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Formula sheet of
Limits
1. Introduction and basics of limits
a. Concept of Limits, Existence of Limits
Limit of a function at x = a
If a function y = f(x) is defined in neighbourhood of x = a, the function y = f(x) approaches a value L (y→L) as x→a. Then, we say that
the limit of f(x) as x→a is L. It is mathematically represented as:
lim f(x) = L
x→a

Existence of Limit:
The limit of a function y = f(x) at x = a exists and equals L if lim f(x) = lim f(x) = L (a finit e value) .
x→a − x→a +
Here, lim f(x) is called LHL (left-hand limit) and lim f(x) is called RHL (right-hand limit).
x→a − x→a +

b. Indeterminate forms, Algebra of Limits

Indeterminant Form:
There are total 7 indeterminate forms given as
0 ∞
1. , 2. , 3. ∞ − ∞ , 4. 0× ∞ , 5. 00 , 6. ∞ 0 , 7. 1 ∞
0 ∞
Algebra Of Limits:
Let lim f(x) and lim g(x) both individually exist and are finite, then
x→a x→a
1. lim k.f(x) = k. lim f(x) , where k is a constant.
x→a x→a
2. lim ⎢⎣f(x) ± g(x) ⎥⎦ = lim f(x) ± lim g(x)
⎡ ⎤
x→a x→a x→a
3. lim ⎡⎢⎣f(x) .g(x) ⎤⎥⎦ = lim f(x) . lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

⎡⎢ f(x) ⎤⎥ lim f(x)

x→a
4. lim ⎢⎢⎢
⎢ ⎥⎥ =
⎥
provided that lim g(x) ≠ 0
x → a ⎣ g(x) ⎦ lim g(x)
⎥ x→a
x→a
5. lim ⎡⎢⎣f(x) + k ⎤⎥⎦ = lim f(x) + k
x→1 x→a
lim g(x)
6. lim ⎢⎣f(x) ⎥⎦g(x) = ⎢⎢⎢ lim f(x) ⎥⎥⎥ x→a
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x→a ⎢⎣ x → a ⎥⎦
⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛1⎞
7. lim f(x) ⇔ lim f ⎜ ⎟ and lim f(x) ⇔ lim f ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
x→ ∞ x→0 ⎝ x ⎠ x→ − ∞ x → 0− ⎝
x⎠

2. Methods of Evaluating Limits

a. Direct substitution method

Direct Substitution Method:

Directly substitute the point in the given expression if on substitution the expression does not take indeterminate form and if on
substitution we get a finite number, then the finite number is the limit of the given expression.

b. Factorization method

Factorization Method:
f(x) f(x) 0
Consider lim . If we put x = a the rational function takes the meaningless form . Then (x-a) is a factor of both f(x) and g(x)
x→a g(x) g(x) 0
which must be cancelled. After cancelling out the common factor (x-a) we again put x = a in the expression then we get a meaningful
number or not. We have to repeat the above process till we get a meaningful number.

c. Rationalization method

Rationalization Method:
This method is used when either numerator or denominator or both have fractional powers (like 1/2, 1/3, etc.). After rationalization of
the terms and cancelling common factors in the numerator and in denominator which gives the result.
3. Standard limits
a. Algebraic limits

Algebraic limits:
(f(x) ) n − (f( a) ) n
1. lim = n. (f( a) ) n−1
x→a f(x) − f( a)
xn − an
(i) lim = n.an−1
x→a x−a
( 1+ x) n − 1
(ii) lim = n
x→0 x
⎪⎪ 0 if 0≤ a< 1
⎧⎪
⎪⎪
⎪1 if a = 1
2. lim ax = ⎪⎨⎪
x→ ∞
⎪⎪ ∞ if a > 1
⎪⎪
⎪⎪ D.N. E. if a < 0
⎩
⎧⎪ a
⎪⎪ 0
⎪⎪ if m = n
⎪⎪ b0
a0xm + a1xm−1 + . . . . + am ⎪⎪
3. lim = ⎪⎨⎪ 0 if m < n
x→ ∞ b0xn + b1xn−1 + . . . . + bn ⎪⎪
⎪⎪ ∞
⎪⎪ if m > n & a0 .b0 > 0

⎩⎪ − ∞ if m > n & a0 .b0 < 0

⎪⎪

b. Trigonometric limits

Trigonometric Limits:
Following are some basic trigonometric limits,
⎛ sin(f(x) ) ⎞⎟
(i) lim ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1, if f(x) approaches to zero as x approaches to a
x→a ⎝ f(x) ⎠
⎛ sinx ⎞⎟ ⎛ x ⎞⎟
⇒ lim ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1 = lim ⎜⎜ ⎟
x→0 ⎝ x ⎠ x → 0 ⎝ sinx ⎠
⎛ tan(f(x) ) ⎞⎟
(ii) lim ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1, if f(x) approaches to zero as x approaches to a
x→a ⎝ f(x) ⎠
⎛ tanx ⎟⎞ ⎛ x ⎟⎞
⇒ lim ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1 = lim ⎜⎜ ⎟
x→0 ⎝ x ⎠ x → 0 ⎝ tanx ⎠

c. Inverse trigonometric limits

Inverse Trigonometric Limits:

sin−1 (f(x) ) f(x)
1. If lim f(x) = 0 then lim = 1 = lim
x→a x→a f(x) −1
x → a sin (f(x) )

