VECTOR ALZEBRA

 A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction in space.

Ex: Force, Velocity, displacement & acceleration

 A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude.
Ex: mass, time, temperature and work.
 A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e:1)

 The vector A can be written as

A  A .i A

A
iA 
A
iA is the unit vector in the direction of A.
 Two vectors A and B when added and subtracted will give another
vector.
Graphically, vector addition and subtraction are obtained by the
parallelogram rule.

Vector Addition C = A+B

Vector subtraction D = A-B

VECTOR MULTIPLICATION:

 When two vectors A and B are multiplied the result is either a scalar
(or) a vector depending on how they are multiplied.
 There are two types of vector multiplication.
 Scalar (or dot) product (A.B)
 Vector (or cross) product (AXB)
 Multiplication of three vectors can be result either in
i) Scalar triple product A.(BXC)
ii) Vector triple product AX(BXC)

DOT PRODUCT:
 The dot product of two vectors A and B, written as; A.B, is defined
geometrically as the product of the magnitude of A and B and cosine of
the angle between
Thus: A.B = |A| |B| cos  AB
 If A.B=0 then two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (or)
perpendicular.
If A = Axix + Ayiy + Aziz
B = Bxix + Byiy + Bziz then
A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
 A.B = B.A
A.A = |A|r
 ix.ix = iy.iy = iz.iz = 1
ix.iy = iy.iz = iz.ix = 0

CROSS PRODUCT:

 The cross product of two vectors A and B written as AXB, is a vector

quantity whose magnitude is the area of the parallelopiped formed by A
and B and is in the direction of a right hand screw as A is turned into B.

AXB = |A| . |B|.sin  AB

 If A = Axix + Ayiy + Aziz and

B = Bxix + Byiy + Bziz then

 ix iy iz 
 
AXB  A x Ay Az 
 Bx By Bz 

 AXB = (AyBz- ByAz)ix + (AzBx – AxBz)iy + (AxBy – BxAy)iz
 AXB  BXA
AXB = - BXA
AXA = 0
 ixXix = iyXiy = izXiz = 0
ixXiy = iz; iyXiz = ix; izXix = iy
 A, B and C are the three rectors then the scalar tripple product is
A. (BXC) = B. (CXA) – C. (AXB)
 The vector tripple product is
AX (BXC) = B. (A.C) – C. (A.B)

COMPONENT OF A VECTOR

 The component of A along B is = A cos  AB

AB cos  AB

B
A.B
 (Scalar component)
B 
(A.B).B
 r
(Vector component)
B

Problems:-

1. Given that A = ix + iy + iz and B = ix+iy+iz if A and B are normal

to each other what is  = ………………….
A.B = 0  A  B
(ix + iy + iz). (ix + iy + iz) = 0
++1=0
 + 1 = 0
 = -1/2

2. Given A = -6ix+3iy+2iz the projection of A along iy is

 a) -12 b) -4 c) 3 d) 12

Soln: A.iy = 3

3. The component of A = 6ix+2iy-3iz along B = 3ix-4iy is

Soln: The component of A along B is = A Cos  AB
A.B 6i x  2i y  3i z 
. 3i x  4i y 
= 
B 3   42
2

18  8 10
=  2
25 5

4. Given vectors A = ix+iy+4iz

B = 3ix+iy-6iz
C = 5ix-2iy+iz
Determine  and  such that the vectors are mutually orthogonal.
Soln: A.B = 0, B.C = 0, C.A = 0 [ A  B  C]
A.B = 0  3+-24 = 0  3+ = 24  (1)
B.C = 0  15+2-6 = 0  2+6 = 15  (2)
C.A = 0  5-2+4 = 0  5+4 = 2  (3)
From (1)  = 24-3
 Substituting in eqn.(2)
2(24-3) +6 = 15
6(8-) +6 = 15
2(8-) +2 = 5
16-2+2 = 5
-2+2 = 5-16
-2+2 = -11
- = 11/2  (4)

4 - 4 = 22
5 - 4 = 2
____________
9 = 24
 =24/9

24 11 48  99 51 17
    
9 2 18 18 6
24
  24  3X  24  8  16
9
5. Simplify the following:
a) AX (AXB) b) AX [AX(AXB)]
Soln: a) AX (AXB)
A (A.B)-B (A.A)
b) AX [AX (AXB)]
AX [A (A.B)-B (A.A)]
(AXA)(A.B)- (AXB) (A.A)

-:CO-ORDINATE – SYSTEMS:-
 In order to describe spatial variation of the Electro magnetic waves as
a function of space and time, we require using an appropriate co-
ordinate system.
 The three simple co-ordinate system‟s are:
i) Cartesian (Rectangular) co-ordinate system.
ii) Cylindrical co-ordinate system.
iii) Spherical co-ordinate system.

 Cartesian co-ordinate system:-

 In the Cartesian co-ordinate system, we set up three co-ordinate axes

mutually at right angles to each other, and call them, the x, y and z axes.

 A point in catesian co-ordinate system is located by giving its x, y and

z co-ordinates these are the distances from the origin to the intersection of
a perpendicular dropped from the point to the x, y, and z axes.

 The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y and z are

- < x < 
- < y < 
- < z < 
 
 A vector A in Cartesian co-ordinates can be written as

A  A x i x  A yi y  A z i z
Where ix,iy and iz are the unit vectors along x,y and z directions.

-: CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM:-

 A point P in cylindrical co-ordinates is represented as (ρ, Φ, z).

Where ρ is the radius of the cylinder
Φ is the azimuth angle, is measured from the x-axis in the xy-plane.

 The ranges of the co-ordinate variables ρ, Φ and z are

0P
0    2
0Z

 A vector A in cylindrical co-ordinates can be written as
 ip.ip = i.i = iz.iz = 1
Where ip, i and iz are the unit vectors along ρ,  and z directions.
 ip.ip = i . i = iz.iz = 1
ip. i = i .iz = iz.ip = 0
ip X i = iz
i X iz = ip
iz X ip = i
-: Conversion relations b/w Cartesian (x, y, z) and
cylindrical (p,  , z):-

x = ρ cos  P= x 2  y2
y = ρ sin   = tan 1 ( y / x)
z=z z=z

-: Spherical co-ordinates:-

 A point P in spherical co-ordinates is represented as (r,  ,  ).

Where r is the radius of the sphere.  Is the elevation angle and is
the angle between z-axis and position vector of  is the azimuth angle, is
measured from the x-axis.

 The ranges of the co-ordinate variables r,  and  are

0r
0
0    2
 A vector Ain spherical co-ordinate may be written as

A  A r i r  A i   A i 
Where ir, i and i  are unit vectors along the r,  and  -directions.
 ir.ir = i.i = i  .i  = 1
ir.i = i.i = i  .i r = 0
irXi = i  iX i  = ir
i  Xir = i




-: Conversion Relations b/w Cartesian (x, y, z) and

Spherical(r,,  ):-

x = rsin  .cos  r  x 2  y2  z2
x ²  y²
y = r sin . sin    tan 1
z
1
z = r cos    tan ( y / x)

Ex:1) Convert a point P(1,3,5) from Cartesian to cylindrical and spherical

co-ordinates.
Soln: P (1, 3, 5)
x = 1, y = 3, z = 5
  x ²  y²  1  9  10  3.162
 y
  tan 1    tan 1 (3)  71.56º
x
z=5
P(p, , z)  (3.162, 71.56º , 5)
 r  x ²  y ²  z ²  1  9  25
r  35  5.916
 x ²  y² 
  tan 1  
 z 
 
 3.162 
  tan 1    32.31º
 5 
y
  tan  1   71.56º
x
P(r, , )  P(5.916,32.31º ,71.56º )

Vector transformation from Rectangular to

Cylindrical

 A vector A in rectangular co-ordinate system can be represented as

A  A x i x  A yi y  A zi z
 And it can be represented in cylindrical coordinate system as

A  A p i p  A i   A z i z
To find Ap 
Ap  A.i p
= (Axix+Ayiy+Aziz).ip
= Ax(ix.ip)+Ay(iy.ip) + Az(iz.ip)
= Ax.cos  +Ay.sin 
To find A  :

A   A.i 
= (Axix+Ayiy+Aziz).i 
= Ax(ix.i  )+Ay(iy.i  )+Az(iz.i  )
= Ax(-sin  )+Ay(cos  )
To find Az: 
Az = A.i z
= (Axix+Ayiy+Aziz).iz
= AxX0+AyX0+Az
= Az
 
   
 A  A x cos   A y sin  i p   A x sin   A y cos   A zi z

***

A p   cos  sin  0 A x 
A    sin  cos  0 A 
    y 
 A z   0 0 1  A z 

-: Vector transformation from Rectangular to Spherical:-


 A vector A in rectangular co-ordinate system can be represented as:

A  A x i x  A yi y  A zi z
 And it can be represented in spherical co-ordinate system as:

