ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 1

 VISION AND MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

Vision of the Department

To produce globally competitive and socially responsible engineering graduates and to
bring out quality research and education, generating knowledge in the frontier areas of
Electronics and Communication Engineering.

Mission of the Department

1. To achieve self-sufficiency on all fronts to ensure qualitative Teaching-Learning

practices.
2. To provide quality education, student-centered Teaching-Learning processes and
state of art infrastructure for professional aspirants hailing from both rural and
urban areas.
3. To impart technical education that encourages independent thinking, developing
strong domain knowledge, contemporary skills and attitude towards holistic growth
of young minds.
4. Responsiveness to both local and global industry needs and creating opportunities
through incubation and implementation of innovative programs
5. To serve the community as disciplined responsible citizens in a rapidly changing and
expanding global community.
6. Evolving this organization into a centre of academic and research excellence.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 2

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

To provide the graduates with solid foundation in Electronics and

Communications Engineering along with the fundamentals of Mathematics,
PEO 1 Science, Computing and Engineering with a view to impart in them high
quality technical skills like designing, modeling, analyzing and problem-
Solving with global competence.

To prepare and motivate graduates with recent technological developments

related to core subjects like Advanced Signal Processing, VLSI, Embedded
Systems, Wireless Communications and technological advances in the
PEO 2
above mentioned domains so as to contribute effectively for Research and
Development by participating in professional activities like publishing and
Seeking patents.

To train the graduates for a high degree of employability in both public and
private sector industries at national and international level by initiating in
PEO 3
them professional competence, ethical administrative acumen and ability
to
handle critical situations.
To prepare the graduates for higher education by providing training to
PEO 4 Excel in competitive examinations and to improve their technical
and intellectual capabilities for life-long learning process.
To train the graduates to have basic interpersonal skills and sense of social
PEO 5 responsibility that paves them a way to become good team members and
leaders.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO1:Interpretation Skills: Students will acquire the skills necessary to design and
validate electronic functional elements for a variety of applications along with the ability to
interpret and communicate results.
PSO2:Core Competence: Student will gain solid foundation in analysis, design and
implementation of VLSI systems, communication systems, signal processing systems and
embedded systems.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 3

 INDEX

Exp.No. LIST OF EXPERINMENTS Page no.

1. Design and verify the operation of RC Circuit as differentiator
1
and integrator

2 1. Design and study the clipper circuits for the given

specifications

3 1. Study the operation of positive and negative clampers

circuits
Design common emitter amplifier with discrete
4. components and calculate the bandwidth of amplifier
from its frequency response.

1. Design common source amplifier with discrete components

5. and calculate the bandwidth of amplifier from its frequency
response
Design a two stage RC coupled amplifier for given
6. specifications. Determine Gain and Bandwidth from
its frequency response curve
Design a RC Phase shift oscillator and Wien bridge
7. oscillator for the given specification. Determine the
frequency of oscillation

8. PPerform Hartley and Colpitts oscillators for the given

specifications. Determine the frequency of oscillation
Determine Gain and Bandwidth from its frequency response
9.
curve of a Darlington amplifier
Perform voltage series feedback amplifier for the
given specifications. Determine the effect of
10.
feedback on the frequency response of a voltage
series feedback amplifier
11. Perform single tuned amplifier for the given specifications
Additional experiments beyond syllabus

1 Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier

Current Series Feed Back Amplifier
2

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 4

EXP::1 DESIGN AND VERIFY THE OPERATION OF RC CIRCUIT AS
DIFFERENTIATOR AND INTEGRATOR.

AIM: -1. To determine percentage tilt of RC differentiator circuit for a square

wave Input with I. RC >> T II. RC = T III.
RC << T
2. To determine rise time of RC integrator for a square wave input
with RC >> T II. RC = T III. RC << T

APPARATUS:-

• Bread board.

• Resistors – 1KΩ,10KΩ,100KΩ -Each one

• Capacitors – 0.1µf -1

• C.R.O. with probes.

• Function Generators.

• Connecting wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

R=1KΩ, 10KΩ, 100KΩ

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 5

PROCEDURE:
To determine percentage of tilt:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.

2. Connect the input and output terminals to both the channels of CRO.

3. Apply input Square wave of 2v (peak to peak) with a frequency of 1 KHz.

4. Observe the output waveform on CRO.

5. Compare the theoretical time constants with time constants for

output waveforms measured on C.R.O.

6. Calculate the percentage tilt for the medium time constant.

7. Choose an RC value (RC << T) such that the circuit acts as differentiator.
To determine rise time:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.

2. Connect the input and output terminals to both the channels of CRO.

3. Apply input Square wave of 2v (peak to peak) with a frequency of 1 KHz.

4. observe the output waveform on CRO

5. .Connect the circuit for different time constants and note down the values
and wave forms obtained.

