SENSORS

Definition: A sensor may be defined as a device to convert an input of physical quantity

into a functionally related output usually in the form of an electrical or optical signal that
can be read or detected either by human users or by electronic instruments.
Sensors and their associated interface are used to detect and measure different physical
and chemical properties of compounds including temperature, pH, force, odor, and
pressure, the presence of special chemicals, flow, position, and light intensity etc.
A sensor is mainly characterized as one that (1) is solely sensitive to the chemical
or physical quantity to be measured, whereas it is insensitive to all other parameters
likely to be encountered in its application and (2) while in operation, does not influence
the properties of the input chemical and/or physical quantities. The sensitivity of a sensor
indicates the degree of variation of the output relative to the change in the measured
chemical or physical property. Selection of a sensor should be based on such essential
features as its selectivity, sensitivity, accuracy, calibration range, resolution, cost-
effectiveness, and repeatability as well as the prevailing environmental conditions.

Fig.1: Block diagram of sensor

Classification of Sensors
Depending on the properties of the substance or analyte to be measured, sensors may
be broadly classified into physical and chemical types, with the physical one referring to
the device detecting and/or measuring such physical responses as temperature,
pressure, magnetic field, force, absorbance, refractive index, conductivity, and mass
change. Moreover, the devices do not have any chemical interface. A chemical sensor
has a chemically selective layer that responds selectively to a special analyte. It deals
specifically with the chemical information obtained from the chemical reaction of the
analyte or a physical property of the system being probed. Such information may include
the concentration of a specific component or the analysis of a total composition, which
is then transformed into such signals of analytical use as conductance change, light,
voltage, current, or sound.

Sensors can be broadly classified based on their application, the phenomenon they
detect, or the method they use for detection. Below is an overview of the primary classes
of sensors with some examples, especially focusing on chemical sensors and
electrochemical sensors.

1. Physical Sensors (Sensors measuring physical properties): Physical sensors are

devices that measure and respond to specific physical conditions or changes in the
environment. These include variables such as temperature, pressure, motion, and light
etc. They convert these physical inputs into measurable electrical signals that can be
analysed and used for various applications, ranging from everyday electronics to
complex industrial systems. Physical sensors are essential for automation, monitoring,
and controlling physical processes efficiently and accurately.
• Temperature Sensors: Thermocouples, thermistors
• Pressure Sensors: Barometers, piezoelectric sensors
• Mechanical Sensors: Strain gauges, accelerometers
• Optical Sensors: Photodiodes, CCD sensors
• Magnetic Sensors: Hall effect sensors, fluxgate sensors

2. Chemical Sensors: Chemical sensors detect and measure chemical quantities and
convert them into electrical signals. They are essential in various applications, ranging
from industrial manufacturing to environmental monitoring and healthcare.
• Biosensors: sensors that combine a biological recognition element (such as
enzymes, antibodies, or nucleic acids) with a transducer to convert a biological
response into a measurable signal. Biosensors are widely used in healthcare for
diagnostics, monitoring, and therapeutics. Examples: glucose biosensors, DNA
biosensor
 • Gas Sensors: Used to detect and measure concentrations of various gases in the
environment or industrial settings. Common examples include carbon monoxide
detectors and ozone monitors.
• Electrochemical Sensors: These sensors operate based on the measurement of
electrical properties (such as current, voltage, or resistance) that change in
response to a chemical reaction at the sensor’s surface.
• pH Sensors: Used for measuring the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Redox Sensors: detect changes in oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, often using a
redox-active molecule as the sensing element.Chemical sensors
Chemical sensors are gaining a leading position among the presently commercially
available ones with a wide array of clinical, industrial, environmental, and agricultural
applications.
“A chemical sensor is a device that transforms chemical information, ranging from
concentration of a specific sample component to total composition analysis, into an
analytically useful signal” (Defined by IUPAC in 1991). This is rather general. Thus, many
pragmatic descriptions exist in the literature. Consider the following definition by
Wolfbeis (1990): “Chemical sensors are small-sized devices comprising a recognition
element, a transduction element, and a signal processor capable of continuously and
reversibly reporting a chemical concentration”.

