Enhancing Reading Comprehension: Investigate strategies to improve

reading comprehension among elementary students in local languages.

Citation: Johnson, P. J. (1981). Effects on reading comprehension of language

complexity and cultural background of a text. TESOL Quarterly, 15(2), 169.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3586408

Another study by Johnson (1981) explored the effects of language

complexity and cultural background on reading comprehension. The research
found that the cultural origin of the story had a greater impact on the
comprehension of English as a Second Language (ESL) students compared to the
level of syntactic and semantic complexity. For native English readers, both the
level of language complexity and the cultural origin of the story influenced
comprehension. This study highlights the importance of considering cultural
factors when designing reading materials for students in local languages.

Implications of this study for teaching and for materials selection and
design are discussed. The effects of the language complexity and the culturally
determined background of a text on reading comprehension have always been
recognized as elements of concern in the selection of reading materials for
foreign language learners and in the evaluation of their reading
comprehension. Research with native language readers has shown that the
amount of language complexity has less effect on reading comprehension than
the organization of ideas in the passage. Schlesinger (1968) found that the
length and structure of English sentences had no effect on comprehension of
readers who tended to use lexical meanings to understand the sentences.
Meyer's work (1975) showed that organization in English prose influenced what
idea units were recalled from a passage by native language readers, but there
were no significant differences between recall of units with and without the
presence of linguistic cues. …”

Citation: DeLallo, M. L. (2012). The effects of classroom blogging on reading

comprehension and interpersonal contacts among fifth grade students (Doctoral
dissertation).

The study titled "The effects of classroom blogging on reading

comprehension and interpersonal contacts among fifth-grade students"
investigated the impact of classroom blogging on reading comprehension and
interpersonal contacts among fifth-grade students. The study aimed to explore
how blogging activities can enhance students' reading comprehension skills and
promote interpersonal interactions.
The findings of the study indicated that classroom blogging had a positive
impact on students' reading comprehension skills. The students showed
improvement in their ability to comprehend and analyze texts after engaging in
blogging activities. The researchers attributed this improvement to the
interactive nature of blogging, which encouraged students to actively engage
with the texts and express their thoughts and opinions.
Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that educators
consider incorporating blogging activities into their classroom instruction to
enhance reading comprehension and promote interpersonal contacts among
students. Blogging provides a platform for students to actively engage with
texts, express their thoughts, and interact with their peers. This interactive and
collaborative nature of blogging can foster a deeper understanding of the texts
and improve students' reading comprehension skills. To effectively implement
blogging activities, educators should provide clear guidelines and expectations
for student participation. They should also facilitate and monitor the blog
discussions to ensure meaningful interactions and provide timely feedback to
students. Additionally, educators should encourage students to reflect on their
own and their peers' blog posts, promoting critical thinking and metacognitive
skills.

Citation: -, H.W., & -, S.Y. (2023). Improving the English Reading Skills and
Reading Strategies of Elementary School Students. International Journal For
Multidisciplinary Research.
Based on the findings of these studies, Improving the English Reading Skills and
Reading Strategies of Elementary School Students can be achieved by providing
engaging texts, encouraging exploration of different genres, and promoting
independent reading. Additionally, it is crucial for elementary school teachers to
possess sufficient English proficiency to effectively teach English. Professional
development programs can be implemented to enhance teachers' language
proficiency and confidence in instructing students in speaking English.