6. Compare theoretically calculated rise time with rise time obtained from
output wave form measured on C.R.O.

7. Calculate rise time for short time constant and choose RC value.

OBSERVATIONS:

To determine % tilt:
R=1KΩ, 10KΩ, 100KΩ C=0.1uF RC= Theoretical tilt (%) = T/2RC×100
Practical tilt (%)=V1-V 11

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 6

 S.NO CASE Input V1 V11
Theoretical Practical
frequency T=1/f Tilt (%) Tilt (%)
(Hz) (Sec)

1 RC>>T(100KΩ) 1KHz 1 msec 0.61 0.51 5 10

2 RC=T(10KΩ) 1KHz 1 msec 0.70 0.40 50 30

3 RC<<T(1KΩ) 1KHz 1 msec 1.12 0.10 500 102

To determine rise time:

R=1KΩ, 10KΩ, 100KΩ C=0.1uF RC= Theoretical value = 2.2RC=0.35(2πRC)
Practical value = T2 – T1
Sino Case Input 10% 90% Theoretical Practical
frequency T=1/f (Sec) of VO (t1) of VO value value
(Hz) (t2)

1 RC>>T(100KΩ) 1KHz 1 msec 0.63 -0.2 - -

2 RC=T(10KΩ) 1KHz 1 msec 0.29 0.25

3 RC<<T(1KΩ) 1KHz 1 msec 790u.sec 980 u.sec 220 us 190 us

Theoretical calculations for tilt:

Case (i) RC>>T =1/2RC×100=(1/2×100×0.1) ×100=5%
Case (ii) RC = T = 1/2RC×100=(1/2×10×0.1) ×100=50%
Case (iii) RC<<T =1/2RC×100=(1/2×1×0.1) ×100=500%

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 7

 Theoretical calculations for rise time:

Case (i) 2.2RC=2.2×100×0.1×103×10-2 =220µ.sec

MODEL GRAPH:
DIFFERNTIATOR:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 8

 INTEGRATOR:

RESULT:
The Percentage Tilt of RC Differentiator circuit for a Square wave input with RC>>T(100KΩ),
RC=T(10KΩ), RC<<T(1KΩ) and rise time of RC generator for square wave input with RC<<T is
determined.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 9

 EXP::2 DESIGN AND STUDY THE CLIPPER CIRCUITS FOR THE
GIVENSPECIFICATIONS
AIM: - To study the various clippers using diodes.

APPARATUS:-
• Bread board.
• Resistor – 5.6KΩ-

1 Diode 1N4007-2

• Regulated DC Power supply

• C.R.O. with probes.
• Function Generators.
• Connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Positive clipping:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 10

Negative clipping:

Series Positive clipping:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 11

Series Negative clipping:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the function generator at the input of the circuit.

3. Apply the sine wave with a desired magnitude.

4. Observe the output wave forms and note down the readings.

5. Repeat steps 1 to 4.

Characteristic Equations:
Positive clipping without reference: Positive clipping with Positive reference:Vi
Vi < Vr → Vo = Vi Vi < VR → Vo = Vi
Vi > Vr → Vo = Vr Vi > VR → Vo = VR

Positive clipping with Negative reference:

Here the reference voltage is reversed and the Clipping is done in the negativepeak.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 12

Negative clipping with Positive reference:
Vi < VR → Vo = VR Vi > VR → Vo = Vi

OBSERVATIONS

POSSITIVE CLIPPERS

S.NO CASE THEORITICAL PRACTICAL

VALUE(V) VALUE(V)
1 WITHOUT 0.7 0.5
REFERENCE
2 WITH +Ve 1.7 1.56
REFERENCE
3 WITH -Ve -0.3 -0.4
REFERENCE

NEGATIVE CLIPPERS

S.NO CASE THEORITICAL PRACTICAL

VALUE VALUE
1 WITHOUT -0.7 -0.5
REFERENCE
2 WITH +Ve 0.3 0.6
REFERENCE
3 WITH -Ve -1.7 -1.48
REFERENCE

Result:-
The Study of various clippers using Diodes is verified.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 13

MODEL WAVE FORMS

POSITIVE CLIPPERS

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 14

NEGATIVE CLIPPERS:

SLICER:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 15

 SERIES POSITIVE CLIPPERS

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 16

SERIES NEGATIVE CLIPPERS

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 17

EXP::3 STUDY THE OPERATION OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
CLAMPERS CIRCUITS

AIM: - To study the various clampers using diodes.

APPARATUS:-

• Bread board.
• Resistors – 100KΩ-1
• Diode 1N4007-2
• Capacitors – 0.1µf-1
• Regulated DC Power supply
• C.R.O. with probes.
• Function Generators.
• Connecting wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Positive clamping

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 18

NEGATIVE CLAMPING

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the first circuit diagram with both

the channels of CRO showing the input and output.

2. Apply the input wave of 10V (p-p) with frequency 1 KHz to the circuit.

3. Adjust the both channels of CRO to ground position and then in

DC position.