A  A r i r  A i   A  i 
To find Ar:-
A r  A.i r
= (Ari r  Ai  Ai  ).i r
= A x (i x .i r )  A y (i y .i r )  Az (i z .i r )
= A x (sin  cos )  A y (sin  sin )  Az (cos )
Ar = Ax sin  cos   Ay sin  sin   Az cos 
To find A:- 
A = A.i 
= (Axix+Ayiy+Aziz).i
= Ax(ix.i)+Ay(iy.i)+Az(iz.i)
 = A x [cos  cos ]  A y [cos  sin ]  A z [ sin ]
A = A x cos  cos   A y cos  sin   Az sin 
To find A  :

A  = A.i 
A  = (Axix+Ayiy+Aziz).i 
A  = Ax(ix. i  ) +Ay (iy. i  )+Az(iz. i  )
A  =  A x sin   A y cos 

ix iy iz
.
ir sincos  sinsin  cos
i coscos  cossin  -sin
i -sin  cos  0

 A  (A x sin  cos   A y sin  sin   A z cos )i r  (A x cos  cos   A y cos  sin   A z sin )i 

+(-Axsin  +Aycos  )i 
 A r   sin  cos  sin  sin  cos   A x 
    A 
A    cos  cos  cos  sin   sin   y
A     sin  cos  0   A z 
 
 -:Constant co-ordinate surfaces:-
 Surfaces in Cartesian, cylindrical (or) Spherical co-ordinate systems
are easily generated by keeping one of the co-ordinate variables constant
and allowing the other two to vary.
 In Cartesian co-ordinate system we would have three infinite planes.
x = constant
y = constant
z = constant
 The orthogonal surfaces in cylindrical co-ordinates are:
 = constant, is a circular cylinder
 = constant, is a semi infinite plane
z = constant, is a infinite plane
 The orthogonal surfaces in spherical co-ordinates are:
r = constant, is a sphere with its center at the origin
 = constant, is a circular cone with the z-axis as its axis
 = constant, is a semi infinite plane
 -:Differential Length, Area and Volulme:-
Cartesian co-ordinates:-

 Differential displacement is given by

dl = dxix+dyiy+dziz
 Differential normal area is given by
dS = dydz ix
= dzdx iy
= dxdy iz
 Differential volume is given by
dV = dx.dy.dz

Cylindrical co-ordinates:-
 Differential displacement is given by
dl = di  di   dziz
 Differential normal area is given by
ds  ddz.i p
 ddz.i 
 dd.i z
 Differential volume is given by
dV = dddz

Spherical co-ordinates:-

 The differential displacement is

dl = drir + rdi + rsind  i 
 The differential normal area is
dS = r²sind d  ir
= r sin dr d  i
= r dr di 
 The differential volume is
dV = r² sin dr.d.d 

-: DEL OPERATOR:-

 The del operator, written as  , is the vector differential operator known

as the gradient operator.
   
 i x  i y  i z (In Cartesian co-ordinates)
x y z

 The operator is useful in defining

1. The gradient of a scalar, V
2. The divergence of a vector A, .A
3. The curl of a vector A, XA
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, ²V
 The  , operator in cylindrical co-ordinates as:
 1  
 ip  . i  iz
   z
 The  operator in spherical co-ordinates as:
 1  1 
  ir  i  i
r r  r sin  

: GRADIENT OF A SCALAR:

 The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the

magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of increase of V.
 For Cartesian co-ordinates:
V V V
V  grad V  ix  iy  iz
x y z
 For cylindrical co-ordinates:
V 1 V V
V  i  i  iz
   z
 For spherical co-ordinates:
V 1 V 1 V
V  ir  i  i
r r  r sin  
 The fundamental properties of the gradient of a scalar field V is:
i) The magnitude of V equals the maximum rate of change of V
per unit distance.
ii) V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.
iii) V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that
passes through that point.

-: Divergence of a vector:-

 The divergence of a vector field A at a given point is the outward flux

per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
  A.ds
Hence div A = .A = Lt S
V 0 V

 In fig (a) shows that the divergence of a vector field at point P is

positive because the vector diverges (or) spreads out at P.
 In fig (b) A vector field has negative divergence a convergence at P.
 In fig(c) A vector field has zero divergence.
 Divergence of a vector field has the following properties.
1. It producer a scalar field.
2. The divergence of a scalar makes no sense.
3. .(A  B)  .A  .B
4. .(AV)  V.A  A.V
 The divergence of a vector in Cartesian co-ordinates is given by
  
.A  Ax  A y  Az
x y z
 The divergence of a vector in cylindrical co-ordinates is:
1  1 A A z
.A  (A  )  .  
    z
 The divergence of a vector in spherical co-ordinates is:
1 A 
1  2
.A  2
r r

r Ar   1 
r sin  
[A  sin ] 
r sin  
 -: Divergence Theorem:-
-: Gauss-Ostrogradsky:-
 The divergence theorem states that ” the total out ward flux of a vector
field A through the closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of
the divergence of A”.
 A.ds   .A d
S V

Proof: - Consider a volume V closed by a surface S.

 To prove the divergence theorem, subdivide volume V into a large

number of small cells. If the Kth cell has volume VK and is bounded by
surface SK.
 A.ds
 A.ds    A.ds   .V
SK

S K SK K VK
 Since the outward flux to one cell is inward to some neighboring cells,
there is a cancellation on every interior surface, so the sum of the surface
integrals over SK‟s is the same as the surface integral over the surface S.
  A.ds   .A d
S V

 This theorem applies to any volume V bounded by the closed surface

S.
***
 -: Curl of a vector:-
 The curl of A is an axial (or) rotational vector whose magnitude is the
maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and
whose direction is the normal direction of the area.

 L A.dl 
i.e. Curl A = XA   Lt in max
 S0 S 
 
  A.dl  The circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L.
L

 In Cartesian co-ordinates the Curl of A is easily found using.

ix iy iz
  
XA 
x y z
Ax Ay Az
 In cylindrical co-ordinates the curl of A is easily found using
i  i  i z
1   
XA 
   z
A  A  A z
 In spherical co-ordinates the curl of A is easily found using.
ir ri  r sin i 
1   
XA  2
r sin    z
A  A  Az

-: The properties of the curl:-

1. The curl of a vector field is another vector field.
2. The curl of a scalar field makes no sense.
3. X(A  B)  XA  XB
4. X(AXB)  A(.B)  B(.A)  (B.)A  (A.) B
5. X(VA )  V(XA)  VXA
6  . (  XA)=0
7. XV  0
 -: Stoke’s Theorem:-

 Stoke‟s theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a

closed path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the
open surface bounded by L.

 A.dl   (XA).ds
L S

Proof:
 The proof of Stoke‟s theorem is similar to that of the divergence
theorem. The surface S is subdivided into a large number of cells. If the
Kth cell has surface area SK and is bounded by path LK

 A.dl
  A.dl    A.dl   .SK
LK

L K LK K SK
There is a cancellation on every interior path, so the sum of the Line
integrals around the LK‟s is the same as the Line integral around the
bounding curve L.
   A.dl   (XA).ds
L S
***

-: Laplacian of a scalar:-
 The Laplacian of a scalar field „V‟, written as  2 V is the divergence of
the gradient of Laplacian V= .V  2V
 Laplacian of a scalar field is another scalar field.
 In Cartecian co-ordinates:-
 2V  2V  2V
2V  2  2  2
x y z
 In cylindrical co-ordinates:-
²V ²V ²V
² V   
x ² y² z ²
 In spherical co-ordinates:-
1   V  1   V  1 ²V
² V  .  r ².   sin   .
r ² r  r  r ² sin      r ² sin ² ²
 If ²V  0 , a scalar field „V‟ is said to be harmonic in a given region
  ² is a scalar operator.
 Laplacian of vector field „A‟ is given by
²A  (.A)  X(XA)

-: Classification of vector fields:-

 A vector field „A‟ is said to be Solenoidal (or) divergence less
if .A  0 .
 A vector field „A‟ is said to be irrotational (or) potential if XA  0 .

-: Coulomb’s Law:-
 Let two point charges Q1 and Q2 are separated in a vaccum (or) free
space by a distance „R‟ meters.

 Coulomb‟s Law states that the magnitude of force between the two
point charges Q1 and Q2 is
(i) Directly proportional to the product Q1, Q2 of charges.
F  Q1Q
(ii) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance „R‟
between them.
 1
F
R2
 The direction of the force is along the line joining the two charges.
QQ
F 1 2
R²
QQ
F  K. 1 2  (1)
R²
Where K is the proportionality constant.
 In SI Units, charges Q1 and Q2 are in Coulomb, the distance R is in
meters and the force F is in newtons.
1
So that K 
4 0
The constant 0 is known as the permittivity of free space in Farads/meter,
and has the value
109
0  8.854 X1012  F/ m
36
1 1
(or) K   9X109 m / F
4 0 10 9
4 X
36
  eqn (1) becomes
Q1Q 2
F .i R
4 0 R 2
 If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points having position vectors
r1 and r2, then the force F12 on Q2 due to Q1 is given by

Q1Q 2
F12  .iR 12
4  R ²

R12  r2  r1
R  R12
R 12
iR 12 
R 12
Q1Q 2
F12  .R12
4 0 R ³
 Q1Q 2 (r2  r1 )
F12 
4  r2  r1 ³
Note:
i) F12 = -F21
ii) Like charges repel each other, while unlike charges attract.
iii) The distance R between the charged bodies Q1 and Q2 must be
large compared with the linear dimensions of the bodies.
iv) Q1 and Q2 must be static.