WAYS TO IMPROVE THE READING SKILLS AND READING STRATEGIES IN

ELEMENTARY STUDENTS The suggestions are prepared according to the
objectives of the study. The following are some simple and effective ways to
improve the ability of the students in their reading skills:
1. Personalize reading materials: Students can gain a better comprehension of
the content by considering how it relates to their own lives. Making personal
connections with the book through writing it down. Students can understand the
material, which allows them to perceive how it relates to contemporary events.
2. Perfection in problem-solving: Incorporate real-world problem-solving abilities
into the program. Pupils can jot down possible answers to the problem and then
discuss them as a class or in small groups.
3. Use all five senses to engage diverse types of learners: Including activities
that will encourage learning and understanding which will allow the pupils to use
additional senses while they read. Students should annotate the text while
reading with a pen or pencil. Students should take turns in reading the word
aloud.
4. Always keep objectives of reading in the mind: Students must keep the
objectives of reading in their mind while reading English text it will help them in
comprehending a text. This can help them take action in developing their
reading abilities, and pupils will be more aware of how they are progressing.
5. Engage with student-led reading activities: Students process reading material
and curriculum in a variety of ways. A teacher should be able to understand what
works best for each student individually while applying reading exercises to
assist the class to understand complicated concepts.
6. Revisiting and rereading confusing sentences and texts: Revisiting the parts
that were confusing for the students (or that might simply need a quick
refresher) can help students gain a more complete picture of what he or she is
learning. This will also help and ensure that the student is able to understand
upcoming material in the text. Keeping a record or list of words that students are
unfamiliar or struggling with. Encouraging students to look those words up in a
dictionary to learn what they mean. Then, find ways to use them in a sentence
that they can write themselves.
7. Talk it out: When the student has finished reading, they should talk about
what they have just read together. Teacher should ask the student what he or
she learned and his or her thoughts. For longer reading materials, like novels for
book reports, make discussion questions you and your student can talk about
together after each reading session.
8. Break down reading: Breaking up long and difficult reading into segments
helps to make it more digestible. Shorter parts will aid in student engagement
while the class examines the content. It can bring confidence in students for
their knowledge of a difficult subject.
Mathematics Achievement Gap: Explore methods to reduce the achievement
gap in mathematics between urban and rural schools.

Citation: Graham, S., & Provost, L.E. (2012). Mathematics achievement gaps
between suburban students and their rural and urban peers increase over time.

According to the study titled "Mathematics achievement gaps between suburban

students and their rural and urban peers increase over time" by (Graham &
Provost, 2012), there is a significant increase in mathematics achievement gaps
between suburban students and their rural and urban peers over time. This
finding suggests that students from suburban areas tend to outperform their
counterparts from rural and urban areas in mathematics. The study by Tayyaba
(2012) also supports this claim, stating that there are generally held beliefs
about differences in achievement between rural and urban students. However,
the results are inconclusive, with some studies reporting non-significant
differences in mathematics achievement across rural and urban students.

In addition, the study by Graves et al. (2014) found that both rural and suburban
students outperformed their urban peers in mathematics, reading, and science.
This further supports the notion that there are significant differences in
mathematics achievement between students from different geographic areas.

The study by Ababneh & Kodippili (2020) provides insights into the factors
contributing to the mathematics achievement gap between urban and rural
students in Jordan. The study found that school-level variables such as school
emphasis on academic success and school discipline problems had a significant
effect on the achievement gap. This suggests that addressing these factors at
the school level could help reduce the gap.

Overall, the referenced studies indicate that there is a significant mathematics

achievement gap between suburban students and their rural and urban peers.
This gap tends to increase over time and is not limited to specific geographic
locations. Factors such as school resources, instructional quality, and socio-
economic status may contribute to this gap. Addressing these factors at both the
school and policy levels could help reduce the achievement gap and promote
equitable mathematics education for all students.
Citation: Ababneh, E.G., & Kodippili, A. (2020). Investigation the Association of
Some Variables with Mathematics Achievement Gap Between Rural and Urban
Jordanian Students. Journal of Education and Practice, 11, 147-158.

According to the study "Investigation the Association of Some Variables with

Mathematics Achievement Gap Between Rural and Urban Jordanian Students"
(Ababneh & Kodippili, 2020), the researchers aimed to analyze the association of
various variables with the mathematics achievement gap between rural and
urban Jordanian students using the TIMSS 2015 database. The study utilized a
hierarchical linear model to analyze the data of 6,541 students from 232 schools.

The study found that there was a significant variation in science and
mathematics achievement among Jordanian schools, with approximately 20% of
the variation in achievement attributed to differences among schools (Sabah &
Hammouri, 2010). However, the effects of class-level factors were not consistent
across science and mathematics subjects (Sabah & Hammouri, 2010). This
suggests that instructional practices and resources may have different impacts
on student achievement in different subjects.

Another study mentioned that there is a general impression that urban schools
are better resourced and have higher quality instruction compared to rural
schools (Tayyaba, 2012). However, empirical evidence challenging this view is
limited, and some studies have reported non-significant differences in
mathematics achievement between rural and urban students (Tayyaba, 2012).
This indicates that the assumption of urban schools having an advantage over
rural schools in terms of academic achievement is open to debate.