4. Draw the input and output wave forms and indicate the clamping level.

5. Repeat steps 1,2,3,4 for reaming clamping circuits

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 19

OBSERVATIONS

POSSITIVE CLAMPERS

S.NO CASE THEORITICAL PRACTICAL

VALUE(v) VALUE(v)
1 WITHOUT -0.7v -0.3v
REFERENCE
2 WITH +Ve 0.3v 0.7v
REFERENCE
3 WITH -Ve -1.7v -1.40v
REFERENCE

NEGATIVE CLAMPERS

S.NO CASE THEORITICAL PRACTICAL

VALUE VALUE
1 WITHOUT 0.7v 0.4v
REFERENCE
2 WITH +Ve 1.7v 1.40v
REFERENCE
3 WITH -Ve -0.3v -0.5v
REFERENCE

Precautions:

1. Check the connections before giving the supply.

Result:
The study the various clampers using diodes is verified.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 20

Output Waveforms:-
Positive clamping:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 21

Negative Clamping:-

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 22

 EXP-4:: DESIGN COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER WITH
DISCRETE COMPONENTS AND CALCULATE THE
BANDWIDTH OF AMPLIFIER FROM ITSFREQUENCY
RESPONSE

AIM: 1.To designs a common emitter amplifier at a given Q-point (7v, 2mA).
2. To determine voltage gain and input resistance.
3. To determine for a given transistor.

APPARATUS:
S.No. Name of the Equipment Range Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Resistors 33KΩ(1),3.3KΩ(1),220Ω(1), 5
2.2 KΩ(1), 10KΩ(1)
3 Capacitors 10µf(2),100µf(1) 3
4 Regulated DC Power Supply (0-30)V 1
5 Function Generators 1-3MHz 1
6 Digital Multimeters 2
7 C.R.O 20MHZ 1
8 Bread board 1
9 Connecting wires and C.R.O As required
probes
10 Decade Resistance Box 1

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 23

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 24

PROCEDURE:
To Find :

1. Determine value of BC107 transistor.

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Set source voltage Vs = 100mV (say) at 1 KHz frequency using the function generator.
4. Keeping input voltage constant vary the frequency from 100Hz to 1 MHz in regular steps and
note down the corresponding output voltage.
5. Plot the graph: gain (dB) verses Frequency on a semi log graph sheet.
6. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

MODEL GRAPHS:
(a) The Input & Output Waveforms

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 25

(b) Frequency Response Curve

TABULAR FORM:1

S.N Voltage Measured Calculated

O & Values Values
Current
1 6.5 7

2 2 2

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 26

TABULAR FORM: 2 Vin = 100 mV
S. NO. Frequency VOUT A= Gain(dB)=
Vout/Vin
In (Hz) (volts) 20 log
(Vout/Vin)
1 100 2.24 22.4 27
2 500 3.20 32 30
3 1K 3.28 32.8 30.31

4 2K 3.32 33.2 30.42

5 3K 3.32 33.2 30.42

6 4K 3.32 33.2 30.42

7 5K 3.32 33.2 30.42

8 6K 3.32 33.2 30.42

9 7K 3.32 33.2 30.42

10 8K 3.32 33.2 30.42

11 9K 3.32 33.2 30.42

12 10K 3.32 33.2 30.42

13 20K 3.32 33.2 30.42

14 30K 3.32 33.2 30.42

15 40K 3.32 33.2 30.42

16 50K 3.32 33.2 30.42

17 100K 3.08 30.8 30.4

18 200K 2.60 26 28.9

19 300K 2.16 21.6 26.86

20 500K 1.64 16.4 24.29

21 800K 1.04 10.4 20.34

22 1MHz 1.02 10.2 20.17

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 27

OBSERVATIONS:
For Transistor BC107 hfe = 372
From Graph fβ = fH =300KHz.
Gain Bandwidth Product = hfe×fβ
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The continuity of wires and C.R.O. probes must be checked.
2. The voltages levels in the RPS must be kept in minimum position before
switching it “ON” or “OFF”.
3. The terminals of the transistor should be identified properly.
4. Readings should be taken without errors.
5. Interconnections should not be made on the bread board with power
switched on.

RESULT:

Common emitter amplifier is designed at a given point.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 28

EXP-5:: DESIGN A TWO STAGE RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER FOR
GIVEN SPECIFICATIONS. DETERMINE GAIN AND BANDWIDTH
FROM ITS FREQUENCYRESPONSE CURVE

AIM: 1.To plot Frequency Response curve of two stage RC-coupled Amplifier.
2. To Calculate Band Width (BW).

APPARATUS:
S.No Name of the Equipment Range Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 2
2 Resistors 33KΩ,3.3KΩ,2.2KΩ,220Ω, 2 each 1each
10KΩ respectively
3 Capacitors 10µf ,100 µf 3,1
respectively
4 Regulated DC Power Supply (0-30)V 1
5 Function Generators (1-3)MHz 1
6 Bread board 1
7 C.R.O 30MHz 1
8 Connecting wires and C.R.Oprobes As required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 29

PROCEDURE:
1) The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram.
2) A Sinusoidal input of 60mV peak to peak is applied at 1KHz frequency from
Function Generator and O/P waveform is observed on the C.R.O.
3) The Output Voltage VO is directly read from the C.R.O. screen.
4) The frequency of the I/P signal is changed in steps of 100Hz to 1MHz and
the individual O/P voltages are noted down from the C.R.O.
5) A Graph is plotted between 20 log VOut/Vin and frequency.
6) Measure the Band width from the graph.

