Chemical and Biological Materials

Unit 5-Chemical and Biosensors

B.Tech Sem I
Syllabus Unit: Chemical Sensors

Chemical and Biosensors: Introduction, types, components, Application in

environmental and bioprocess monitoring, fire detection and prevention,
gas sensors for storage, industrial emission control, biometric sensors,
security and defence, mobile devices, gaming and entertainment.
Sensors: Introduction
The sensor is an analyzer that responds to a particular analyte in a selective and reversible way
and transforms input chemical/biological quantity, ranging from the concentration of a specific
sample component to a total composition analysis, into an analytically electrical signal

Sensors

Chemical Bio-
Sensor Sensor
Chemical Sensors: Introduction
The chemical information may originate from a chemical reaction by a biomaterial, chemical
compound, or a combination of both attached onto the surface of a physical transducer toward
the analyte.

Although the history of chemical sensor dates back not long ago, it has gained increasing
attraction for applications in environmental monitoring, industrial process monitoring, gas
composition analysis, medicine, national defense and public security, and on-site emergency
disposal owing to its many excellent properties such as small size, satisfactory sensitivity, larger
dynamic range, low cost, and easy to realize automatic measurement and online or in situ and
continuous detection.
Chemical Sensors: Working principle
A chemical sensor is a device that measures and detects chemical qualities in an analyte (the
scientific term for a chemical substance being observed) and converts the sensed chemical data
into electronic data.
Chemical Sensors: Working principle
Chemical sensors usually contain two basic components connected in series: a chemical (molecular)
recognition system (receptor) and a physicochemical transducer.
In the majority of chemical sensors, the receptor interacts with analyte molecules. As a result, its physical
properties are changed in such a way that the appending transducer can gain an electrical signal.
Chemical Sensors: Components
• Receptor: The function of the receptor is fulfilled in many cases by a thin layer which is able to
interact with the analyte molecules, catalyze a reaction selectively, or participate in a chemical
equilibrium together with the analyte. The receptor layer can respond selectively to particular
substances or to a group of substances. The term molecular recognition is used to describe this
behavior.

• Transducer: Nowadays, signals are processed almost exclusively by means of electrical

instrumentation. Accordingly, every sensor should include a transducing function, i.e. the actual
concentration value, a non-electric quantity must be transformed into an electric quantity, voltage,
current or resistance. Some of them develop their sensor function only in combination with an
additional receptor layer. In other types, receptor operation is an inherent function of the transducer.
Chemical Sensors: Examples
• CO is a colorless and odorless compound produced by incomplete combustion. It is also known as
"silent killer" because it is virtually undetectable without using detection technology. Carbon
monoxide detectors trigger an alarm based on an accumulation of carbon monoxide over time.
Detectors may be based on a chemical reaction causing a color change, an electrochemical reaction that
produces current to trigger an alarm, or a semiconductor sensor that changes its electrical resistance in
the presence of CO.
Chemical Sensors: Examples
• Breathalyzer is a chemical sensor used to estimate BAC (blood alcohol content)
from a breath sample. Whenever people drink alcohol, then they breathe out some
quantity of alcohol molecules which is directly proportional to the quantity they
drink. So this sensor is designed particularly to measure the BAC of a person
frequently to decide whether they are driving a vehicle securely or not.
Chemical Sensors: Classification
Chemical Sensors: Classification
Biosensors:
Definition: Biosensors are analytical devices that combine biological components (such as enzymes,
antibodies, or DNA) with a physicochemical detector to convert a biological response into a measurable
signal.
These devices are used to detect specific biological molecules or compounds in various samples, including
blood, urine, food, environmental samples, and more.
Biosensors have a wide range of applications in fields such as healthcare, environmental monitoring, food
safety, and biotechnology.