♦ lim
x→0
sin−1x
x
= 1 = lim −1
x → 0 sin x
x

−1
tan (f(x) ) f(x)
2. If lim f(x) = 0 then lim = 1 = lim
x→a x→a f(x) x→a tan−1
(f(x) )

♦ lim
x→0
−1
tan x
x
= 1 = lim
x
−1
x → 0 tan x

d. Exponential limits

Exponential Limits:
Pf(x) − 1
If P > 0, P ≠ 1 and f(a) = 0 then, lim = lnP
x→a f(x)
ax − 1
(i) lim = lna
x→0 x
ex − 1 x
(ii) lim = 1 = lim x
x→0 x x→0 e −1

e. Logarithmic limits

Logarithmic Limits:
loga ( 1 + f(x) )
If a > 0, a ≠ 1 and lim f(x) = 0 then, lim = loga e
x→ P x→ P f(x)
 loga ( 1 + x)
(i) lim = loga e
x→0 x
loge ( 1 + x)
(ii) lim = 1
x→0 x

4. L’Hopital’s rule
a. L’Hopital’s rule
f(x) 0 ∞
For the cases where lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 0 (or ± ∞), then the limit L = lim assumes or ± form, then the limit L is also equal to
x→a x→a x→a g(x) 0 ∞
f ' (x)
L = lim . Please note that 'a' can be any real number or ± ∞ .
x→a g' (x)

5. 0⁰,ꝏ⁰ and 1^ꝏ Form

a. 0⁰,ꝏ⁰ Form
If lim f(x) = 0 or ∞ and lim g(x) = 0 , then the limit for the expression lim (f(x) )g (x) t akes t he undet erminat e formof 00 or ∞ 0 .
x→a x→a x→a
Assume the limit as L and take log on both sides. The limit for resultant expression can be found using standard limits/methods.
L = lim (f(x) )g (x)
x→a

⇒ ln L = lim (g(x) ln f(x) )

x→a

b. 1 power ꝏ form
lim (f(x) −1) g (x)
If lim f(x) = 1 and lim g(x) = ∞ , then lim (f(x) )g (x) = ex → a
x→a x→a x→a

6. Limits using expansions

a. Expansion of log(1+x), eˣ, aˣ
Expansions of e x, ax and ln(1+x)
x x2 x3
1. e x = 1+ + + + . . . . . . . .x ∈ R
1! 2! 3!
x lna (x lna)2 (x lna)3
2. ax = 1+ + + + . . . . . . . .a >0
1! 2! 3!
2 3 4
x x x
3. ln(1+x) = x− + − + . . . . . . . . −1 < x ≤1
2 3 4
b. Expansion of sinx, cosx, tanx
Expansion for sin x, cos x and tan x
x3 x5 x7 ⎛ π π⎞
1. sin x = x− + − . . . . . . . .x ∈ ⎜⎜ − , ⎟⎟
3! 5! 7! ⎝ 2 2 ⎠

x2 x4 x6
2. cos x = 1− + − . . . . . . . .x ∈ (−π,π)
2! 4! 6!
x3 2x5 ⎛ π π⎞
3. t an x = x+ + + . . . . . . . .x ∈ ⎜⎜ − , ⎟⎟
3 15 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠

7. Sandwich theorem
a. Sandwich theorem
Sandwich Theorem (Squeeze Play Theorem)

If in an interval in neighbourhood of a, we have f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) and

if lim f(x) = lim h(x) = k (a finit e value)

x→a x→a
Then, lim g(x) = k
x→a

8. Newton leibniz rule

a. Newton leibniz Rule
f(x)
Newton-leibniz rule:
d
dx
⎛⎜
⎜⎜
⎝
∫
g (x)
⎞
p(t)dt ⎟⎟⎟ = p(f(x))f' (x) − p(g(x))g' (x)
⎠

9. Limit of composite functions

a. Limit of composite functions
lim f(g(x)) =f lim g(x) if lim g(x) = k (a finit e value) and limf(x) is also finit e.
x→a (x→a ) x→a x→k

10. Geometrical Limits

a. Geometrical Limits
In some problems involving geometry, we need to find limiting value of some variable quantity (X) like area/volume/length as some
other valiable (Y) (again area/volume/length) approaches a particular value. In these types of problems, we generally express X in
terms of Y and then apply standard methods to find the required limit.