MODEL GRAPH:

INPUT WAVE

FORM:

FIRST STAGE OUTPUT:

SECOND STAGE OUTPUT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 30

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

TABULOR COLUMN:
Vin = 60 mv
S.NO. Frequency VOUT (volt) A = Vout/Vin Gain= 20 log
in (Hz) Vout/Vin (dB)
1 100 4.36 87.2 38.8
2 200 5.28 105.6 40.4
3 300 5.68 113.6 41.1
4 400 5.88 117.6 41.4
5 500 6.04 120.8 41.7
6 700 6.12 122.4 41.7
7 1K 6.12 122.4 41.7
8 10K 6.12 122.4 41.7
9 12K 6.12 122.4 41.7
10 15K 6.12 122.4 41.7
11 20K 6.12 122.4 41.7
12 25K 6.12 122.4 41.7
13 30K 6.12 122.4 41.7
14 50K 6.12 122.4 41.7
15 100K 6.12 122.4 41.7
16 125K 6.12 122.4 41.7
17 130K 6.08 121.6 41.6
18 150K 6.02 120.4 41.6
19 200K 5.80 116 41.2

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 31

 20 300K 5.28 105.6 40.4
21 350K 4.88 97.6 39.7
22 500K 3.92 78.4 39.8
23 700K 2.84 56 34.9
24 900K 1.82 36.4 31.2
25 1M 1.64 32.8 30.3

OBSERVATIONS:
fH= 400KHz

fL=100Hz

B.W=399.9KHz

PRECAUTIONS:
1) The continuity of wires and C.R.O. probes must be checked.
2) The voltages levels in the RPS must be kept in minimum position before
switching it “ON” or “OFF”.
3) The terminals of the transistor should be identified properly.
4) Readings should be taken without errors.
5) Interconnections should not be made on the bread board with power
switched on.

RESULT:

The frequency response curve of two stage RC coupled amplifier is determind.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 32

 EXP-6:: DESIGN A RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR AND WIEN
BRIDGE OSCILLATORFOR THE GIVEN SPECIFICATION.
DETERMINE THE FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION

AIM: To construct and determine the frequency of oscillations of RC phase shift oscillators.

APPARATUS:
S.No. Name of the equipment Range Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Resistors 3.9KΩ, 15KΩ, 1 each
100Ω,680Ω,
3.3KΩ 3 respectively
3 Capacitors 10µf , 47µf, 1 each,
0.01 µf 3 respectively
4 Regulated DC Power Supply (0-30)V 1
5 C.R.O 20MHz 1
6 Bread board 1
7 Connecting wires and C.R.O As required
probes

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 33

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply the DC voltage of 5v using RPs
3. Observe the waveform using CRO and note down the time period and
amplitude of the waveform.
4. Calculate theoretical frequency,

R = 3.3 kΩ C = 0.01 µF RC = 680Ω

5. Calculate practical frequency, f =
6. Compare the theoretical and practical frequencies.

MODEL GRAPH:

OBSERVATIONS:

Theoretical Frequency

Practical Frequency V(p-p) = 3.2V

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 34

PRECAUTIONS:

1) The continuity of wires must be checked.

2) The voltages levels in the RPS must be kept in minimum position before
switching it “ON” or “OFF”.
3) The terminals of the transistor should be identified properly.
4) Readings should be taken without errors.
5) Interconnections should not be made on the bread board with power
switched on.

RESULT:
Construction and determination of the frequency of oscillations of RC Phase shift
oscillator verified.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 35

 (WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR)

AIM: To construct and determine the frequency of oscillations of Wein Bridge Oscillator.

APPARATUS:

S.No. Name of the Equipment Range Qty.(nos.)

1 Regulated Power Supply (RPS) (0-30)V 1
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Transistor BC107 2
10 kΩ, 3.3 kΩ, 1no. each
4 Resistors 680 Ω,
33 kΩ,27 kΩ,1 kΩ 3
4.7 kΩ,
5 Capacitors 1µF, 10 µF 1no. each
0.001 µF 2
Bread Board & Connecting
6 wires
-- --

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 36

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Connect the output terminals to the CRO.
3. Observe and note down the frequency of oscillations on CRO.
4. Calculate the frequency of oscillations theoretically by the formula off0=

R = 4.7 KΩ C = 0.001 µF

OBSERVATIONS:
Theoretical Frequency f0=
Practical Frequency f0=

MODEL GRAPHS:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Carefully connect the RC network.

RESULT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 37

 EXP-7:PERFORM HARTELY AND COLPITTS OSCILLATOR FOR THE
GIVEN SPECIFICATIONES.DETERMINE THE FREQUENCY OF
OSCLLIATION.

COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

AIM: To construct and determine the frequency of oscillations of Colpitt's

oscillator.

APPARATUS:
S.No Name of the Equipment Range Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Resistors 3.9KΩ, 1 each
22KΩ,100Ω,1K
Ω
3 Capacitors 10µf , 3 each
0.1 µf 2 each
4 Inductor 10µH 1

5 Regulated DC Power Supply (0-30)V 1

6 Bread board 1
7 C.R.O 20MHz 1
8 Connecting wires and C.R.O As required
probes

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 38

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Connect the output terminals to the DSO.
3. Observe and note down the frequency of oscillations on DSO.
4. Calculate the frequency of oscillations theoretically by the formula of

MODEL WAVEFORMS:

OBSERVATIONS:

Theoretical Frequency

Practical Frequency =
Amplitude = 1V

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 39

 PRECAUTIONS:
1. The continuity of wires must be checked.
2. The voltages levels in the RPS must be kept in minimum positionbefore
switching it “ON” or “OFF”.
3. The terminals of the transistor should be identified properly.
4. Readings should be taken without errors.
5. Interconnections should not be made on the bread board with power
switched on.