Biosensors are used to analyze diverse chemicals quantitatively by turning their biological effects into
measurable signals.
Biosensors: Pictorial presentation

Figure 1. Schematic representation of a biosensor

Biosensors: Key Components
Recognition Element:
This is the biological component of the biosensor that interacts selectively with the target molecule, also
known as the analyte. Recognition elements can be antibodies, enzymes, DNA, RNA, or whole cells,
depending on the target.
Transducer: The transducer is responsible for converting the biological response (e.g., binding of the
analyte to the recognition element) into a quantifiable signal. Common transducer types include
electrochemical (e.g., amperometric or potentiometric), optical (e.g., fluorescence or absorbance), and
piezoelectric (e.g., quartz crystal microbalance) sensors.
Signal Processing System: Biosensors often include electronic components and software for processing and
amplifying the signal generated by the transducer. This allows for the accurate measurement and analysis of
the target molecule's concentration.
Biosensors: Key Components
Electronics: This is the part of a biosensor that processes the transduced signal and prepares it for display. It
consists of complex electronic circuitry that performs signal conditioning such as amplification and
conversion of signals from analogue into the digital form. The processed signals are then quantified by the
display unit of the biosensor.
Display: The display consists of a user interpretation system such as the liquid crystal display of a computer
or a direct printer that generates numbers or curves understandable by the user. This part often consists of a
combination of hardware and software that generates results of the biosensor in a user-friendly manner. The
output signal on the display can be numeric, graphic, tabular or an image, depending on the requirements of
the end user.
Example: Blood glucose monitors measure the amount of sugar in a sample of
blood using a complex chemical process. Within the test strip the blood is mixed
with glucose oxidase, which reacts with the glucose in the blood sample to create
Types of Biosensors on the basis of various Transducers
Types of Biosensors on the basis of various Transducers
• Electromechanical Biosensors
Electromechanical biosensors are based on the reaction of enzymatic catalysis that consumes or generates
electrons.

Electromechanical biosensors are classified into four types: amperometric, potentiometric, impedimetric,
and voltammetric.
Types of Biosensors on the basis of various Transducers
• Physical Biosensor
Types of Biosensors on the basis of various Transducers
Thermometric biosensors: The most common type of thermal biosensor is the calorimetric or themometric
biosensor, which measures the heat generated or absorbed by a biochemical reaction. These biosensors use a
thermistor, which is a temperature-sensitive resistor, to detect changes in temperature.

Piezoelectric biosensors: “Piezo” is Greek for “press” or “squeeze” so a piezoelectric sensor effectively
measures compression using the piezoelectric effect. A piezoelectric sensor converts physical parameters -
for example, acceleration, strain or pressure into an electrical charge which can then be measured.
Piezoelectric biosensors are analytical devices that use the piezoelectric effect to convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy to detect biomarkers for various diseases. They work by measuring changes in the
resonant frequency of a piezoelectric crystal, which is caused by mass changes on the crystal's surface.
These changes are often due to biochemical interactions, such as antibody-antigen reactions or DNA
fragments and their complementary sequences.
Types of Biosensors on the basis of various Transducers
• Others
Optical Biosensor
As the name implies, an optical biosensor is a device that uses an optical measurement principle. More often
than not, optical biosensors make use of fiber optics as well as optoelectronic transducers. Optical
biosensors are classified into two type’s namely direct optical detection biosensors and labeled optical
detection biosensors.
Wearable Biosensors
Wearable Biosensors is a digital device that is worn on the human body. Examples include smart watches,
smart shirts, blood pressure monitoring devices, heart monitoring devices, etc. Wearable biosensors are
almost commonplace thanks to smartwatches and fitness trackers. Everyday people are able to access and
improve their health thanks to wearable biosensors.
Types of Biosensors on the basis of various Bio-recognition element
Additional Biosensors Commonly Used
❖ Enzyme Biosensor
❖ DNA Biosensor
❖ Immunosensor
❖ Magnetic Biosensor

❖ Enzyme biosensors have been devised on immobilization methods, i.e. adsorption of enzymes by van
der Waals forces, ionic bonding or covalent bonding. The commonly used enzymes for this purpose are
oxidoreductases, polyphenol oxidases, peroxidases, and aminooxidases.
Types of Biosensors on the basis of various Bio-recognition element
The DNA biosensors were devised on the property that single-strand nucleic acid molecule is able to
recognize and bind to its complementary strand in a sample. The interaction is due to the formation of stable
hydrogen bonds between the two nucleic acid strands.

Immunosensors were established on the fact that antibodies have high affinity towards their respective
antigens, i.e. the antibodies specifically bind to pathogens or toxins, or interact with components of the
host's immune system.