Furthermore, individual non-intelligence factors such as mathematics interest,

self-efficacy, teacher-student relationship, and mathematics anxiety were found
to explain the difference in mathematical problem-solving ability more than
students' background variables (Xu & Qi, 2022). This suggests that addressing
these individual characteristics, such as increasing mathematics interest and
self-efficacy while reducing mathematics anxiety, may be more effective in
improving mathematical problem-solving ability than focusing solely on students'
background variables.

Additionally, the study "On the different effects of teacher-student rapport on

urban and rural students' math learning in China: An empirical study" highlighted
the importance of examining mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics anxiety
in the relation between teacher-student rapport and mathematical academic
outcomes in both urban and rural schools (Zhou et al., 2020). This indicates that
the quality of the teacher-student relationship may have different effects on
math learning outcomes depending on the students' location.

In conclusion, the actions needed to address the mathematics achievement gap

between rural and urban students may include improving instructional practices
and resources in both rural and urban schools, addressing individual non-
intelligence factors that influence mathematical problem-solving ability, and
considering the differential effects of teacher-student rapport on math learning
outcomes in urban and rural settings. These actions can contribute to narrowing
the achievement gap and ensuring equitable mathematics education for all
students.
Citation: Reeves, E.B. (2012). The Effects of Opportunity to Learn, Family
Socioeconomic Status, and Friends on the Rural Math Achievement Gap in High
School. American Behavioral Scientist, 56, 887 - 907.

According to the study "The Effects of Opportunity to Learn, Family

Socioeconomic Status, and Friends on the Rural Math Achievement Gap in High
School" by (Reeves, 2012), there are several actions that can be taken to
address the rural math achievement gap in high school. The study found that
geographic variations in the opportunity to learn, resulting from differences in
family socioeconomic status (SES) and the influence of friends' academic
commitments and aspirations, contribute to the gap. Therefore, addressing these
factors can help improve math achievement in rural high schools.

One action that can be taken is to provide equal access to quality math
instruction and resources for all students, regardless of their family SES. This can
be achieved by implementing policies and programs that ensure equitable
distribution of resources and opportunities in rural schools. Additionally, efforts
can be made to improve the quality of math instruction in rural schools, including
providing professional development for teachers and implementing evidence-
based instructional practices.

Another action is to promote a positive academic environment and peer

influence. The study found that friends' academic commitments and aspirations
have a significant impact on math achievement. Therefore, creating a supportive
and academically-focused school culture can help motivate students to take
advanced math courses and excel in math. This can be done through initiatives
such as mentoring programs, peer tutoring, and extracurricular activities that
promote academic engagement.

Furthermore, addressing the socioeconomic factors that contribute to the rural

math achievement gap is crucial. The study found that family SES has both direct
and indirect effects on math achievement. Therefore, implementing policies and
programs that address poverty and provide support for low-income families can
help mitigate the impact of socioeconomic disadvantage on math achievement.
This can include initiatives such as providing access to affordable housing,
healthcare, and nutrition, as well as offering financial assistance for educational
resources and opportunities.

In conclusion, to address the rural math achievement gap in high school, it is

important to ensure equal access to quality math instruction and resources,
promote a positive academic environment and peer influence, and address the
socioeconomic factors that contribute to the gap. By implementing these actions,
it is possible to improve math achievement and reduce the disparities between
rural and nonrural students.
Bilingual Education: Evaluate the effectiveness of bilingual education
programs in improving students’ language proficiency

Citation: Brutt‐Griffler, J., & Jang, E. (2019). Dual language programs: an

exploration of bilingual students’ academic achievement, language proficiencies
and engagement using a mixed methods approach. International Journal of
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25, 1 - 22.

Based on the study "Dual language programs: an exploration of bilingual

students’ academic achievement, language proficiencies and engagement using
a mixed methods approach," there are several actions that can be taken to
support the success of dual language programs.

Firstly, it is important to ensure that the input provided in dual language

environments is of high quality. Research suggests that the percent of input
provided by native speakers, the number of different speakers providing input,
and the frequency of language mixing are all indicators of input quality (Place &
Hoff, 2015). By increasing the amount of input provided by native speakers and
exposing students to a variety of speakers, the language development of
bilingual students can be enhanced.

Secondly, family support and school collaboration are crucial for the success of
dual language programs. A study on a multiethnic family's strategies for
bilingualism and multiculturalism found that the family's ideology towards
valuing bilingualism and the support provided by the school were integral to
maintaining the children's heritage language and promoting multiculturalism
(Kennedy & Romo, 2013). Therefore, it is important for schools to actively
involve families in supporting bilingualism and provide necessary resources and
support to families.

