The complexity of the devices precludes their use except in very
special situation.

4. Aluminium oxide Hygrometers

The aluminium oxide coating on anodized aluminium exhibits a change in

dielectric constant and a change in resistivity with a change in humidity. A
hygrometer that uses this is built by using the base aluminium as one
electrode and depositing a very thin electrode usually gold on the opposite side
of the oxide as shown in Fig. 1.39.

This thin electrode is porous to the air-vapour mixture. The resulting changes
in resistivity and capacitance lead to a complex impedance changes, which is
measured with a bridge or related methods, Errors are less than t 3 per cent
and response times are about 10 s. The changes are large, but often only one
sensing element is needed for the entire range to be covered. This hygrometer is
rapidly becoming a very important component in electronic systems.
 Fig.1.39. Aluminium oxide Hygrometers

5. Crystal Hygrometer:

Some crystals are hygroscopic, and others may be coated with a hygroscopic
material. The coating materials are hygroscopic polymers. The crystals are
used as frequency elements in electronic oscillators. Frequency shifts with
humidity as the mass of the crystal changes v amount of water absorbed by
coating are measured electronically. These transducers are useful if a telemetry
system is needed because the frequency range can be chosen as a standard
telemetry frequency.

A crystal hygrometer using quartz is shown in Fig. 1.40.

Fig.1.40. crystal hygrometer