Magnetic biosensors: miniaturized biosensors detecting magnetic micro- and nanoparticles in microfluidic
channels using the magnetoresistance effect have great potential in terms of sensitivity and size.
Biosensors: Characteristics
Characteristics of a biosensor There are certain static and dynamic attributes that every biosensor
possesses. The optimization of these properties is reflected on the performance of the biosensor.

Selectivity: Selectivity is perhaps the most important feature of a biosensor. Selectivity is the ability of a
bioreceptor to detect a specific analyte in a sample containing other admixtures and contaminants.

The best example of selectivity is depicted by the interaction of an antigen with the antibody. Classically,
antibodies act as bio-receptors and are immobilized on the surface of the transducer. To construct a
biosensor, selectivity is the main consideration when choosing bio receptors.
Biosensors: Characteristics
Reproducibility: Reproducibility is the ability of the biosensor to generate identical
responses for a duplicated experimental set-up. The reproducibility is characterized by the
precision and accuracy of the transducer and electronics in a biosensor.

Precision is the ability of the sensor to provide alike results every time a sample is measured
and accuracy indicates the sensor’s capacity to provide a mean value close to the true value
when a sample is measured more than once.
Biosensors: Characteristics
Sensitivity: The minimum amount of analyte that can be detected by a biosensor defines its
limit of detection (LOD) or sensitivity. In a number of medical and environmental monitoring
applications, a biosensor is required to detect analyte concentration of as low as ng/ml or even
fg/ml to confirm the presence of traces of analytes in a sample.
Biosensors: Characteristics
Stability: Stability is the degree of susceptibility to ambient disturbances in and around the biosensing
system. These disturbances can cause a drift in the output signals of a biosensor under measurement. This
can cause an error in the measured concentration and can affect the precision and accuracy of the
biosensor.

Stability is the most crucial feature in applications where a biosensor requires long incubation steps or
continuous monitoring. The response of transducers and electronics can be temperature-sensitive, which
may influence the stability of a biosensor.Therefore, appropriate tuning of electronics is required to ensure
a stable response of the sensor.
Biosensors: Applications
Medical Diagnostics: Biosensors are used in medical devices to detect biomarkers associated with diseases, such
as glucose monitors for diabetes, pregnancy tests, and cardiac biomarker assays.

Environmental Monitoring: Biosensors can detect pollutants, pathogens, and other contaminants in air, water,
and soil, helping to monitor and manage environmental quality.

Food Safety: Biosensors are employed in the food industry to detect foodborne pathogens, allergens, and
contaminants, ensuring the safety of food products.

Biotechnology: Biosensors play a crucial role in biotechnology applications, such as monitoring fermentation
processes, detecting specific DNA sequences, and studying protein-protein interactions.

Drug Discovery: Biosensors are used in drug development to screen compounds for their biological activity and
study the interactions between drugs and their target molecules.

Defense and Security: Biosensors can be used in security and defense applications to detect chemical and
biological threats, including explosives and toxins.

Wearable Health Monitors: Miniaturized biosensors are integrated into wearable devices, allowing individuals
to monitor their health in real-time, track fitness parameters, and manage chronic conditions.
Sensors: Applications
Chemical sensors
Applications: Chemical Sensors for Environmental Monitoring

Air Quality Monitoring

• Chemical sensors can detect and quantify various chemical compounds and physical
parameters in the environment, providing crucial data for informed decision making and
regulatory action.
• Chemical sensors are extensively employed to monitor air quality in urban areas, industrial
zones, and indoor environments.
• They detect pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide
(SO2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and carbon dioxide (CO2).
• These sensors provide real-time data that informs air quality management and helps reduce
health risks associated with poor air quality
Applications: Chemical Sensors for Environmental Monitoring
• There are five types most suitable and widely used low-cost portable gas sensors, namely:
• Electrochemical Sensors
• Catalytic Sensors
• Solid-state (Semiconductor) Sensors
• Non-dispersive Infrared Radiation Absorption (NDIR)
• Photo-ionization Detector (PID) Sensors
Applications: Chemical Sensors for Environmental Monitoring
Applications: Chemical Sensors for Environmental Monitoring