RESULT:

Construction and determination of the frequency of oscillations of colpitts oscillator is

determined.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 40

 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

AIM: To construct and determine the frequency of oscillations of HartleyOscillator

APPARATUS:
S.No. Name of the Equipment Range Qty.(nos.
)
1 Regulated Power Supply (RPS) (0-30)V 1
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Transistor BC107 1
22 kΩ, 1 kΩ, 3.9 kΩ,
4 Resistors
390 Ω
1no. each
10 µF 2
5 Capacitors
0.001 µF 1
6 Inductor 100 µH 2
7 Bread Board & Connecting wires -- --

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 41

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Connect the output terminals to the CRO.
3. Observe and note down the frequency of oscillations on CRO.
4. Calculate the frequency of oscillations theoretically by the formula

off0= ; Where as LT = L1 + L2;

OBSERVATIONS:
Theoretical Frequency f0=

Practical Frequency f0=

MODEL GRAPHS:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Carefully identify the Inductors before connecting.

RESULT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 42

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

EXP-8:: DETERMINE GAIN AND BANDWIDTH FROM

ITS FREQUENCYRESPONSE CURVE OF A
DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER

AIM: - To simulate the Darlington pair Amplifier and study the

Frequency Response

APPARATUS:
S.No Name of the equipment Range Quantity
1 Transistors CL100 2

2 Resistors 1MΩ,3.3KΩ 1each

3 Capacitors 1µf 2

4 Regulated DC Power Supply (0-30)V 1

5 Function Generators 1-3MHz 1

6 Bread board 1

7 DSO 50MHz 1

8 Connecting wires and C.R.O As required

probes

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 44

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE:

1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram.

2. A Sinusoidal input of 1V peak to peak is applied at 1KHz frequency
from function generator and O/P waveform is observed on the DSO.
3. The Output Voltage VO is directly read from the DSO screen.
4. The frequency of the I/P signal is changed in steps of 50Hz to 1MHz and the individual
O/P voltages are noted down from the DSO.
5. A Graph is plotted between 20 log Vout/Vin and frequency.

MODEL GRAPH:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 45

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

TABULAR COLUMN:
Vin = 1V
S.NO Frequenc Vout A= Gain= 20 log
. y (volt) Vout/Vin
Vout/Vin (dB)
in (Hz)
1 50 0.98 0.98 -0.18
2 100 0.98 0.98 -0.18
3 500 0.98 0.98 -0.18
4 1K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
5 2K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
6 3K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
7 4K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
8 5K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
9 6K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
10 7K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
11 8K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
12 9K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
13 10K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
14 100K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
15 200K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
16 300K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
17 500K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
18 800K 0.98 0.98 -0.18
19 1M 0.98 0.98 -0.18

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 46

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The continuity of wires and DSO. probes must be checked.
2. The voltages levels in the RPS must be kept in minimum position before
switching it “ON” or “OFF”.
3. The terminals of the transistor should be identified properly.
4. Readings should be taken without errors.
5. Interconnections should not be made on the bread board with power
switched on.

RESULT:

The frequency response of Darlington amplifier is determined.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 47

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

EXP-09:: PERFORM SINGLE TUNED AMPLIFIER FOR THE

GIVEN SPECIFICATIONS

AIM: 1. To plot Frequency Response curve of Single tuned voltage Amplifier.

2. To Calculate Band Width (BW).

APPARATUS:
S.No Name of the equipment Range Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 1

2 Resistors 10KΩ,4.7KΩ,470Ω 2 ,1
respectively
3 Capacitors 10µf ,0.01µf,0.1µf 3, 1
respectively
4 Inductor 100uH 1
5 Regulated DC Power Supply (0-30)V 1
6 Function Generators 1-3 MHz 1
7 Bread board 1
8 DSO 50MHz 1
9 Connecting wires and DSO As required
probes

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 48

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE: C=0.1uF
1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram.

2. A Sinusoidal input of 100mV peak to peak is applied at 1KHz frequency

from Function Generator and O/P waveform is observed on the DSO.

3. The Output Voltage VO is directly read from the DSO screen.

4. The frequency of the I/P signal is changed in steps of 45KHz to 100KHz and

the individual O/P voltages are noted down from the DSO

5. A Graph is plotted between 20 log VO/VI and frequency.

6. Measure the Band width from the graph.

C=0.01uF
1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram.

2. A Sinusoidal input of 40mV peak to peak is applied at 50Hz frequency

from Function Generator and O/P waveform is observed on the DSO.

3. The Output Voltage VO is directly read from the DSO screen.

4. The frequency of the I/P signal is changed in steps of 2500Hz to 5kHz and

the individual O/P voltages are noted down from the DSO.