 If we have more than two point charges, we can use the principle of
superposition to determine the force on a particular charge.
If there are N charges Q1, Q2, Q3…….. QN located, respectively, at
points with position vectors r1,r2,r3…….rn, the resultant force F on a
charge Q located at point r is the vector sum of the forces exerted on Q by
each of the charges Q1,Q2,Q3…..QN. H
QQ1 (r  r1 ) QQ2 (r  r2 ) QQN (r  rN )
F   ........ 
4  r  r1 ³ 4 0 r  r2 ³ 4 0 r  rN ³
(or)
Q N
Q K (r  rK )
F
4 0

K 1 r  rK ³
“One coulomb is approximately equivalent to 6X1018 electrons”.

-: Electric field intensity:-

 The electric field intensity (or) electric field strength E is the force per
unit charge.
F
E
Q
 The electric field intensity E is in the direction of the Force.
 The units for electric field intensity E is newton/coulomb (or)
Volts/meter.
 The electric field intensity at a point „r‟ due to a point charage „Q‟
located at r1 is given by
Q
E .i r
4 0 R 2
Q( r  r 1 )
E
4 0 r  r 1 ³
 For N point charges Q1,Q2……..QN located at r1,r2,…….rn, the electric
field intensity at point r is obtained by
Q1 (r  r1 ) Q 2 (r  r2 ) Q (r  rN )
E   ........  N
4 0 r  r1 ³ 4 0 r  r2 ³ 4 0 r  rN ³
 (or)
1 N
Q K (r  rK )
E
4 0
K 1 r  rK ³

1. Point charages 1 mc and -2 mc are located at (3,2,-1) and (-1,-1,4)

respectively. Calculate the electric force on a 10 mc charge located at
(0,3,1) and the electric field intensity at that point.
QQK (r  rK )
Soln: F   4 
K 1, 2 0 r  rK ³

Q r  r1 Q1 r  r2 Q 2
F 
4  r  r1 3 r  r2
3

10X10 9 [(0,3,1)  (3,2,1)]10 3 [(0,3,1)  (1,1,4)]10 2 

F   
10 9   3,1, 2
3/ 2
1, 4, 3
3/ 2

4 X 
36
 (3,1,2) 2(1,4,3) 
F  102 X9  
 9  1  4 (1  16  9)3 / 2 
3/ 2

F = -6.507 ix – 3.817 iy + 7.506 iz mN

At that point
F
E
Q
10
E  [6.507i x  3.817i y  7.506i z ]X
10X10C
E  650.7i x  381.7i y  750.6i z KV / m

2. Point charges 5 nc and -2 nc are located at (2,0,4) and (-3,0,5)

respectively.
a) Determine the force on a 1 n-c. Point charge located at (1,-3,7).
b) Find the electric field E at (1,-3,7).
Soln: Ans: a) -1.004 ix – 1.284 iy + 1.4 iz
b) -1.004 ix – 1.284 iy + 1.4 iz
 -: Continuous charge distributions:-

 It is also possible to have continuous charge distribution along a line,

on a surface or in a volume.

 The Line charge density, surface charge density, and volume charge
density are denoted by L (c / m) , S (c / m²) ,   (c / m³) , respectively.
 The charge element dQ due to the Line charge distribution is
dQ  L .dl
The total charge Q is given by
Q   L .dl (Line charge)
L

 dQ = S .ds  Q =  S .ds (Surface charge)

S

 dQ =  v .dv  Q =   v .dv (Volume charge)

v

 The electric field intensity due to Line charge

L .dl
Line charge E .i R
L
4 0 R ²
S .ds
Surface charge E .i R
S
4   0 R ²
 .dv
Volume charge E V .i R
V
4 0 R ²
-:Line charge:-
 Consider a Line charge with uniform charge density  L extending
from A to B along the z-axis as shown in fig. below

 The elemental charge due to the elemental length dl = dz of the line

is
dQ = L .dl  L .dz  (1)
 and hence the total charge Q is
ZB

Q= 
ZA
L .dz  (2)

 The electric field intensity E at an orbitary point P(x,y,z) can be

found by
L .dl
E  (3)
l
4 0 . R ²
dl

= dz1
1
R = (x,y,z) – (0,0,z )
 1
R = x ix + y iy + (z-z ) iz (Rectangular)
(or)

R =  i   (z  z ).i z (Cylindrical)
1

R² = |R|² = P² + (z-z1)² = x²+y²+(z-z1)²


iR R i  (z  z 1 )i z
  

R ² | R | ³ [²  z  z1 ²]3 / 2 
 Substituting all this in equation (3)
L 
a   z  z1 i z 
E  
4 0 [²  z  z ²]
1 3/ 2
.dz1
  (4)

 To evaluate this, we define , 1 and 2 as shown in fig.

 |R| = [²  (z  z¹)²]½ = sec   (5)
z¹  OT   tan  z-z¹ =  tan 
dz¹ =  .sec ².d  (6)
 Substituting these in equation (4)
2
 [i    tan  i z
E L
4 0 
1
( sec )³
x   sec ².d

sin 
2 i  iz
 L cos  .d
E
4 0 
1
. sec 

 L 2 (cos  i   sin  i z )
4 0  1 . sec . cos 
E .d

 L
E
4 0 
sin  i   cos  i z  2

1

 L
E
4 0 
(sin 2  sin 1 )i  (cos  2  cos 1 )i z 
 Thus for a finite Line charge
L
E [(sin  2  sin 1 ) i   (cos    cos 1 )i z ]
4 0 
 For an infinite Line charge, point B is at (0,0,-) so that 1=/2,
2=-/2

   180º , 1   2  180º
The z-component vanishes and
 L .i 
E
2 0 .
Where  the perpendicular distance from the Line to the point of is
intersect, i  is the unit vector.

-: Surface Charge:-
 Consider an infinite sheet of charge in xy-plane with uniform
charge density. The charge associated with an elemental area dS is
dQ = s .ds  (1)
 and hence the total charge
Q =  s .ds  (2)
s
 The contribution to the electric field E at point P (0, 0, h) by the
elemental surface shown in fig. is given by
dQ
dE = .i R  (3)
4 0 R ²

 From the fig.

R =  i  ni z
| R |  (²  n ²)½

R  i   ni z
iR = =
|R| (²  n ²)½
dQ = sds  s .dd
 Substituting these in eqn.(3) we get
s ..dd[i   ni z ]
dE =
4 0 (²  n ²)3 / 2
 Due to the symmentry lof lthe charge distribution, for every
element 1, there is a corresponding element 2 whose contribution along i 
cancels that of element 1. Thus the contributions to E  add up to zero.
So that E has only z-component.
2 
s h..d.d
 E =  dE z =
4 0  
0 0
(²  h ²)3 / 2
.i z

2
 .h 
 E= s
4 0  d. (²  h ²)
0
3/ 2
.d.i z


 .h 1
 E = s x 2  d. .d.i z
4 0 0
(²  h ²)3 / 2
s x h  1 
 E=  i z
2 0  ²  h ² 
 sh  1
 E=  0  i z
2 0  h
 s
E= iz
20

 That is, E has only z-component if the charge is in the xy-plane.