• All of these sensors are low cost, light weight (less than one hundred grams) and with fast response
time (in tenths seconds or few minutes).
• However, no single type of sensors is able to measure all the hazard gases (hundreds of hazard gases
have been identified).
• CO: Can be well detected by solid-state and electrochemical sensors.
• NO2 : Can be well detected by solid-state and electrochemical sensors. Need to consider the
interference gas O3. Proper methods can be applied to reduce the interference.
• O3 : Can be well detected by solid-state and electrochemical sensors. Need to consider the interference
gas NO2. Proper methods can be applied to reduce the interference.
• SO2: Can only be well detected by solid-state and electrochemical sensors. It poisons the catalytic
sensors. The sensitivity of NDIR sensors is not high enough.
Applications: Chemical Sensors for Environmental Monitoring

Water quality assessment:

• Ensuring the safety and quality of drinking water sources is a critical environmental
concern. Chemical sensors are used to detect contaminants like heavy metals, pathogens,
pesticides, and industrial pollutants in water bodies. This monitoring is essential for
safeguarding public health and maintaining ecosystem balance.
Soil monitoring:
• Soil quality affects agriculture, ecosystem health, and groundwater contamination.
Chemical sensors can measure soil parameters such as pH, moisture content, nutrient levels,
and the presence of harmful substances like heavy metals. This data aids in optimizing
agricultural practices and identifying contaminated areas.
Applications: Chemical Sensors for Environmental Monitoring

Industrial emissions control:

• Industries use chemical sensors to comply with emissions regulations and minimize
their environmental impact. These sensors monitor emissions of pollutants like sulfur
compounds, volatile organic compounds, and greenhouse gases. Timely data allows
industries to adjust processes and reduce their emissions.
Hazardous waste management:
• Chemical sensors are integral in identifying and managing hazardous waste materials.
They assist in the detection and quantification of toxic substances, ensuring proper
disposal and minimizing environmental contamination risks.
Applications: Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring
Environmental Monitoring
One of the major application of Biosensor is in the field of Environmental Pollution
Monitoring. Especially, water pollution monitoring is an area where Biosensors have
substantial advantage. There are number of pollutants that are contaminating ground water and
as a result the quality drinking water is getting worse.
Biosensors with sensing elements for nitrates and phosphates are becoming common for
battling water pollutants.
Another important application is for the military to detect chemicals and hazardous biological
specimens that can be used a bio-weapons.
Applications: Biosensors for Bioprocess Monitoring
Bioprocess Monitoring
Biosensors play a vital role in bioprocess monitoring by providing real-time and accurate information
about various process parameters. Their applications are widespread in the field of biotechnology and
bioprocessing, ensuring the efficient production of bio-based products.
Fermentation Monitoring
Nutrient Monitoring
Toxicity Assessment
Enzyme Activity Measurement
Bioreactor Cleaning and Sterilization
Process Optimization
Applications: Chemical sensors for fire detection and prevention

• The key five detecting methods comprise of heat, gas, flame, smoke, and graphene oxide (GO) based
sensing.
• Among different gas sensing technologies, gas sensors based on semiconductor metal oxides have been
useful in practice due to their great sensibility, small size and reduced cost.
• Currently, research is also underway in the field of carbon nanotube-based gas sensing for fire
detection.
• Microwave radiometer-based fire sensing is one of the most important contemporary approaches due to
its key benefit of fire detection across barriers such as walls.
• For fire detection, the multisensor fusion method based on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and the
Internet of Things (IoT) is suitable.
• The new emerging technique of graphene oxide (GO) based sensing has shown an outstanding short
response time.
Applications: Chemical sensors for fire detection and prevention
Applications: Chemical sensors for fire detection and prevention

• Heat sensors are used to measure the ambient heat in a residence because of the occurrence of fires.
• Gases are emitted at every stage of combustion, and unique gas characteristics can be used to reliably
detect fires.
• The density of CO, CO2, H2, O2, and smoke produced by wood fire, cotton fire, plastic fire, liquid n-
heptane and spirit fires has been studied and it has been noted that the chemical composition of smoke
from various types of fires varies radically, according to their source.
• CO is the best of the four warning gases, appearing in all six types of fires.
• CO fire sensors that work at room temperature, require a low-power source in comparison to traditional
detectors and can protect against smoldering fire, including the combustion of organic materials in
which substantial amounts of carbon dioxide are emitted early in the combustion process.
Applications: Chemical sensors for fire detection and prevention