Chemical sensors are devices or instruments that determine the detectable presence,
concentration, or quantity of specific chemical substances (analytes). Applications of
chemical sensors include monitoring manufacturing processes, environmental sensing,
and health monitoring. Direct-reading selective sensors, such as electrochemical
sensors, detect species in the gas or liquid phase. They achieve molecular selectivity
through interaction at the sensor-sample interface. This selectivity depends on
recognition of the size, shape, or dipolar properties of the analyte by molecular films,
phases, or "receptor sites," with resultant selective binding, absorption, or permeation of
the analyte. Selectivity of direct-reading chemical sensors can be enhanced through the
development of analyte-specific films, membranes, and coatings. Miniaturization of
these sensor systems could lead to compact, lightweight, portable monitoring systems.
As an alternative, analyte selectivity can be addressed by using sensors that incorporate
preliminary sample separation steps, such as chromatography and electrophoresis.
Conventional analytical chemistry methods, such as mass spectroscopy, may then be
used if the analysis can be performed fast enough and the equipment is significantly
compact and inexpensive. Miniaturized and integrated platforms that incorporate both
separation and detection systems would be preferable.
Chemical sensors usually contain two basic components connected in series: a
chemical (molecular) recognition system (receptor) and a physicochemical transducer.
In other documents, additional elements are considered to be necessary, in particular
units for signal amplification and for signal conditioning. A typical arrangement is
outlined in Fig. 1.

Fig 2: Scheme of a typical chemical sensor system.

Components of Chemical sensors

There are three components of biosensors which are as follows:
1) Chemical/Biological element: this component is used to bind the target molecule; it
should be highly specific and stable under the storage conditions and immobilized.
examples include chemical molecules, nucleic acid, microorganisms, enzyme
 component, antibody etc. Its purpose is to precisely interact with a target chemical,
such as the substance to be discovered. The foundation of a sensor is the capacity
of a element to interact selectively with a target chemical.
2) Transducer: it acts an interference and measures the physical changes that occurs
with the reaction performed at the receptor, after that transferring the energy into
measurable electrical output.
Detector: the signals from the transducer unit are passed to a microprocessor to amplify
and analyze them for further studies. This data is further converted to concentration units
and then transferred to a display device or data storage device. Biosensors
“Biosensors are chemical sensors in which the recognition system utilizes a
biochemical mechanism” (IUPAC 1999)”
Biosensors are analytical tools that combine biological detecting components like a
sensor system and a transducer. A biosensor is a self-sufficient integrated device that
uses a biological recognition element that is in direct spatial contact with a transduction
element to deliver qualitative or semi-quantitative analytical information. Biosensors
may be defined as analytical tools that identify changes in biological processes and
convert the biological information into an electrical signal. A Schematic diagram of
biosensor comprising three components: detector, transducer and output system is
given in Fig 3 and its applications are presented in Fig 4.

Fig. 3: Schematic diagram of biosensor comprising three components: detector,

transducer and output system.
 Fig.4: Applications of biosensor

Gas sensors
Gas sensors are devices that detect the presence of gases in the environment and
convert this information into an electrical signal. These sensors are used in various
industries and applications to monitor air quality, detect toxic or flammable gases, and
ensure safety. Illustrative example of Hydrogen gas sensor: Hydrogen observation is
important in a plethora of spheres ranging from everyday ones like detection of
environmental pollution or indication of certain diseases up to an early sign of fire or
reactor safety inside nuclear power plants. Hydrogen gas can be detected by several
types of gas sensors. Here are the principles and operation for the hydrogen gas sensors
using Catalytic Bead Sensors.Principle: Catalytic bead sensors operate on the principle
of catalytic combustion. The sensor contains a platinum wire coil coated with a catalyst,
typically palladium or platinum, which promotes the combustion of hydrogen gas.
Operation: When hydrogen gas comes into contact with the catalytic bead, it reacts with
the catalyst, causing the gas to oxidize and release heat. This change in heat causes a
change in the resistance of the platinum coil, which is measured and converted into a
gas concentration reading.

Applications of Gas Sensors: Gas sensors find a wide range of applications across
various industries and sectors. Some common applications include:
 i. Industrial Safety: Gas sensors are used in industries such as oil and gas, chemical
manufacturing, and mining to detect the presence of toxic and explosive gases
and prevent accidents.
ii. Environmental Monitoring: Gas sensors are used to monitor air quality and detect
pollutants in the environment. They are used in air quality monitoring stations,
vehicle emissions testing, and indoor air quality monitoring.
iii. Healthcare: Gas sensors are used in medical devices, such as anesthesia
machines, ventilators, and oxygen concentrators, to monitor the concentration of
gases and ensure patient safety.
iv. Fire Detection: Gas sensors are used in fire detection systems to detect the
presence of smoke and other combustion byproducts and activate alarms or
suppression systems.