 In general, for an infinite sheet of charge,
s
E= .i n
2 0
Where in is a unit vector normal to the sheet.
 The electric field intensity is independent of the distance b/w the
sheet and the point of observation P.
 In a parallel plate, capacitor, the electric field existing between the
two plates having equal and opposite charges is given by
s  s s
E= in  (i n )  i n
2 0 2 0 0

Problem: A circular ring of radius „a‟ carries a uniform charge

L c / m and is placed on the xy
plane with axis the same as the z-axis.
L ah
a) Show that E(O,O,h) = .i z
2 0 [h ²  a ²]3 / 2
b) What values of „h‟ gives the maximum value of E.
c) If the total charge on the ring is Q, find E as a  0 .
Solution:
a)

 dl = a.d

R  (0,0, h)  (a cos  , a sin  , O)

R =  ai   hi z
|R| = [a²+h²]½
 
R
iR  
|R|
 ai   hi z
iR 
[a ²  h ²]½
 Electric field intensity of any orbitary point P (0,0,h) is given by
l .dl l .dl 
E .i R   .R
l
4 0 R ² l
4 0 R 3

l
2
(ai   hi z )
E
4 0 
0
[a ²  h ²]3 / 2
.a.d

 By symmetry, the contributions along is add up to zero. i.e., for every

element dl there is a corresponding element diametrically opposite, so
that the two contributions cancel each other.
 The „E‟ has only z-component.
 That is
2
l h.a.d
E
4   [a ²  h ²]
0
3/ 2
iz

l .h.a
E x 2.i z
4  [a ²  h ²]3 / 2
l .h.a
E iz
2  [a ²  h ²]3 / 2
b)
 Differentiating above equation with respect to „n‟ and equation to zero
for maximum condition of „n‟.
3
[(a ²  h ²)3 / 2 x 1  x h (a ²  h ²)½ x 2h ]
d|E|  .a 2
0  l 0
dh 2 0 (a ²  h ²)³
 (a²+h²)3/2-3h²(a²+h²)½=0
(a²+h²)3/2 = 3h²(a²+h²)½
(a²+h²) = 3h²
a²-2h² = 0
a²
a² = 2h² (or) h² =
2
a
h=±
2
d) Since the charge is uniformly distributed, the Line charge density is
Q
L 
2 a
Q.a.h.i z
E =
2 a .2 0 .(h ²  a ²)3 / 2
 Qh
E = .i z
4 0 .(h ²  a ²)3 / 2
 As a  0
Qh
E = .i z
4 0 . h ³
Q
E = .i z
4 0 . h 2
Q
(or) in general E = .i R
4 0 .R 2
Which is the same as that of a point charge.

Problem: A circular ring of radius „a‟ carries uniform charge L c / m and

is in xy-plane. Find the electric field intensity at point (0,0,2) along its
axis.
L a.h
Soln: E .i z
2 0 [a ²  h ²]3 / 2
L a.2
E .i z
2 0 [a ²  4]3 / 2
a.L
E .i z
 0 [a ²  4]3 / 2

***

Example: A circular disk of radius „a‟ is uniformly charged with s c / m² .

If the disk lies on the
z=0 plane with its axis along the z-axis.
a)Show that at point (0,0,h)
s  h 
E 1  (h ²  a ²)½ i z
2 0  

b)From this, derive the E field due to an infinite sheet of charge on the
z=0 plane.
c)If a<<h show that E is similar to the field due to a point charge.
Soln:
 s ds
E .i R
4 0 R ²
 dQ = s ds
dQ
dE = .i R
4 0 R ²
dQ = s..dd

R  (0,0, h)  ( cos ,  sin ,0)

R    cos i x   sin i y  hi z

R  i   hi z

 | R | (²  h ²)½
s.d.d(i   hi z )
 dE 
4 0 (²  h ²)3 / 2
s
a 2
dd(i   hi z )
E=
4 0  
0 0
(²  h ²)3 / 2
 due to symmetry, radial component vanishes
2
 d
a
 E  s  d.  .hi z
4 0 0 0 (²  h ²)3 / 2
a
  1 
E  s .2. h  3/ 2 
iz
4 0  (²  h ²)  0
 s  1 1
E .h  i z
2 0  h ²  a ² h 
  h 
E s   1i z
2 0  h ²  a ² 
  h 
E  s 1  ½ z
i
2 0  (a ²  h ²) 
***
Example: A uniform Line charge, infinite in extent with l  20 nc / m , lies
along the z-axis. Find E at (6,8,3) m.
Soln:
 Electric field intensity due to the infinite Line charge is given by
l
E= .i 
2 0 
 = (6)²  (8)² = 36  64 = 100 = 10m
Which is the perpendicular distance from (6, 8, 3) to the z-axis.
 Given l  20x109 c / m
20x10 9
 E= xi 
1 9
2 x x10 x10
36
E = 36 i  v/m

Example: Charge is distributed uniformly over the plane z = 10cm with a

1
density s  nc / m² . Find E above the sheet. (z > 10cm) & below (z <
3
10cm) the sheet.
1
x10 9
Sol: Above the sheet z > 10cm E = 3 i z = 6 iz v/m
1 9
2x x10
36
Below the sheet z < 10cm E = -6 iz v/m

Example: The plane y = 3m contains a uniform charge distribution of

10 8
density s  c / m² . Determine E at all points.
6
10  8
Given s  c / m²
6

Soln: For y > 3mt

 s
E= .i y
2 0
10 8
E= .i y
1 9
6 x 2 x x10
36
E = 30 iy v/m
For y < 3mt E = -30 iy v/m

Example: Two infinite uniform sheets of charge, each with density s are
located at x = ±1 as shown in figure. Determine E in all regions.
Soln:

i) x < -1
s
E=  ix
0
ii) -1 < x < 1 E=0
s
iii) x > 1 E= ix
0
Repeat the above problem with
x = -1 and  s on x = ±1
Soln:
i) x < -1 E=0
s
ii) -1 < x < 1 E= ix
0
iii) x > 1 E=0
1
Example: A uniform sheet charge with s  nc / m² is located at z = 5m
3
25
and a uniform Line charge with l   nc / m at z = -3m, y = 3m. Find E
9
at (x,-1, 0) m.
Soln:
Given
1
s  x109 c / m²
3
25
l   x109 c / m
9

s
 Due to the sheet charge Es = (i n )
2 0
1 10 9
Es = x x (i z )
3 2x 1 x10 9
36
Es = -6iz v/m
 Due to the Line charge
El
El = .i 
2 0 
(or)
l
El = .i r
2 0 r
25
 x10 9 [4i  3i ]
El = 9 y z
1 25
2 x x10 9
36
El = +8iy-6iz v/m

  E at (x,-1, 0) m due to sheet charge and Line charge is

E = Es+El
E = -6iz + 8iy – 6iz
E = 8iy – 12iz v/m

***
Example: Two uniform Line charges of density l  4 nc / m lie in the x = 0
plane at y = ±4m. Find E at (4, 0, 10) m.
l [4i x  4i y ] l [4i x  4i y ]
Soln: E = 
2 0 [32] 2 0 [32]
 4i
E= l x
 0 32
4x10 9 x 4
E= .i x = 18 ix v/m
1 9
 x10 x32
36
***
Example: Planes x = 2 and y = -3 respectively, carry charges 10 nc/m²
and 15 nc/m². If the Line x = 0, z = 2 carries charge10 nc/m , calculate E
at (1,1,-1) due to the three charge distributions.
Ans:- Let E = E1 + E2 + E3
Where E1, E2 and E3 are respectively, the contributions to E at
point (1,1,-1) due to infinite sheet 1, infinite sheet 2, and infinite Line 3 as
shown in fig.

s
E1 = (i x )
2 0
10x10 9
E1 = (i x )
1
2x x10 9
36
E1 =  180 i x  (1)
s  15x10 9
E2 = (i y ) = (i y )
2 0 2x
1
x10 9

36
E2 = 270 i y  (2)
l
 E3 = .i 
2 0 
Where  is the perpendicular distance from point P(1,-1,1) to the Line.
x = 0, z=2
[0,y,2] [1,1,-1]

 = ix – 3iz
|  | = 1  9  10
i x  3i z
i 
10
10 x 10 9 i  3i z
E3 = x x
1 10
2 x x10 9
36
E3 = 18(i x  3 i z )  (3)
 Thus by adding E1, E2 and E3 we get the total field E = E1 + E2 +
E3
E=  180 i x  270i y  18(i x  3i z )
E =  162 i x  270i y  54i z v / m
***

-: Electric Flux():-
(OR)
-:Electric Displacement:-
 Faraday’s experiment:-
A sphere with charge „Q‟ was placed with but not touching, a
larger hollow sphere. The outer sphere was earthed momentarily, and
then the inner sphere was removed.
The charge remaining on the outer sphere was then measured. This
charge was found to be equal (and of opposite sign) to the charge on the
inner sphere for all sizes of the spheres and for all types of dielectric
media b/w the spheres. This could be considered that there was on
electric displacement from the charge on the sphere through the medium
to the outer sphere. The amount of this displacement depending only
upon the magnitude of the charge Q.
i.e.   Q
 Electric Flux () is a scalar field.
 Electric Flux originates on positive charge and terminates on Negative
charge.
 In the absence of Negative charge, the flux () terminates at infinity.
  By definition, one coulomb of electric charge gives rise to one
coulomb of electric flux.

ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY:-

 Electric flux density is defined as the ratio of the electric flux per unit
area.
 Electric flux density „D‟ is a vector field and is measured in coulombs
per square meter.
 Electric flux density „D‟ at any point on a spherical surface of radius
„r‟ centered at the isolated charge „Q‟ is given by
 Q
D  c / m²
4 r ² 4 r ²
 Electric flux density is in the radial direction i.e., normal to the surface.
Q
D= ir̂ c / m²  (1)
4 r ²
 The electric field intensity at any point due to a point charge is given
by
Q
E= iR  (2)
4 0 R ²
i.e., at any particular point the electric field strength E depends not only
lupon the magnitude and position of the charge Q, but also upon the di-
electric constant of the medium in which the field is measured.
 The electric flux density D is independent of the medium.
 Comparing equations (1) & (2) we get
D = 0 E

 The flux crossing through an elemental surface ds is the product of the

normal component of D and ds.
d  D cos .ds
d  Dds cos 
d  D.ds
 The total flux passing through the closed surface is obtained by adding
the different contributions crossing each surface element ds.
   d   D.ds
S

 The electric flux density „D‟ due to point charge:

Q
DQ  .i R
4 R ²

 Due to Line charge: Dl = L .i 
2
 Due to an infinite sheet of charge.

D = S in
2

Example: Determine D at (4,0,3) if there is a point charge -5 mc at

(4,0,0) and a Line charge 3 mc/m along the y-axis.
Soln:
 5 x 10 3 (3i z )
DQ = x
4 [3]³
DQ = -0.138 iz mc/m²
3 x 10 3 (4i x  3i z )
Dl =
2 [25]
Dl = 0.24 ix + 0.18 iz mc/m²
D = DQ + Dl
D = 240ix + 42 iz c / m²
***

-: Gauss’s Law:-
“Gauss‟s Law states that the total electric flux out of a closed
surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface”.
Thus  = Qenclosed
 This can be written in integral form as
   d   D.ds  Qenclosed  (2)
S

 The total charge enclosed

Q =   V dv  (3)
V

 v  Volume charge density

 Equating equation (2) & (3)
Q =  D.ds   V dv  (4)  Integral form of +1 gauss law.
S V
 By applying the divergence theorem to the middle term of the above
equation
 D.ds   .D dv  (5)
S V

 Comparing equations (4) & (5)

 .D dv   Vdv
V V

.D  V
 Differential (or) point from of the gauss law which is the Maxwell‟s
first equation.
 Gauss‟s Law provides on easy means of finding E or D for
symmetrical charge distributions.
APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW:-
 Conditions (or) procedure for applying Gauss‟s Law
i) Symmetric charge distribution.
ii) Closed surface [Gaussian surface]
iii) D is everywhere either normal (or) tangential to the closed lsurface, so
that D.ds becomes either Dds (or) zero respectively.

A.Point Charge:-

 Suppose a point charge Q is located at the origin. To determine D at a

point P, it is easy lto see that choosijng a spherical surface containing P
will satisfy symmetry conditions.
 i.e., a spherical surface centered at the origin is the Gaussian surface.

 Since D is every where normal to the Gaussian surfaces that is D =

Drir
 Applying the Gauss‟s Law
Q =  D.ds  Dr  ds
Q = Dr 4 r²
2 
Where  ds   d  .  r ² sin  d 
0 0

 ds  4 r ²
Q
 D .i r
4 r ²
B.Infinite Line charge:-

 Suppose the infinite line of uniform charge L c/m lies along the z-
axis.

 To determine D at a point P, we choose a cylilndrical surface

containing P to satisfy symmetric condition.
 D is constant on and normal to the cylindrical Gaussian surface. i.e., D
= D i 

 By applying Gauss‟s Law to an arbitrary length „l‟ of the line

Q =  D.ds  D ds
s s
2 l
= D   d .  dz
0 z 0

=  D .2. l
Q = l .l  D .2. l
L
D= .i 
2
 D.ds   D.ds evaluated on the top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder is
zero since D has no z-component, i.e., D is tangential to those surfaces.

C.Infinite sheet of charge:-

 Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge S c / m² lying on the z =

0 plane.
 To determine D at point P, we choose a rectangular box that is cut
symmetrically by the sheet of charge land has two of its faces parallel to
the sheet as shown.

 As D is normal to the sheet, D = Dziz

 By applying gauss‟s law gives
Q =  D.ds  D Z  ds
S S

 
= D Z   ds   
ds
 top bottom 

= DZ[A+A]
Q = 2ADZ
 If the top and bottom area of the box each has area A.
Q =  Sds  2ADZ
 = S .A  2ADZ
S
D= iz
2
D
E=
0

E = S iz
2 0
***

D.Uniformly charged sphere:-

 Consider a sphere of radius „a‟ with uniform charge v c / m³ .

 To determine „D‟ every where we construct Gaussian surfaces for
cases r  a and
r  a separately.
 Since the charge has spherical symmetry it is obvious that a spherical
surface is an appropriate Gaussian surface.

Case i)
 For r  a

The charge enclosed by the gaussian surface is

Qenclosed =  v dv
=  v  dv
v
2  r
= v    r ² sin  d d dr
0 0 r 0
r  2
=  v  r ² dr  sin  d  d
r 0 0 0
 r³
 Qenclosed =  v . .2.2
3
4
Qenclosed =  v . .r ³  (1)
3

 And
 =  D.ds
s

= Dr.  ds
s

= Dr.  D.ds
S
2 
= Dr.   r ² sin  d d
0 0
2 
= Dr.r².  d  sin  d
0 0

= Dr.r².2x2
 = 4r²Dr  (2)
 By applying Gauss‟s law
 = Qenclosed
4
 4pr² Dr =  v .  r ³
3
r. v
Dr =
3
r
 D = .v .i r ora
3
Case (ii)
 For r  a

 The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is

Qenclosed =   v dv
v

=  v  dv = v  r ² sin  dr d d
v v
 a  2
=  v  r ²dr  sin  d  d
r 0 0 0

a³ 4
Qenclosed = v . .2.2   a ³.v  (1)
3 3
 While  =  D.ds  Dr ds
s s
 2
= D r r ²  sin  d   d
0 0

 = Dr.r².2.2 = 4r²Dr  (2)

 Applying Gauss Law
Qenclosed = 
4 / 3a ³v  4 r ² Dr
a³
Dr = . v
3r ²
a³
D= . v .i r for r  a
3r ²

Electric Potential
 The amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge „Q‟
from infinity to the required point is called “Potential”.
 Electric Potential is a scalar quantity.
 To move a point charge „Q‟ from point A to point B in an electric
field „E‟ the force on a point charge „Q‟ is given by
F = EQ  (1)
 The amount of work done in displacing the charge by dl is
dW = - F.dl
dW = - EQ.dl  (2)
 The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an
external agent.
  Thus the total work done (or) the potential energy required, in
moving „Q‟ from A to B is
B
w =  Q  E.dl  (3)
A
 Dividing W by Q gives the potential energy per unit charge, and is
denoted by VAB which is known as the potential difference between
points A & B.
W
Thus VAB = =   E.dl  (4)
Q
 VAB is independent of path taken.
 VAB is measured in Jouls/coulomb (or) volts.
 The electric field intensity „E‟ due to a point charge Q located at
the origin is given by
Q
E= .i r  (5)
4 0 r ²
 Substituting eqn.(5) in (4)
rB
Q
VAB =  .i r .dr.i r
rA
4  0 r ²
rB
Q 1
VAB =
4 0  r ² dr
rA
rB
Q 1 
VAB = r 
4 0   rA
rB
Q 1 1
VAB =   
4 0  rB rA  rA
Q Q
VAB = 
4 0 rB 4 0 rA
VAB = VB - VA
 Where VB & VA are the potentials (or absolute potentials) at B
and A respectively.
 If we assume that potential at infinity is zero i.e., VA=0 as rA  
Then the potential at any point due to the point charge „Q‟ located
at the origin is
 r
V = -  E.dl


 If the point charge „Q‟ is not located at the origin but at a point
whose position vector is r¹. Then the potential at r becomes
Q
V(r) =
4  0 | r  r¹|
 For n point charges Q1,Q2,….Qn located at points with position
vector‟s r1,r2,r3,…..rn the potential at r is
Q1 Q2 Qn
V( r )    ......... 
4   r  r1 | 4   r  r2 | 4   r  rn |
(or)
n
1 QK
V( r ) 
4 
  r r
K 1 |
K

 For continuous charge distributions, we replace QK in above eqn.

with charge element Ldl, sds (or) vdv and the summation
becomes integration.
 The potential at „r‟ becomes
1 L dl
V(r) = 
4 0 l | r  r¹|
(Line charge)
1 S . ds
V (r) = 
4 0 S | r  r¹|
(Surface charge)
1 V . dv
V(r) = 
4 0 V | r  r¹|
(Volume charge)

Ex: 1: Two point charges  4C and 5C are located at (2,-1,3) and (0,4,-
2) respectively. Find the potential at (1,0,1) assuming zero
potential at infinity.

Given zero potential at infinity.