• Flame is the visible part of fire, which is caused by the exothermic reaction between fuel and oxidant.
• The flame temperature depends on the material being burned. It has both features of flame that are
color (chromatic properties) and radiation.
• Centered on non-visual and visual techniques, there are two methods of flame detection. The non-
visual technology is based on flame radiation, while the visual technology is based on the color of the
flame.
• The ultraviolet, visible, and infrared sensors are available for flame sensing and categorized on the
basis of their spectrum.
• In order to minimize the cost, a surveillance camera can be used instead of a dedicated fire detection
camera.
• The two types of cameras utilized for flame detecting are IR and visible cameras.
Applications: Chemical sensors for fire detection and prevention

• In the initial phases of fire, quick smoke detection will increase the likelihood of effective fire
suppression, successful firefighting, escape, and survival.
• Smoke mass concentration, volume fraction, and size dissemination are known as primary smoke
detection parameters.
• Smoke detectors must be able to respond to combustion and the smoke generated by flaming because
there are significant differences in the structure and composition of the smoke generated by these fires.
• Fire creates smoke during combustion, which is a collection of solid particles, liquid particles, and
gases in the air. It is created by material combustion and also reduces the air quality in the
environment.
• Each sensor is ideal for a specific variable to be sensed, nevertheless, it is also vulnerable to a slew of
other factors that can act as disturbance or noise signals.
Gas sensors
Another way to categorize the chemical sensors is based on the object to be detected, that is, the
chemical sensors can be classified as gas sensors for trace gas analysis and monitoring, various
ion sensors represented by the pH sensor, humidity sensor, and biosensors made by biological
characteristics.

It is well known that the environment monitoring is the major application field of the chemical
sensor, therein, the gas sensor plays a pivotal role.

The key performance indicators of the gas sensor include sensitivity, selectivity, and stability,
which are determined mainly by the characteristics of the sensing material and mechanism.
Gas sensors
Generally speaking, the gas sensor is categorized mainly by its working principle as a
semiconductor type, an electrochemical type, a solid electrolyte type, a contact combustion type,
a photochemical type, and a polymer type.

Semiconductor gas sensor

Semiconductor gas sensor is a sensitive element made by metal oxides or metal semiconductor oxide
materials. As regards the electrical conductivity sensors, the resistance of their active sensing layer changes
due to contact with the gas to be detected.
Since the first semiconductor metal-oxide-ceramic gas sensor was reported in 1962, the semiconductor gas
sensors have become the most comprehensive and widely used gas sensors.
Gas sensors
Electrochemical gas sensor
The electrochemical gas sensor can be categorized into galvanic cell type, controlled potential electrolysis
type, coulometric type, and ion-selective electrode type. The galvanic cell gas sensor evaluates the target gas
composition by measuring the shift in current.
The controlled potential electrolysis gas sensor senses the target gas by measuring the electrolytic current and
is different from the galvanic cell sensor, and a specific voltage should be imposed externally.
Furthermore, the oxygen in blood can also be detected in addition to CO, NO, NO2, and SO2.
Gas sensors
Contact combustion gas sensor
The contact combustion gas sensor includes direct contact sensor with the combustion and catalysis
combustion sensor.
Its working principle is that oxidative combustion of the combustible gas occurs directly or by using catalysts
in the energized state, accordingly, the burning gas sensitive material (Pt wire) is heated up, resulting in the
shift in the resistance value.

By evaluating the resistance shift, the gas concentration can be extracted. Sometimes, such a sensor is called
a thermal conductivity sensor, which is widely used for sensing combustible gas in petroleum chemical plant,
shipyards, mine tunnels, kitchens, and bathrooms.
Gas sensors
Optical gas sensor
Optical gas sensors include infrared absorption sensors, spectrum absorptive sensors, fluorescence sensors,
and fiber sensors, in which, the infrared absorption sensor is the most widely used for sensing gas by
measuring and analyzing the infrared absorption peak from various gas adsorption.
Such a sensor has a lot of outstanding advantages of excellent antivibration and antipollution ability,
autocorrection, and possibility of continuous and longer dynamic monitoring.