Additionally, the study highlights the effectiveness of dual language programs in

meeting the needs of English language learners (ELL) and English-proficient (EP)
students (Lindholm-Leary & Block, 2010). Dual language programs integrate ELL
and EP students in the same classroom and provide academic instruction
through two languages, with the goals of bilingualism, biliteracy, and academic
achievement. Therefore, it is crucial to continue implementing and supporting
dual language programs to ensure the academic success of bilingual students.

Furthermore, the study emphasizes the importance of early exposure to both

languages in dual language programs. Research suggests that 50:50 bilingual
programs are particularly effective for gaining deep knowledge of languages,
especially when children have early exposure to both languages (Berens et al.,
2013). Therefore, it is recommended to start dual language programs at an early
age to maximize the benefits of bilingual education.

Lastly, the organizational context of dual language programs can impact their
effectiveness. A study on dual language programs as a strand within a secondary
school found that the organizational context affects the implementation of
effective practices (Jong & Bearse, 2012). Therefore, it is important to consider
the organizational structure and support within schools to ensure the successful
implementation of dual language programs.
In conclusion, to support the success of dual language programs, it is important
to provide high-quality input, involve families in supporting bilingualism, continue
implementing and supporting dual language programs, start programs at an
early age, and consider the organizational context of these programs. By taking
these actions, schools can promote bilingualism, biliteracy, and academic
achievement among bilingual students.

Citation: Tallmadge, G.K. (1987). The Evaluation of Bilingual Education Programs

for Language-Minority, Limited-English-Proficient Students: A Status Report with
Recommendations for Future Development.
According to the study "The Evaluation of Bilingual Education Programs for
Language-Minority, Limited-English-Proficient Students: A Status Report with
Recommendations for Future Development," there are several actions needed to
improve bilingual education programs for language-minority, limited-English-
proficient students (Chin, 2015).

Firstly, instruction should be of adequate intensity, provided by qualified

teachers, and supported by appropriate teaching and learning materials,
regardless of the language of instruction. This means that bilingual education
programs should focus on the quality of instruction rather than the language in
which it is provided (Chin, 2015).

Secondly, the study emphasizes the importance of language development

programs that help students develop language skills in their native language, as
well as in English. Bilingual education can help limited-English-proficient students
keep up in other subjects while they are learning English (Chin, 2015).

Additionally, the study highlights the need for a comprehensive evaluation of

bilingual education programs. The quality of evaluation studies in this field has
been generally poor, and efforts to improve evaluation have been largely
unsuccessful. Therefore, there is a need for more rigorous and methodologically
sound evaluations of the effects of bilingual education (Lam, 1992). Furthermore,
the study suggests that bilingual education programs should address the needs
of culturally and linguistically diverse students. This includes improving
personnel preparation to better serve these students and integrating fields such
as bilingual education and special education (Gallegos & McCarty, 2000).

Lastly, the study calls for future research that incorporates the most recent
evidence on the effectiveness of bilingual programs, advances in neuroscience,
and the benefits of being bilingual and biliterate. This research should inform the
development and improvement of bilingual education programs (Baker et al.,
2016).

In summary, the actions needed to improve bilingual education programs for

language-minority, limited-English-proficient students include providing high-
quality instruction, focusing on language development in both the native
language and English, conducting rigorous evaluations, addressing the needs of
culturally and linguistically diverse students, and conducting further research to
inform program development and improvement.
Digital Divide: Investigate the impact of the digital divide on students' access
to online learning resources during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Citation: Surianshah, S. (2021). Digital Divide in Education during COVID-19 Pandemic. Jurnal
Ekonomi Malaysia.

Based on the references provided, there are several actions needed to address
the digital divide in education during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Firstly, there is a need to innovate and implement alternative educational and

assessment strategies (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has
provided an opportunity to introduce digital learning and bridge the gap caused
by the digital divide (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021).

Secondly, personal factors such as education, income, attitudes, and motivations

play a role in shaping the age-related digital divide (Song et al., 2021).
Therefore, efforts should be made to address these factors and provide equal
access to digital resources and technologies for all age groups (Song et al.,
2021).