 4 x 10 6 1 5 x 106 1
V= x  9
x
x109 | (1,0,1)  (2,1,3) | 4 x 10 | (1,0,1)  (0,4,2) |
1
4 x
36 36
  4 5 
V = 9 x 10³   
 11 4 1  16  9 
4 5 
V = 9 x 10³   
 6 26 
V = 9 x [10³-1.633+0.9806]
V = -5.872 KV

Ex: 2: A point charge 5 nc is located at (-3,4,0) while line y = 1, z = 1

carries uniform charge 2 nc/m
a) If V = 0V at O(0,0,0), find V at A(5,0,1)
b) If V = 100V at B(1,2,1), find V at C(-2,5,3)
c) If V = -5V at O(0,0,0), find VBC

Soln: Given 5nCis located at (-3, 4, 0)

Line is y = 1, z = 1 (x, 1, 1)

And  l = 2 x 10-9 c/m

a) V = 0 V =?
(0, 0, 0) A = (5,0,1)
Due to point charge potential diffence
Q 1 1
VOA = VA – VO =   
4 0  rA rO 
rA = | (5,0,1)  (3,4,0) |
rA = |(8,-4,1)| = 64  16  1 = 81 = 9
r0 = |(0,0,0)–(-3,4,0)|
r0 = |(3,-4,0)| = 9  16 = 25 = 5
5x 10 9  1 1 
VA-V0 = 
10 9  9 5 
4 x
36
5  9
VA-0 = 45
 45 
VA = -4 Volts
 For the infinite Line charge
VOA =   E.dl
l
VOA =  i  .d.i 
2 0

VOA =  l ln 0A
2 0
  A 
l l  0 
VOA =  ln  = ln 
2 0
 O  2   A 
l  0 
VA-V0 = ln 
2    A 
A  | (5,0,1)  (x,1,1) |  | (0,1,0) | 1
B  | (0,0,0)  (x,1,1) |  | (0,1,1) |  2
2 x 10 9   2  
VA-0 = ln   
10 9   1  
2 x
36
VA = 36[ln 2 ]
 The potential at point A due to point charge and Line charge having
v=0 at origin is given by
V = 36(ln 2 ) – 4
V = 8.477 Volts

b) 5 x 10-9 (x,1,1)
(-3,4,0) l  2 x 109 c/m
V = 100 V V =?
B = (1,2,1) C = (-2,5,3)
 Due to point charge
5x10 9  1 1 
VBC = VC-VB = 
10  |  2,5,3   3,4,0 | | 1,2,1   3,4,0 | 
9 
4 x
36
 1 1 
VBC = VC-100V = 45  
 | 1,1,3 4,2,1
 1 1 
VBC = VC-100V = 45 
 11 9 16  4  1 
 1 1 
VBC = VC-100V = 45 
 11 21 
 VC = -100V = 45[0.08329]
VC = 100 + 3.748 VBC = 3.748
VC = 103.748 volts.
 Due to the Line charge
l   B  1
VBC = ln  = 36 ln
2 0  C  20
 Due to both point charge & Line charge
1
VBC = 3.748 + 36 ln
20
VBC = -50.175
VC-VB = -50.175
 VC = 49.82V

Example: A Line charge L  400  c/m lies along the x-axis. The surface
of zero potential passes through the point (0, 5, 12) m. Find the potential
at point (2,3,-4)m.
Soln: Given rL=400x10-12 c/m lies along the x-axis i.e., (x, 0, 0)
Let V=0 V=?
A (0, 5, -12) m B (2, 3, -4)
 The potential due to the Line charge
l d 
VAB = - , Where 
2 0 

VAB =  l ln BA
2 0

VAB =  l [ln B  ln A ]
2 0
l A 
VAB =  ln 
2 0
 B 
A  | 0,5,12  x,0,0 |  | 0,5,12 |
A  25  144  169 =13m
 B  | 2,3,4  x,0,0 |  | 0,3,4 |
B  9  16  25  5m
400x10 12   13  -1 13 
9    = 18x4x10 ln   = 6.879V
VAB = ln
10   5  5
2 x
36
VB-VA = 6.879V
VB = 6.879V

Ex: A point charge of 15nc is situated at the origin and another point
charge of -12nc is located at the point (3, 3, 3) m. Find E and V at the
point (0,-3,-3).
Soln: 15x10-9C -12x10-9
. .
(0, 0, 0) (3, 3, 3)
E =? V =?
. 0,-3,-3)
15X109  12x109 (3ix  6iy  6iz )
(3i y  3i z ) 
 
E=
4    
3
4 0 9  36  36
3


 3x15x9(i y  i z ) 12x9x3 i x  2i y  2i z


   
E= 3 3
18 9  36  36
E = -5.3033[iy+iz] + 0.444[ix+2iy+2iz]
E = 0.444ix - 4.414iy – 4.414iz
15x10 9  12x109
V= 
10 9 10 9
4 x | (0,3,3) 4 x | (3,6,6) |
36 36
15x9 12x9
V=  = 31.819 – 12 = 19.819 Volts
99 9  36  36

Example: A uniform line of length 2m. with total charge 3 nc is situated

coincident to the z-axis with its center point 2m. from the origin. At a
 
point on the x-axis, 2m from the origin find V and E .

Q
Soln: l = 2m l   1.5 nc/m
l
Q = 3 nc is placed on the z-axis
E =?
V =? (2, 0, 0)

l .dx
V = 
4 0 r
 dr
V=  l  r = |(2, 0, 0) – (0, 0, z)|
4 0 r
l
3
dx
V=  
4 0 1 4  z ² ½
r = 4  z²

V=
 l
4 0
 3
ln[ z  z ²  4 ] 1
dx
 (x ²  a ²)
½

V = 9x1.5[ln(3  9  4 )  ln(1  1  4 )] Let x = a tanq

V = 9x1.5 [1.8879-1.1743]
V = 9.632 Volts dx = a sec²d
 a sec ²d
 a (sec ²) ½

 sec d  = ln (x  x²  a² )

l dl 
E=  4 
0 R²
.i r R  2i x  ziz

l R
4 0  | R | ³
E= .dl

l (2i x  ziz )
E= 
4 0 (4  z²)3 / 2
.dz

l  ziz dz 
3 3
2i x
E=  .dz   3/ 2 
4 0  1 4  z ² 3/ 2
1 4  z ²  
3 3
2dz zdz
Consider 1 (4  z²)3/ 2 dz Consider  4  z²
1
3/ 2

Let z = 2 tanq 4+z²=t

dz = 2 sec²d 2zdz = dt
2 x 2 sec ² d  dt 1
   2 .t
3 / 2
= = dt
3 2( t )3 / 2
2x [2 sec ²]3 / 2
2
3 1
 1 
1 1 1 t 2 1 t 2
=  . d = =
2 sec  2  3 1 21
2 2
3
1 1  1 
2
= cos d  =-   
 4  z ² 1
1
2
t
1  1 1 
= [sin ]  0.192 =  
2  49 4  1 
1.5x10 9  1 1 
 E 0.192i x  0.17i z  =   =0.17
10 9  13 5 
4 x
36
 E = 13.5[1.192ix-0.17iz]
E = 2.59 ix – 2.296 iz v/m
 -: Maxwell’s 2nd equation:-

 The potential difference between points A and B is independent of the

path taken.

 VAB = -VBA
i.e., VAB + VBA = 0
B A

 E.dl   E.dl  0 (or)

A B
 E.dl  0  (1)

 This shows that the Line integaral of E along a closed path must be
zero.
 Physically, this implies that no network is done in moving a charge
along a closed path in an electrostatic field.
 Applying Stoke‟s theorem to the above eqn.
 E.dl   (XE).ds  0 (or) XE  0  (2)
l S

 Any vector field wahich satisfied the above equations is said to be

conservative (or) irrotational field.
 Thus an electrostatic field is a conservative field.
 The equations (1) & (2) are referred to as second Maxwell‟s equation
for static electric field in integral form and differential form respectively.

-: Relation between E and V:-

 From the definition of potential

V   E.dl
 Taking diffearentiation on both sides
dV = - E.dl
 If E = Exix+Eyiy+Eziz
& dl = dxix+dyiy+dziz
 Then dv = -Exdx-Eydy-Ezdz  (1)
But
 v v v
 dv  .dx  .dy  .dz  (2)
x y z
 Comparing equations (1) & (2) for dv, we obtain
v v v
Ex =  , Ey =  and Ez = 
x y z
 Thus
v v v
E =  ix  iy  iz
x y z
E =  V
 That is, the electric field intensity is the gradient of v. The negative
sign shows that the direction of E is opposite to the direction in which V
increases.
***
-: Equipotential surfaces:-

 Any surface on which the potential is the same through out is known
as an Equipotential surface.
 No work is done in moving a charge from one point to another along
an equipotential surface. i.e., VA-VB = 0 and hence
 E.dl  0
 i.e., the Lines of force (or) flux lines are always normal to
equipotential surfaces.
 Examples of equipotential surfaces for point charge and dipole are
shown in figure below.

Fig: An Electric Dipole

 The direction of E is every where normal to the equipotential surface.

 For static electric fields, a conductor surface is always an
equipotential surface.
***
-: Electric field intensity due to dipole:-
“An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal
magnitude but opposite sign are separated by a small distance.”
 Consider the dipole is placed along the z-axis with its center is at the
origin.