Polymer gas sensor

The polymer gas sensitive materials have grown enormously in the past several years, which plays an
important role in sensing trace poisonous gas because of its easy operation, simple process, good selectivity
at normal temperature, low price.
Applications: Gas sensors for storage
• In past decades, numerous sensors that detect various chemical information have been widely
developed including temperature sensors, humidity sensors, chemical and biological sensors.
• These well-developed sensors show the advantages of thinness, a small volume, light weight, and
flexibility, and provide promising platforms for flexible and portable intelligent sensing systems.
• However, they still need an external power supply, which greatly limits their practical application.
• To solve the above problem, self-powered sensing systems without external power supplies, including
energy-harvester-integrated systems and energy-storage-device-integrated systems, are regarded
as effective methods.
• Sensing systems integrated with energy-storage devices can greatly avoid the requirement for an
external source of energy and will work directly and effectively.
Applications: Gas sensors for energy storage
Electrochemical energy storage, as an important technology
to help new energy to grow, its safety issues have become the
focus of common concern in the industry. Five gases suitable
for early detection of battery thermal runaway are mainly
taken into account, including hydrogen (H2), carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), ethylene (C2H4), and
methane (CH4).

1. Based on the thermal runaway mechanism of lithium

phosphate batteries, thermal runaway will precipitate
combustible gases such as H2, CO, and alkanes. Installing
combustible gas detectors in the battery has gradually
become a requirement of international standards.
2. A major issue with lead acid batteries is they produce
hydrogen gas which is explosive at 4% by volume in air.
This is where the use of a hydrogen gas detector is
required.
Applications: Sensors for industrial emission control
• To prevent or minimize the damage caused by industrial emissions, monitoring and controlling systems
are needed that can rapidly and reliably detect and quantify pollution sources within the range of the
regulating standard values.
• A gas sensor that is compact, robust, with versatile applications and a low cost, can be used as an
effective technology for emission control.
• There are several solid-state gas sensors currently available for gases such as O2, H2O, and LNG at
relatively high concentrations.
• However, the range of air pollutant concentrations that can be detected only reaches as low as ppm in
combustion exhaust control or indoor monitoring and ppb in atmospheric environmental monitoring.
• Therefore, the development of more sensitive and selective gas sensors than the above conventional
sensors is still required.
Applications: Sensors for industrial emission control
Applications: Sensors for industrial emission control
• Gas sensors for detecting air pollutants must be able to operate stably under deleterious conditions,
including chemical and/or thermal attack.
• Therefore, solid-state gas sensors would appear to be the most appropriate in terms of their practical
robustness.
• Even though there are many kinds of solid-state gas sensors; only solid electrolyte, semiconductor, and
nondispersive infrared absorption types are normally utilized.
• Semiconductor gas sensors are widely used for detecting inflammable gases and certain toxic gases in
air.
• The adsorption or reaction of a gas on the surface of the semi-conducting material induces a change in
the density of the conducting electrons in the polycrystalline sensor element triggering a series of
reactions which eventually detects the gaseous emissions.
Applications: Sensors for industrial emission control
• The use of infrared for atmospheric environmental measuring, especially for monitoring exhaust gas, is
focused on selective and reliable gas detection.
• Since a NASICON solid-electrolyte potentiometric gas sensor using alkali metal carbonate as an
auxiliary phase solid electrolyte is known to be sensitive to CO2, a lot of recent research has focused on
the development of compact NASICON sensors.
• This type of solid electrolyte sensor can be used for the detection of NOx or SOx.
• Among the various existing NO sensors, semiconducting oxides and solid electrolytes would appear to
be the best.
Applications: Biometric Sensors
Biometric Sensors
Biosensors are integral components in biometric sensors, which are devices used to measure and analyze
unique biological or behavioral characteristics of individuals. These characteristics include fingerprints,
facial features, iris patterns, voice, and even DNA.
Fingerprint Recognition:
Capacitive Biosensors: Capacitive biosensors integrated into fingerprint sensors enhance the accuracy of
fingerprint recognition systems. They detect the unique electrical properties of the skin and ridges,
improving security.
Facial Recognition:
Thermal Biosensors: Thermal biosensors can detect subtle temperature differences on the skin, aiding in
facial recognition systems, especially for liveness detection to prevent spoofing attacks.
Applications: Biometric Sensors
Iris Recognition:
Infrared Biosensors: Infrared biosensors can capture the unique patterns in the iris, ensuring accurate
identification even in low-light conditions. These sensors enhance the security of iris recognition systems.