5. A Graph is plotted between 20 log VO/VI and frequency.

6. Measure the Band width from the graph.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 49

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

MODEL GRAPH:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 50

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-51

TABULAR COLUMN:

C=0.1uF Vin = 100mv

S.NO Frequency Vout A= Gain= 20 log
(m.v) Vout/Vin
in (KHz) Vout/Vin (dB)
1 45 388 3.88 11.71
2 50 432 4.32 12.08
3 55 524 5.24 14.38
4 60 660 6.6 16.39
5 65 672 6.72 16.54
6 70 920 9.2 19.08
7 75 1.02 10.2 20.17
8 80 1 10 20
9 85 808 8.08 18.14
10 90 520 5.2 14.32
11 95 344 3.44 10.73
12 100 336 3.36 10.52

C=0.01uf Vin = 40mv

S.NO Frequency Vout A= Gain= 20 log
(m.v) Vout/Vin
in (KHz) Vout/Vin (dB)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 51

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

F = 1/2π√LC = 1/2π√100×10-6×0.1×10-6 = 50.32 KHz

FH = 89 KHz
FL = 63 KHz
BANDWIDTH = 26 KHz

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The continuity of wires and DSO probes must be checked.
2. The voltages levels in the RPS must be kept in minimum position before
switching it “ON” or “OFF”.
3. The terminals of the transistor should be identified properly.
4. Readings should be taken without errors.
5. Interconnections should not be made on the bread board with power
switched on.

RESULT:The frequency response of Single tuned voltage amplifier is obtainedand

bandwidth is calculated.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 52

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

SIMULATION

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 53

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

EXP-1::DESIGN COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER AND CALCULATE THE

BANDWIDTH OF AMPLIFIER FROM ITSFREQUENCY RESPONSE

AIM :
1. To Simulate common emitter amplifier and study the frequency response using TINA
simulation software.
2. To Calculate Bandwidth fB for Transistor in CE mode.
3.To Calculte Gain B.W Product of Transistor.(ft = hfe×fβ)

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

1. Tina Simulation Software

2. Personal Computer

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 54

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE:

1.Place the components and connect it according to the circuit diagram.

2.Now go to ERC tool box and run ERC check the connections.
3. Now select the oscilloscope using T&M tool box then check and click on the run button to
start simulation.
4. Now observe the input and output voltage and save.
5. Now to plot the AC analysis graph using interactive tool box then select the maximum
and minimum frequencies and run.
6. Now calculate the bandwidth using graph and save.

MODEL GRAPHS:
Input & Output Waveforms

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 55

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

Frequency Response Curve

PRECAUTIONS:
Check the nodes before simulation.

RESULT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 56

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

EXP-2:: TWO STAGE RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

AIM:
1. Tosimulate the two stage RC coupled amplifier and study the frequency response using TINA
simulation software.
2. To Calculate Band Width (BW).

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

1.Tina Simulation
Software 2.Personal
Computer

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 57

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE:

1. Place the components and connect it according to the circuit diagram.

2.Now go to ERC tool box and run ERC check the connections.
3. Now select the oscilloscope using T&M tool box then check and click on the run button to
start simulation.
4. Now observe the input and output voltage and save.
5. Now to plot the AC analysis graph using interactive tool box then select the maximum
and minimum frequencies and run.
6. Now calculate the bandwidth using graph and save.

MODEL GRAPH:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 58

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

PRECAUTIONS:

Check all the nodes before simulation

RESULT:
.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 59

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

EXP-3: ( A ) RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

AIM: To construct and determine the frequency of oscillations of RC phase shift oscillator.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

1.Tina Simulation
Software 2.Personal
Computer

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 60

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE:

1.Place the components and connect it according to the circuit diagram.

2.Now go to ERC tool box and run ERC check the connections.
3. Now select the oscilloscope using T&M tool box then check and click on the run button to
start simulation.
4. Now observe the input and output voltage and save.
5. Now observe the input frequency and note down output time period,frequency

MODEL GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:

Check all the nodes before simulation.

RESULT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 61

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

(B) WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR)

AIM: To construct and determine the frequency of oscillations of Wein Bridge Oscillator.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

1. Tina Simulation
Software. 2.Personal
Computer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 62

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Connect the output terminals to the CRO.
3. Observe and note down the frequency of oscillations on CRO.
4. Calculate the frequency of oscillations theoretically by the formula of

OBSERVATIONS:

R = 4.7 KΩ C = 0.001 µF
Theoretical Frequency f0=
Practical Frequency f0=

MODEL GRAPHS:

PRECAUTIONS:
Carefully connect the RC network.

RESULT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 63

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

EXP-4(A) COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

AIM: To construct and determine the frequency of oscillations of Colpitt'soscillator.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

1.Tina Simulation Software.

2.Personal Computer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 64

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE:

1.Place the components and connect it according to the circuit diagram.

2.Now go to ERC tool box and run ERC check the connections.
3. Now select the oscilloscope using T&M tool box then check and click on the run button to
start simulation.
4. Now observe the input and output voltage and save.
5. Now observe the input frequency and note down output time period,frequency.