Thirdly, the digital divide has worsened the conventional educational system and
reinforced pre-existing gender inequalities among marginalized communities
(Nayak & Alam, 2022). It is crucial to address the digital divide and ensure equal
access to education for all, regardless of gender or social background (Nayak &
Alam, 2022).

Furthermore, there is a lack of literature on the digital divide among faculty who
teach in higher education settings (Soomro et al., 2020). It is important to
understand and address the digital divide among educators to ensure effective
online teaching and learning (Soomro et al., 2020).

Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought the digital divide to the surface
and revealed continued disparities among ethnic and social groups (Buchholz et
al., 2020). Efforts should be made to bridge these disparities and ensure equal
access to digital resources for all students (Buchholz et al., 2020).

Moreover, the government's effort to digitalize education during the COVID-19

pandemic is aimed at reducing the digital divide and equalizing access to
education (Sarah, 2022). It is important to continue these efforts and provide
necessary resources and support for digital education (Sarah, 2022).

Furthermore, the prolonged closure of educational institutions due to the COVID-

19 pandemic has had an impact on the prevailing education divide (Rajput et al.,
2020). Steps should be taken to mitigate the effects of these closures and ensure
continued access to education for all students (Rajput et al., 2020).

Additionally, the training of citizens in digital competences is one of the main

challenges in addressing the social digital divide (Morte-Nadal & Esteban-
Navarro, 2022). Efforts should be made to provide digital skills training to
citizens to improve digital inclusion and bridge the digital divide (Morte-Nadal &
Esteban-Navarro, 2022).

Lastly, the pervasive digital divide in Pakistan has affected students' ability to
carry out their education during the COVID-19 pandemic Jamil & Muschert
(2023). It is important to address this divide and provide necessary resources
and support for students, especially those from rural and remote areas (Jamil &
Muschert, 2023).

In conclusion, to address the digital divide in education during the COVID-19

pandemic, it is necessary to innovate and implement alternative educational
strategies, address personal factors that contribute to the divide, bridge gender
and social inequalities, provide support for faculty, bridge ethnic and social
disparities, digitalize education, mitigate the effects of school closures, provide
digital skills training, and support students from marginalized areas. These
actions will help ensure equal access to education and bridge the digital divide
during these challenging times.

Citation: Badiuzzaman, M., Rafiquzzaman, M., Rabby, M.I., & Rahman, M.M.
(2021). The Latent Digital Divides and Its Drivers in E-Learning: Among
Bangladeshi Student During COVID-19 Pandemic.

Based on the study by Badiuzzaman et al. (2021) on the latent digital divides
and its drivers in e-learning among Bangladeshi students during the COVID-19
pandemic, several actions can be recommended to address the identified issues.

Firstly, it is crucial to improve access to digital devices and internet connectivity

for students in Bangladesh. This can be achieved through government initiatives
and partnerships with private organizations to provide subsidized or free devices
and internet packages to students from low-income backgrounds (Rollin et al.,
2018). Additionally, efforts should be made to expand the internet infrastructure
in rural areas to ensure equal access to online learning resources.

Secondly, digital literacy programs should be implemented to enhance students'

skills in using digital technologies for learning purposes. These programs can
include training sessions on basic computer skills, internet navigation, and online
communication tools (Alkureishi et al., 2021). It is important to ensure that
students have the necessary knowledge and skills to effectively engage with e-
learning platforms and resources.

Furthermore, the study highlights the need for inclusive e-learning platforms that
cater to the diverse needs of students. This includes providing materials in
multiple languages, accommodating students with disabilities, and considering
the cultural context of the learners (Liu, 2021). E-learning platforms should be
designed with accessibility features and user-friendly interfaces to ensure that all
students can participate and benefit from online education.

Collaboration between educational institutions, government agencies, and non-

profit organizations is essential to address the digital divide in e-learning. These
stakeholders should work together to develop comprehensive strategies and
policies that promote digital inclusion and equitable access to education. This
can involve the allocation of resources for infrastructure development, teacher
training programs, and the establishment of support systems for students facing
digital barriers (Hamburg & Lütgen, 2019).

In conclusion, based on the findings of the study, actions needed to address the
latent digital divides in e-learning among Bangladeshi students during the
COVID-19 pandemic include improving access to digital devices and internet
connectivity, implementing digital literacy programs, developing inclusive e-
learning platforms, and fostering collaboration among stakeholders. These
actions are crucial to ensure that all students have equal opportunities to engage
in online education and mitigate the negative impacts of the digital divide.