 The potential at a point P(r, , ) is given by

Q 1 1 
V=   
4 0
 r1 r2 
Q  r2  r1 
V=    (1)
4 0  r1r2 
 Where r1 and r2 are the distances between P and Q and P and –Q
respectively.
If r>>d,
r2-r1 = dcos
r1r2 = r²
 Then equation (1) becomes as
Q d cos  Q d cos 
V= . .  (2)
4 0 r² 4 0 r²
 The electric field due to the dipole with center at the origin is
E =  V
v 1 v
E =   .i r  
1
.i   i 
 r r  r sin  
Qd cos  1 Qd
E=  (2)r  3.i r  . sin i   0
4 0 r 4 0 r ²
 Qd cos  Qd sin 
E= ir  i   (3)
2 0 r ³ 4 0 r ³
 Since dcos = d.ir where d = diz
We define P = Qd as the dipole moment then the above equations
(2) & (3) becomes as
P.i r
V=  (4)
4 0 r ²
P
E= [2 cos i r  sin i  ]  (5)
4 0 r ³
 The dipole moment P is directed from –Q to +Q.
If the dipole center is not at the origin but at r¹ then the potential
P.(r  r¹)
V(r) =  (6)
4 0 | r  r¹| ³
 Note: i) Due to a point charge its electric field varies inversely as r²
while it‟s potential field varies inversely as r.
ii) Due to a dipole the electric field varies inversely as r³ while
its potential varies inversely as r².
***
-: Energy density in electrostatic fields:-

 To determine the energy present in an assembly of charges, we must

first determine the amount of work necessary to assemble them.
 Suppose we wish to position three point charges Q1, Q2 & Q3 in an
initially empty space show in figurely.
 No work is required to transfer Q1 from infinity to P1. Because the
space is initially charge free and there is no electric field.
w1=0
 The work done in transferring Q2 from infinity to P2 is equal to w2 =
Q2V21.
V21 is the potential at P2 due to Q1.
 Similarly the work done in positioning Q3 at P3 equal to W3 =
Q3[V31+V32]
Where V31 and V32 are the potentials at P3 due to Q1 and Q2 respectively.
 Hence, the total work done in positioning the three charges is
WE = W1 + W2 + W3
WE = 0 + Q2V21 + Q3[V31+V32]  (1)
 If the charges were positioned in reverse order,
WE = W3 + W2 + W1
WE = 0 + Q2 [V23] + Q1 [V12+V13]  (2)
Where V23 is the potential at P2 due to Q3. V12 and V13 are the potentials
at P1 due to Q2 and Q3.
 Adding equations (1) & (2) gives
2WE = Q1(V12+V13)+Q2(V21+V23)+Q3(V31+V32)
2WE = Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3  (3)
Where V1, V2 and V3 are the potentials at P1, P2 and P3 respectively.
 In general, if there are n point charges then the above equation
becomes
1 n
WE =  QK VK Jouls  (4)
2 K 1
 If, instead of point charges, the region has a continuous charge
distribution, the summation becomes integration, that is
1
2
WE =  L V . dl (Line charge)  (5)
1
WE =  S V. ds (Surface charge)  (6)
2
1
WE =   V V. d v (Volume charge)  (7)
2
1
2
 Since V  . D (Gauss‟s Law) (.D)Vdv (8)

Substituting in eqn (7)

1
2
WE = (.D)Vdv  (9)

 For any vector A and scalar V, the identity

.VA  A.V  V(.A)
V(.A)  .VA  A.V  (10)
 Substituting this identity in eqn (9)
1 1
WE =  (.VD )dv   (D.V)dv  (11)
2V 2
 By applying the divergence theorem to the first term on the right-hand
side of the above eqn.
1 1
WE =
2S (VD ).ds   (D.V)dv  (12)
2
 1 1
 For point charges „V‟ varies as and „D‟ as . Hence VD in the first
r r²
term on the right-hand sides of above equation must vary lat least as
1
while ds varies as r² consequently, the first integral must tends to zero
r³
as the surface S becomes large.

 Hence the above eqn becomes

1
WE =   (D.V)dv
2V
1
WE =   (D.E)dv  (13)
2V
Since E =  V
D = 0 E
1 1
WE =
2  (D.E)dv   0 E ²dv
2
 From this we can define electro static energy density in jouls/m³ as
dWE 1 1 D²
 (D.E)  0 E ² 
dv 2 2 2 0

***

-: Convection and Conduction Currents:-

 The current (in amperes) through a given area is the electric charge
passing through the area per unit time.
dQ
i.e., I=
dt
 The current density at a given point is the current through as unit
normal area at that point.
I
J=
S
 If the current density is not normal to the surface
I  J.S
 Thus, the total current flowing through a surface „S‟ is
I =  J.ds
S

 Depending on how I is produced, there are different kinds of current

densities: Convection current density, conduction current density, and
displacement current density.
 -: Convection Current:-
 Convection Current does not involve conductors.
 Convection Current does not satisfy Ohm‟s Law.
 It occurs when current flows through an insulating medium such as
liquid, rarefied gas (or) a vaccum.
 A beam of electrons in a vaccum tube is example for convection
current.
 Consider a filament of shown in fig. If there is a flow of charge, of
density  V at velocity  , then the current from the filament is

Q
 I 
t
 . V l
I  V  V .S.
t t
I  V .S.
I
The current density J =   V .
S
J = V .
The current I is the convection current and J is the convection current
density in ampere/square meter.

-: Conduction Current:-

 Conduction current requires a conductor.

 A conductor is characterized by a large amount of free electrons that
provide conduction current due to an impressed electric field.
 When an electric field E is applied, the force on an electron with
charge –e is
F = -eE  (1)
 If the electron with mass „m‟ is moving in an electric field E with an
average drift velocity  . Then from Newton‟s Law, the average change in
momentum of the free electron must match the applied force (ma=-eE).
m
 Thus  eE
t
et
or  =  E  (2)
m
Where t is the average time interval between collisions.
 If there are n electrons per unit volume, the electronic charge density
is given by
V  ne  (3)
 Thus the conduction current density is
 et
J = V   ne E
m
ne² t
J= E
m
Point of Ohm‟s law J = E
ne² t
Where   is the conductivity of the conductor.
m
Note:-
 A perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic field with in it.
Under static conditions,
E = 0, V  0 , Vab = 0 inside a conductor.
 Suppose the conductor has a uniform cross section „S‟ and is of length
„l‟. Then the electric field applied is uniform and its magnitude is given
by
E = I/S
Since the conductor has uniform cross section
 J = I/S
But J = E
I V
J=  E  
S l
V l
 
I S
l
R=
S
 C .l
R=
S
 C is the resistivity of the material
1
C =

 -: Linear, Isotropic and Homogeneous dielectrics:-
 Linear: - A material is said to be Linear if „D‟ varies linearly with „E‟
and non Linear other wise.

 Isotropic: - Materials for which D and E are in the same direction are
said to be „isotropic‟. i.e., isotropic di-electrics are those which have the
same properties in all directions.

 Homogeneous: - Materials for which (or ) does not vary in the

region being considered and is therefore the same at all points are said to
be “homogeneous”. They are said to be inhomogeneous when  is
dependent of the space co-ordinates.

“A dielectric material is Linear if  does not change with the

applied E field, homogeneous if  does not change from point to point
and isotropic if  does not change with directions.”

-: Continuity Equation:-
 Due to the principle of charge conservation, the time rate of decrease
of charge within a given volume must be equal to the net outward current
flow through the closed surface of the volume.
dQin
i.e., Iout =  J.ds    (1)
dt
Qin is the total charge enclosed by the closed surface.
 Applying divergence theorem to the above equation
 J.ds   (.J)dv  (2)
S V

dQin d
     V dv
dt dt V
dQin d 
    V dv  (3)
dt dt V  t
 Substituting (2) and (3) in eqn.(1)

V (.J)dv  V  tV .dv

.J   V
t
which is called the continuity of current equation.
  V
 For steady currents,  0 and hence .J  0 showing that the total
t
charge leaving a volume is the same as the total charge entering it.

-: Relaxation Time:-
 From Ohm‟s Law J = E  (1)
 From Gauss‟s Law .D  V

.E  V  (2)


 .E  V


.J  V  (3)

V
 From continuity equation .J    (4)

 By equating equations (3) & (4) we get
 
 V  V
t 
V 
 V  0  (5)
t 
 The above equation is a Linear, homogeneous differential equation.
By separating variables
V 
  V
t 
V 
  t
v 
 Integrating the above eqn. on both sides

ln  V =  t  ln V0

where ln V0 is a constant of integration
V 
Thus ln e = t
 V0 

 t
V   V0 . e 

V  V0 . e  t/tr
Where

Tr 

The time constant Tr is known as the relaxation time (or) rearrangement
time.
 “Relaxation time is the time it takes a charge placed in the interior
of a material to drop to 36.8 percent of its initial value”.