MODEL WAVEFORMS:

PRECAUTIONS:

Check all the nodes before simulation.

RESULT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 65

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

(B) HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

AIM: To construct and determine the frequency of oscillations of HartleyOscillator

APPARATUS:
S.No. Name of the Equipment Range Qty.(nos.
)
1 Regulated Power Supply (RPS) (0-30)V 1
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Transistor BC107 1
22 kΩ, 1 kΩ, 3.9 kΩ,
4 Resistors
390 Ω
1no. each
10 µF 2
5 Capacitors
0.001 µF 1
6 Inductor 100 µH 2
7 Bread Board & Connecting wires -- --

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 66

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Connect the output terminals to the CRO.
3. Observe and note down the frequency of oscillations on CRO.
4. Calculate the frequency of oscillations theoretically by the formula

of f0= ; Where as LT = L1 + L2
OBSERVATIONS:

Theoretical Frequency f0=

Practical Frequency f0=

MODEL GRAPHS:

PRECAUTIONS:
Carefully identify the Inductors before connecting.
RESULT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 67

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

EXP-5:: DETERMINE GAIN AND BANDWIDTH FROM

IT’S FREQUENCYRESPONSE CURVE OF A
DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER

AIM: - To simulate the Darlington pair Amplifier and study the FrequencyResponse

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

1. Tina Simulation Software.

2. Personal Computer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 68

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE:

1. Place the components and connect it according to the circuit diagram.

2. Now go to ERC tool box and run ERC check the connections.
3. Now select the oscilloscope using T&M tool box then check and click on the run button
to start simulation.
4. Now observe the input and output voltage and save.

5. Now observe the input frequency and note down output time period, frequencies.

MODEL GRAPH:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 69

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

BANDWIDTH:

PRECAUTIONS:

Check all the nodes before simulation.

RESULT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 70

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

EXP-6:: SINGLE TUNED AMPLIFIER

AIM: 1. To plot Frequency Response curve of Single tuned voltage Amplifier.

2. To Calculate Band Width (BW).

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

1. Tina Simulation Software.

2. Personal Computer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 71

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PROCEDURE:
C=0.1uF
1. Place the components and connect it according to the circuit diagram.
2. Now go to ERC tool box and run ERC check the connections.
3. Now select the oscilloscope using T&M tool box then check and click on the run button
to start simulation.
4. Now observe the input and output voltage and save.

5. Now observe the input frequency and note down output time period, frequencies.

C=0.01uF
1. Place the components and connect it according to the circuit diagram.
2. Now go to ERC tool box and run ERC check the connections.
3. Now select the oscilloscope using T&M tool box then check and click on the run button
to start simulation.
4. Now observe the input and output voltage and save.

5. Now observe the input frequency and note down output time period, frequencies.

MODEL GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:

Check all the nodes before simulation.

RESULT:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 72

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

CURRENT SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

AIM: 1.To plot Frequency Response curve of current shunt feedback Amplifier.

2. To Calculate Band Width (BW).

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the equipment Range Quantity

1 Transistor BC107 2

2 Resistors 33KΩ,100Ω,3.3KΩ,220Ω, 2 each

1KΩ,10KΩ,4.7 KΩ 1 each

3 Capacitors 10µf ,100 µf 3,1

respectively

4 Regulated DC Power Supply (0-30)V 1

5 Function Generators 1-3MHz 1

6 Bread board&C.R.O 1 each

7 Connecting wires and C.R.O probes As required

THEORY:

The output from a single stage amplifier usually insufficient to drive an output device. To achieve more gain,the
output of one stage is given as the input to the other stage which forms multistage amplifier.The gain is defined
as the ratio of output to input.The gain of multi stage amplifier is equal to the product of gains of individual
stages.At low frequencies (<50Hz) the reactance of coupling capacitor(cc) is high and hence verysmall.Part of
signal will pass from one stage to next stage.This increase the loading effect of next stage and reduces the
voltage gain.At high frequencies capacitance reduces due to this base emitter junction is low which increases the
base current. This reduces amplification factor.At the same time,lower reactance means high reactance of first
stage and hence lower gain,these two factors cancels each other.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 73

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WITHOUT FEEDBACK

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 74

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

WITH FEEDBACK

PROCEDURE:

1) The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram.

2) A Sinusoidal input of 50 mV peak to peak is applied at 30Hz frequency from Function Generator and
O/P waveform is observed on the C.R.O.
3) The Output Voltage VOis directly read from the C.R.O. screen.
4) The frequency of the I/P signal is changed in steps of 30Hz to 3MHz and the individual O/P voltages are
noted down from the C.R.O.
5) A Graph is plotted between 20 log Vout/Vin and frequency.
6) Measure the Band width from the graph.
7) Repeat the same steps for with feedback by connecting the 4.7kΩ Resistor.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 75

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

TABULAR COLUMN:

WITH OUT FEEDBACK

Vin = 20 mV
S.NO Frequency Vout (volt) A = Vout/Vin Gain= 20 log
. in (Hz) Vout/Vin (dB)
1 50
2 100
3 200
4 300
5 400
6 500
7 700
8 1k
9 5k
10 10k
11 50k
12 100k
13 300k
14 500k
15 1M
16 2M
17 3M

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 76

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

WITH FEEDBACK

Vin = 20 mV
S.NO Frequency Vout (volt) A = Vout/Vin Gain= 20 log
. in (Hz) Vout/Vin (dB)
1 50
2 100
3 200
4 300
5 400
6 500
7 700
8 1k
9 5k
10 10k
11 50k
12 100k
13 300k
14 500k
15 1M
16 2M
17 3M

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 77

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

OBSERVATION:

WITH OUT FEEDBACK

fH =
fL=
B.W=fH-fL=

WITH FEEDBACK

fH =
fL =
B.W=fH -fL=

MODEL GRAPH:

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 78

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PRECAUTIONS:

1) The continuity of wires and C.R.O. probes must be checked.