DNA and Genetic Recognition:

DNA Biosensors: DNA biosensors are used in genetic identification systems, enabling precise DNA
analysis for forensic purposes, paternity testing, and medical diagnostics.

Voice Recognition:
Acoustic Biosensors: Acoustic biosensors can analyze specific vocal characteristics, making them useful
in voice recognition systems for authentication purposes.
Applications: Security & Defense
Security & Defense
Biosensors have a wide range of applications in security and defense due to their ability to detect specific
biological and chemical substances with high sensitivity and specificity.
Biological and Chemical Warfare Agents Detection:
Rapid Identification: Biosensors can quickly identify biological and chemical warfare agents, such as
anthrax, ricin, and nerve agents, allowing for immediate response and mitigation.
Explosives Detection:
Trace Explosives Detection: Biosensors can detect trace amounts of explosives and their precursors,
enhancing security in airports, public places, and military facilities.
Biological Threat Detection:
Early Warning Systems: Biosensors are used in early warning systems to detect biological threats, such as
pathogens and toxins, in air and water supplies, preventing bioterrorism incident
Applications: Security & Defense
Border Security:
Contraband Detection: Biosensors can be used to detect illegal substances, drugs, and explosives at border
crossings, enhancing security and preventing smuggling.
Biometric Security:
Authentication: Biosensors can be integrated into biometric security systems, using unique biological
markers like fingerprints or DNA for secure access control.
Forensic Analysis:
Identification of Biological Samples: Biosensors are utilized in forensic laboratories to identify biological
samples, aiding in criminal investigations and ensuring accuracy in forensic analysis.
Surveillance and Intelligence:
Monitoring Airborne Pathogens: Biosensors can monitor the air for airborne pathogens, providing valuable
intelligence for military and security operations.
Applications: Mobile devices and wearables
Applications: Mobile devices and wearables
Applications: Mobile devices and wearables
• Wireless chemical sensors have been developed as a result of advances in chemical and bio-sensing
and wireless communication technology.
• Because of their mobility and widespread availability, smartphones have been extensively combined
with sensors such as hand-held detectors, sensor chips, and test strips for biochemical detection.
• Smartphones are frequently used as controllers, analyzers, and displayers for quick, authentic, and
point-of-care monitoring, which may considerably streamline the design and lower the cost of sensing
systems.
• The objective of a wireless sensor network (WSN) is to perform the task of detection, processing, and
transmitting object tracking data in regions where network coverages are limited.
• WSNs are made up of geographically dispersed and independent sensors that are used to detect and
monitor physical and environmental factors.
Applications: Mobile devices and wearables
• A particularly promising area for wearable chemical sensing is real-time perspiration analysis.
• Sweat is easily accessible and contains multiple analytes that are important for sport physiology.
• A textile-based wearable optical pH sensor consists of cotton fabric with a pH indicator methyl red
immobilised in a hybrid sol-gel (ormosil) matrix.
• The sensor exhibits low power consumption and resolution of 0.05 pH units with dynamic range from
pH 4 to 8, which is suitable for sweat pH analysis.
• A textile-based sensor incorporating a microfluidic platform with passive pumping and channels for
collecting sweat using paired emmitor-detector LEDs for sweat pH measurement has also been
developed.
• Wound monitoring has been identified as a key application area of wearable sensors in healthcare.
• In wound monitoring scenarios, wireless data transfer should enable truly noninvasive wound
assessment, which is of paramount importance in reducing patient discomfort.
Applications: Mobile devices and wearables
• pH of wound fluid is an important wound status biomarker, and all of the optical wound sensors
developed detect wound pH as the analyte.
• Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) fibers show great potential for use in textile-based sensing
systems as they can be woven into textiles.
• A wireless smart bandage for optical wound pH detection using cellulose particles dispersed within a
biocompatible hydrogel.
• A test-strip fluorescent sensor for detection of cocaine in sweat has also been developed.
• Thread-based sensor arrays have a great potential for application in the fabrication of wearable sensing
because of its regeneration and reuse, as well as flexibility, small sample volume requirement, and low
weight.
• A multifunctional sensor for wound monitoring integrated on a flexible substrate that can monitor pH,
temperature, and uric acid has also been reported, showing good sensitivity and stability.
Applications: Wearable health devices