-: Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations:-

 Poisson‟s and Laplace‟s equations are easily lderived from Gauss‟s
Law.
.D  V
.  E  V  (1)  D  E
 E =  V  (2)
Substituting eqn (2) in (1)
.(  V)  V  (3)
 For a homogeneous medium the above eqn becomes as
 V
² V   (4)

This is known as “Poisson‟s equation”.
 When V  0 (i.e., for a charge – free region)
The above equation becomes
²V  0  (5)
which is known as “Laplace‟s equation”.
 The Laplace‟s equation in Cartesian, cylindrical, (or) spherical co-
ordinates respectively is given by
²v ²v ²v
  0
x ² y² z ²
1    v  1 ²v ²v
    0
     ² ² z ²
1   v 1   v  1 ²v
  r²   sin    0
r ² r  r  r ² sin      r ² sin ² ²

 Laplace‟s and Poisson‟s equations are useful in solving electrostatic

field problems.
 -: Capacitance:-
 To have a Capacitor we must have two (or more) conductors carrying
equal but opposite charges.
 This implies that all the flux Lines leaving one conductor must
necessarily terminate at the surface of the other conductor.
 The conductors are some times referred to as the plates of the
capacitor.
 The plates may be separated by free space (or) a dielectric.
 The capacitance „c‟ of the capacitor as the ratio of the magnitude of
the charge on one of the plates to the potential difference between them
that is
Q
C=
V

C=  D.ds
 E.dl
 The negative sign before V   E.dl has been dropped because we are
interested in the absolute value of V.
 The capacitance C is a physical property of the capacitor and is
measured in farads.

A.Parallel – Plate Capacitor:-

 Consider the Parallel-plate Capacitor shown in fig. below that each of
the plates has an area S and they are separated by a distance d.
 We assume that plates l and 2, respectively, carry charges +Q and –Q
uniformly distributed on them so that
Q
S   (1)
S
 An ideal Parallel-plate Capacitor is one in which the plate
separation„d‟ is very small compared with the dimensions of the plate.
 If the space between the plates is filled with a homogeneous di-
electric with permitivity „  ‟ is given by
S
E (i z )

Q
E =  i z  (2)
S
 Hence,
1
V =   E.dl
2

Q 
V =   
d
i z .dz iz
0
S 
 Q S
V= =  (4)
V d
 The energy stored in a capacitor is given by
1
WE   (D.E)dv
2
1
WE    E ²)dv
2
1 Q²
WE    dv
2  ²S²
 Q²
WE  .s.d
2  ²S²
Q²  d  1 Q ² 1
WE   = = VQ
2 S  2 C 2
1 1 Q²
WE  CV ²  QV 
2 2 2C

B. Coaxial Capacitor:-
 Consider Length „L‟ of two coaxial conductors of inner radius „a‟ and
outer radius „b‟ (b > a) as shown in fig. below.

 Let the space between the conductors be filled with a homogeneous

dielectric with permittivity .
 We assume that conductors (1) and (2) respectively carry +Q and –Q
uniformly distributed on them.
 By applying Gauss‟s Law to an arbitrary Gaussian cylindrical surface
of radius 
(a<  <b), we obtain
Q   E.ds
Q =   E i  d  d z i
S

Q =  E . L
 Q
E 
2   L
Hence
Q
E=
2 0  L
 Neglecting flux fringing at the cylinder ends,
2
V =   E.dl
1
Q
V=  i  .d. i 
2 0  L

V= 
Q
ln ab
2 0 L

V=
Q
ln b  ln a 
2 0 L
Q b
V= ln  
2 0 L  a 
 Thus the capacitance of a coaxial cylinder is given by
Q
C=
V
Q
C=
Q b
ln  
2 0 L  a 

C. Spherical Capacitor:-
 Consider two concentric spherical conductors with the inner sphere of
radius „a‟ and outer sphere of radius b (b>a) separated by a dielectric
medium with permittivity  as shown in fig. below.

 Assume charges +Q and –Q on the inner and outer spheres

respectively.
 By applying Gauss‟s Law to an arbitrary Gaussian spherical surface of
radius r (a < r < b) is given by
 Q =  Q.ds
Q =   E.ds
S

Q =  E r .4 r ²
Q
Er =
4  r ²
Q
Hence E= .i r  (1)
4  r ²
 The potential difference between the conductors is
1 a
Q
V =   E.dl =   ir.drir
2 b
4 r ²
Q 1 1 
V= 
4   a b 
 Thus the capacitance of the spherical capacitor is
Q
C=
V
Q
C=
Q 1 1 

4   a b 
4 
C=
1 1 
 a  b 
 By letting b   , C  4  a , which is the capacitance of a spherical
capacitor whose outer plate is infinitely large.

 The expressions for finding the resistance R and the capacitance C of

an electrical system are

R
V

 E.dl
I  E.ds

Q   E.ds
C 
V  E.dl
 The product of these expressions yield‟s

RC =

Which is the relaxation time Tr of the medium separating the
conductors.
 For a parallel-plate capacitor,
S d
C R=
d S
 For a cylindrical capacitor,
 2  L ln b / a
C R=
ln b/a 2 L
 For a spherical capacitor,
1 1

4 
C= R= a b
1 1
 4
a b
 For isolated spherical capacitor,
1
C = 4  a R =
4 a
 EM WAVES & TRANSMISSION LINES
Question Bank on UNIT-I
ELECTROSTATICS

1. State the coulomb‟s law in SI units and indicate the parameters

used in the equations with aid of a diagram.
2. A charge Q1 is at point (0, -1, 0) m. Another charge Q2 is the point
(0, 2, 0) m. Find the ratio Q2/Q1 resulting in zero force on a test charge
at the origin. Q1, Q2 and the test charge are all of the same sign.
3. Point charges Q1 and Q2 are respectively located at (4, 0, -3) and
(2, 0, 1). If Q2 = 4nc, find Q1 such that:
a) The E at (5, 0, 6) has no Z-component
b) The force on a test charge at (5, 0, 6) has no X-
component.
4. Define and distinguish between the lterms Electric field, Electric
Displacement and Electric flux density with necessary
mathematical.
5. A point charge of 300 µC is located at point (1,2,1)m. Find the
force on another point charge of 30 µC at the point (3,0,0)m and
also calculate the electric field at (3,0,0)m.
6. Explain Line, Surface and Volume charge distributions.
7. A circular lring of radius „a‟ carries luniform charge c / m and is in
the xy-plane. Find the electri8c field at point (0, 0, 2) along its axis.
8. A circular disk of radius „a‟ carries uniformly charged with S c/m ²
and is z=0 plane. Find the electric field at the point (0, 0, h) along
its axis.
9. State Gauss‟s law using divergence theorem and relate the
displacement density D to the volume charge density.
10. A sphere of radius „a‟ is filled with a uniform charge
density V C/m ³ . Determine the electric field inside and out side the
sphere.
11. In free space D = 2y²ix + 4xyiy – iz mc/m² find the total charges
stored in the region. 1 < x < 2, 1 < y < 2, -1 < z < 4.
12. Obtain the expression for the field and potential due to an infinite
line charge at any radial distance.
13. What is the potential function at point P due to point charges Q1
and Q2 at distances r1 and r2 respectively and a line charge of
density L c/m whose elemental charge  L .dl is assumed to be at
distance r3 from  .
14. A uniform line of length 2m with total change 3nc is situated
coincident of the Z-axis with its center point 2m fdrom the origin.
At a point on the x – axis, 2m from the origin, find V and E.
15. A point change of 3nc is on the Z-axis, 2m away from the origin.
Find the resultant V, E at a point on the X-axis 2m away from the
origin.
16. A line change L  400  c/m lies along the x-axis. The surface of 3nc
potential passes through the point (0, 5, 12) m, find the potential at
point (2, 3, -4) m.
17. A point change of 15nc is situated at the original at the origin and
another point change of -12nc is located at the point (3, 3, 3) m
find E and V at the point (0,-3,-3).

18. A point change Q=222PC exists at the origin of a rectangular co-

ordinate system in vacuum. Two points a and b are located at radial
distance of 400 mm and 100 mm from Q along X-axis and y-axis
 respectively. Find the potential difference b/w points a and b. Also
the absolute potentials at a and b.
19. Obtain the expressions for the far field and potential due to a small
electric dipole oriented along the Z-axis.
20. What are equipotential surfaces? Give two examples of these?
21. Establish Poisson‟s and Laplace equations from Gauss‟s law.
22. Explain i) Homogeneous and ii) Isotropic medium
23. Derive the expression for the electro-static energy stored in a
capacitor of value C in terms of tahe total charge Q as well as the
voltage V.
24. Consider two thin infinitely long concentric conducting cylinders
with inner cyulinder of radius „a‟ and outer cylinder of radius „b‟.
Derive the expression for its capacitance with air as di-electric
assuming required charge distribution.

END