2) The voltages levels in the RPS must be kept in minimum position before switching it “ON” or “OFF”.
3) The terminals of the transistor should be identified properly.
4) Readings should be taken without errors.
5) Interconnections should not be made on the bread board with power switched on.

RESULT:

The frequency response of Current shunt feedback amplifier is obtained and bandwidth is calculated.
Band width without feedback =
Band width with feedback =

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is feedback in Amplifiers?

2. Explain the terms feedback factor and open loop gain.
3. What are the types of feedback?
4. Explain the term negative feedback in amplifiers?
5. What are the disadvantages of negative feedback?
6. What are the advantages of negative feedback?
7. When will a negative feedback amplifier circuit be unstable?
8. Compare the negative feedback and Positive feedback.
9. Give the expression for closed loop gain for a negative feedback amplifier?
10.How does negative feedback reduce distortion in an amplifier?

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 79

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

CURRENT SERIES FEED BACK AMPLIFIER

AIM:To obtain the frequency response of Current series feedback amplifier and

Calculate its bandwidth.

APPARATUS:

 Transistor BC107-1

 Bread board.

 Resistors – 33KΩ,1KΩ,3.3KΩ,220Ω,10KΩ,15Ω each-1

 Capacitors - 10µf (2), 100µf (1).

 C.R.O. with probes.

 Function Generators.

 Regulated DC Power Supply.

 Connecting wires.

THEORY:

Amplification is the process of increasing the amplitude of the electronic signal maintaining its original wave
shape, the device performing this function is known as amplifier. A transistor biased in its active region can
work as an amplifier, the CE mode a transistor can work as an amplifier if a.c. voltage is applied between base
and emitter terminals. If the amplitude of the input signal is small and fluctuations in the collector current are
also small compared to its quiescent values, the amplifier is termed as a small signal amplifier or voltage
amplifier.

In the circuit, the capacitor C C is termed as blocking capacitor because it allows a.c. current and blocks
D.C. current from passing through it. The emitter side this circuit consists of a parallel combination of resistance
RE and capacitance CE, centered as a bypass capacitor as it bypasses all the a.c. current to ground. As a result the
resistance RE is more effective. The net effect of RE is to provide a negative feedback (reduce noise). It
reduces the gain of the amplifier.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 80

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WITH OUT FEEDBACK

WITH FEEDBACK

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 81

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

TABULAR COLUMN:-WITH OUT FEEDBACK

VIN = 50 mV at 50Hz

S. NO. Frequency VOUT (volt) A = Vout/VIN Gain= 20 log

In (Hz) Vout/VIN (db)
1 50

2 100

3 200

4 300

5 500

6 800

7 1k

8 5k

9 10k

10 50k

11 100k

12 200k

13 300k

14 400k

15 500k

16 600k

17 700k

18 800k

19 900k

20 1000k

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 82

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

OBSERVATION:-

FH= FL = B.W= VIN = 50 mV at 30Hz

WITH FEEDBACK

S. NO. Frequency VOUT (volt) A = Vout/VIN Gain= 20 log

In (Hz) Vout/VIN (db)
1 30

2 100

3 200

4 300

5 500

6 800

7 1k

8 5k

9 10k

10 50k

11 100k

12 200k

13 300k

14 400k

15 500k

16 600k

17 700k

18 800k

19 1M

20 1.5M

21 2M

22 3M

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 83

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

OBSERVATION:-

FH= FL=

B.W=

MODEL GRAPHS:

PROCEDURE:-

 The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram.

 A Sinusoidal input of 50 mV peak to peak is applied at 50Hz frequency from Function Generator and
O/P waveform is observed on the C.R.O.
 The Output Voltage VOis directly read from the C.R.O. screen.
 The frequency of the I/P signal is changed in steps of 50Hz to 1MHz and the individual O/P voltages are
noted down from the C.R.O.
 A Graph is plotted between 20 log VO/VI and frequency.
 Mesure the Band width from the graph.
 Repeat the same steps for with feedback by removing the BYPASS capacitor.

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 84

 ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB R-20

PRECAUTIONS:-

 The continuity of wires and C.R.O. probes must be checked.

 The voltages levels in the RPS must be kept in minimum position before switching it “ON” or “OFF”.

 The terminals of the transistor should be identified properly.

 Readingsshould be taken without errors.

 Interconnections should not be made on the bread board with power switched on.

RESULT:-

VVIT, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering Page 85