Electrochemical Sensors
Electrochemical sensors are devices that detect the presence of specific gases or
chemical compounds through electrochemical reactions. Electrochemical sensors are
known for their high sensitivity, selectivity, and low power consumption, making them
ideal for a wide range of applications, including environmental monitoring, industrial
safety, and medical diagnostics.
Electrochemical sensors consist of three main components: a sensing electrode, a
reference electrode, and an electrolyte.

Fig.6: Schematic diagram of electrochemical sensors

Types of Electrochemical Sensors:

 a) Potentiometric Sensors: These sensors measure the potential difference between
a reference electrode and a working electrode. They are commonly used for pH
sensing and ion-selective measurements.
b) Amperometric Sensors: These sensors measure the current generated by the
oxidation or reduction of an analyte at the working electrode. They are widely used
for detecting gases, biomolecules, and pollutants.
c) Conductometric Sensors: These sensors measure changes in conductivity
resulting from the interaction between the analyte and the sensor surface. They
are suitable for detecting gases, ions, and volatile organic compounds.

Role of chemical sensors in environmental monitoring and medical diagnostics

Chemical sensors play a crucial role in both environmental monitoring and medical
diagnostics by detecting and quantifying specific chemical compounds in various
environments. Here are examples of their applications in each field:

Environmental Monitoring:
• Air Quality Monitoring: Chemical sensors can detect pollutants such as nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter
in the air. For example, electrochemical sensors can measure NO2 levels, which
is a common pollutant emitted from vehicles and industrial processes. These
sensors help assess air quality and determine the effectiveness of pollution
control measures.
• Water Quality Monitoring: Sensors can detect contaminants in water bodies, such
as heavy metals, organic pollutants, and microbial contaminants. For instance,
ion-selective electrodes can detect the presence of heavy metals like lead and
mercury in water, helping to ensure safe drinking water and monitor the health of
aquatic ecosystems.
• Soil Monitoring: Chemical sensors can measure soil parameters such as pH,
moisture content, and nutrient levels. For example, nutrient sensors can detect
levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in soil, aiding in precision
 agriculture practices and preventing over-fertilization that can lead to
environmental damage.

Medical Diagnostics:
• Blood Glucose Monitoring: Diabetic patients use glucose sensors to monitor their
blood sugar levels. These sensors can provide real-time data, allowing patients to
adjust their diet or medication as needed to maintain stable glucose levels.
• Breath Analysis: Chemical sensors can analyze breath for specific compounds
indicative of various medical conditions. For example, breath sensors can detect
acetone levels, which can be elevated in individuals with diabetes, providing a
non-invasive method for monitoring blood glucose levels.
• Drug and Alcohol Testing: Sensors can be used for drug testing by detecting the
presence of specific drugs or their metabolites in saliva or breath samples.
Similarly, alcohol sensors can measure blood alcohol concentration, aiding in
monitoring alcohol consumption and enforcing sobriety laws.

Drawbacks or limitations of sensors

1. Interference: Sensors can be affected by interference from other environmental
factors, such as temperature, humidity, and electromagnetic fields. This
interference can lead to inaccurate readings.
2. Calibration: Sensors often require regular calibration to ensure accurate and
reliable operation. This can be time-consuming and may require specialized
equipment and expertise.
3. Drift: Over time, sensors may experience drift, where their readings become less
accurate. This can be caused by factors such as aging of the sensor components
or changes in the environment.
4. Cross-sensitivity: Some sensors may exhibit cross-sensitivity, where they respond
to more than one type of gas or stimulus. This can lead to false readings if not
properly accounted for.
5. Limited Lifespan: Sensors have a limited lifespan, after which they may need to be
replaced. This can result in additional costs and downtime.
6. Response Time: Some sensors may have a slow response time, particularly when
detecting low concentrations of a gas or when exposed to rapidly changing
conditions.
7. Cost: High-quality sensors can be expensive, particularly for specialized
applications or when high levels of accuracy are required.
8. Maintenance: Sensors may require regular maintenance, such as cleaning or
replacement of components, to ensure proper operation.