Biosensors play a pivotal role in wearable health devices by enabling real-time and continuous monitoring
of various physiological parameters.
Continuous Monitoring: Vital Signs Monitoring: Biosensors can measure vital signs such as heart rate,
blood pressure, body temperature, and respiratory rate continuously, providing a comprehensive view of a
person's health status over time.
Physical Activity and Fitness Tracking:
Activity Level Monitoring: Biosensors, including accelerometers and gyroscopes, track physical
activities such as steps taken, distance covered, and calories burned, helping individuals maintain an active
lifestyle.
Sleep Monitoring: Biosensors can monitor sleep patterns, providing insights into sleep quality, duration,
and disturbances, aiding in improving sleep habits.
Applications: Wearable health devices
Medication Adherence:
Drug Level Monitoring: Biosensors can monitor drug levels in the body, ensuring patients adhere to their
medication regimens and receive the correct dosage.
Personalized Health Insights:
Data Analytics: Biosensors collect vast amounts of data, which, when analyzed, provide personalized
health insights. Machine learning algorithms can process this data, offering tailored recommendations for
fitness routines, diet, and lifestyle changes.
Hydration and Nutrition Monitoring:
Hydration Sensors: Biosensors can measure hydration levels, reminding individuals to drink water and
maintain proper hydration throughout the day.
Nutrient Analysis: Biosensors can analyze nutrient levels in the body, offering insights into dietary habits
and deficiencies.
Applications: Wearable health devices
Biosensors in fitness trackers are essential components that enable users to monitor their physiological
parameters and activities accurately. These sensors utilize various technologies to measure different
biological signals, providing valuable health and fitness data to users.
Heart Rate Monitor (HRM):
Optical Sensors: Most fitness trackers use optical sensors that emit light into the skin and measure the
amount of light absorbed by the blood vessels. This data helps calculate heart rate and heart rate variability
(HRV), providing insights into cardiovascular health and exercise intensity.
GPS (Global Positioning System):
Location Tracking: GPS sensors provide accurate location data, allowing fitness trackers to track outdoor
activities like running, cycling, or hiking. GPS enhances distance measurement and provides route
information.
Applications: Wearable health devices
Thermometer:
Body Temperature Monitoring: Some fitness trackers include a built-in thermometer to monitor body
temperature, providing insights into overall health and helping users track changes in their body
temperature.
SpO2 (Oxygen Saturation) Sensor:
Blood Oxygen Level Monitoring: SpO2 sensors measure the oxygen saturation level in the blood,
providing information about the user's respiratory health. Monitoring SpO2 levels can be especially useful
during high-altitude activities and for individuals with respiratory conditions.
ECG (Electrocardiogram) Sensor:
Heart Rhythm Monitoring: ECG sensors detect the electrical activity of the heart, allowing users to
monitor their heart rhythm. This feature is valuable for identifying irregular heartbeats and potential heart-
related issues.
Applications: Gaming & Entertainment
Biosensors have started to play a significant role in the gaming and entertainment industries, enhancing
user experience, enabling new forms of interaction, and providing innovative gameplay opportunities.

Emotion Recognition:
Facial Expression Analysis: Biosensors, including cameras and software, can detect and analyze facial
expressions to gauge players' emotions. This data can be used to adapt the game's difficulty level,
storyline, or visual effects based on the player's emotional state, creating a more immersive experience.

Gesture Recognition:
Motion Sensors: Biosensors, such as accelerometers and gyroscopes, can detect body movements and
gestures. This technology is used in motion-sensing consoles like the Nintendo Wii or Microsoft Kinect,
allowing players to control the game using body movements.
Applications: Gaming & Entertainment
Physical Fitness Games:
Fitness Trackers: Fitness trackers with biosensors can be integrated into fitness-oriented games,
monitoring players' physical activity and providing in-game rewards based on real-world exercise
achievements. This gamification of fitness encourages players to stay active.
Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR):
Biometric Sensors: Biometric sensors in VR/AR devices can monitor users' physiological responses, such
as heart rate and skin conductance. This data can be used to create more immersive experiences, adapting
the virtual environment based on the player's emotional and physical reactions.
Interactive Storytelling:
Voice and Speech Recognition: Biosensors can process voice commands, allowing players to interact with
games using their voice. Speech recognition technology enhances the narrative experience, enabling
players to have conversations with in-game characters and influence the storyline.