Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 CONTROL SYSTEMS: WHAT THEY ARE In modern usage the word system has many meanings. So let us begin by defining what we mean when we use this word in this book, first abstracily then slightly more specifically in relation to scientific literature. Definition 1.1a: A system is an arrangement, set, or collection of things connected or related in such ‘a manner as to form an entirety or whole. Definition 1.1: A system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to form and/or aet as an entire unit The word control is usually taken to mean regulate, direct, or command. Combining the above definitions, we have Definition 1.2: A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system. In the most abstract sense it is possible to consider every physical object a control. system. Everything alters its environment in some manner, if not actively then passively—like a mirror directing a beam of light shining on it at some acute angle. The mirror (Fig. 1-1) may be considered an elementary control system, controlling the beam of light according to the simple equation “ the angle of reflection a equals the angle of incidence a.” feted : so Inn Mad — at X gq , 7 a | Adjustable Fig. 1-1 In engineering and science we usually restrict the meaning of control systems to apply to those systems whose major function is to dynamically or actively command, direct, or regulate. The system shown in Fig, 1-2, consisting of a mirror pivoted at one end and adjusted up and down with a screw at the other end, is properly termed a contro! system. The angle of reffected light is regulated by means of the serew. tis important to note, however, that control systems of interest for analysis or design purposes include not only those manufactured by humans, but those that normally exist in nature, and control systems with both manufactured and natural components. 12 INTRODUCTION [CHAP.1 1,2 EXAMPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS Control systems abound in our environment. But before exemplifying this, we define two terms: input and ouput, which help in identifying, delineating, or defining a control system. Definition 1.3: The input is the stimulus, excitation or command applied fo a control system, typically from an external energy source, usually in order to produce a specified response from the control system. Definition 1.4: The output is the actual response obtained from a control system. It may or may not bbe equal to the specified response implied by the input. Inputs and outputs can have many different forms. Inputs, for example, may be physical variables, ‘or more abstract quantities such as reference, setpoint, or desired values for the output of the control system. ‘The purpose of the control system usually identifies or defines the output and input. If the output and input are given, it is possible to identify, delineate, or define the nature of the system components. Control systems may have more than one input or output. Often all inputs and outputs are well defined by the system description. But sometimes they are not, For example, an atmospheric electrical storm may intermittently interfere with radio reception, producing an unwanted output from a loudspeaker in the form of static. This “noise” output is part of the total output as defined above, but for the purpose of simply identifying a system, spurious inputs producing undesirable outputs are not normally considered as inputs and outputs in the system description. However, itis usually necessary to carefully consider these extra inputs and outputs when the system is examined in detail The terms input and output also may be used in the description of any type of system, whether or not it is a control system, and a control system may be part of a larger system, in which case itis called 1 subsystem or control subsystem, and its inputs and outputs may then be internal variables of the larger system, EXAMPLE 1.1. An cleciric switch is a manufactured control system, controlling the flow of electricity. By definition, the apparatus or person fipping the switch is not a part of this control system, Flipping the switch on or off may be considered as the input. That is, the input ean be in one of two states, on ‘off. The output is the flow or nonflow (two states) of electricity. ‘The electric switch is one of the most rudimentary control systems. EXAMPLE 1.2. A thermostatically controlled heater or furnace automatically regulating the temperature of a room or ‘enclosure is a control system. The input to this system is a reference temperature, usually specified by appropriately setting a thermostat. The output is the actual temperature of the room or enclosure. ‘When the thermostat detects that the output is less than the input, the fumace provides heat until the temperature of the enclosure becomes equal to the reference input, Then the furnace is automatically turned off When the temperature falls somewhat below the reference temperature, the furnace is turned on again. EXAMPLE 1.3. The seemingly simple act of pointing at an object with a finger requires a biological control system ‘consisting chiefly of the eyes, the arm, hand and finger, and the brain. The input is the precise direction of the ‘object (moving or not) with respect to some reference, and the output is the actual pointed direction with respect to the same reference EXAMPLE 1.4. A part of the human temperature control system is the perspiration system. When the temperature Of the air exterior to the skin becomes too high the sweat glands secrete heavily, inducing cooling of the skin by ‘evaporation. Secretions are reduced when the desired cooling effect is achieved, or when the air temperature falls sufficiently. ‘The input to this system may be “normal” or comfortable skin temperature, a temperature, a physical variable. The output is the actual skin temperature. setpoint,” or the aircHap. 1) INTRODUCTION 3 EXAMPLE 1.8. The control system consisting of @ person driving an automobile bas components which are clearly both manufactured and biological. The driver wants to keep the automobile in the appropriate lane of the roadway. He or she accomplishes this by constantly watching the direction of the automobile with respect to the direction of the road. In this ease, the direction or heading of the road, represented by the painted guide line or lines on either side of the lane may be considered as the input. The heading of the automobile is the output of the system. The driver controls this output by constantly measuring it with his or her eyes and brain, and correcting it with his or her hands on the steering wheel. The major components of this control system are the driver's hands, eyes and brain, and the vehicle. 1.3 OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS, Control systems are classified into two general categories: open-loop and closed-loop systems, The distinction is determined by the control action, that quantity responsible for activating the system to produce the output. The term control action is classical in the control systems literature, but the word action in this expression does not always directly imply change, motion, ot activity, For example, the control action in aa system designed to have an object hit a target is usually the distance between the object and the target. Distance, as such, is not an action, but action (motion) is implied here, because the goal of such a control system is to reduce this distance to zero. Definition 1.5: An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is independent of the output. Definition 1.6: A closed-loop control system is one in which the control action is somehow dependent on the output. ‘Two outstanding features of open-loop control systems are: 1. Their al yy to perform accurately is determined by their calibration. To ealibrate means to establish or reestablish the input-output relation to obtain a desired system accuracy, 2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability, a concept to be subsequently discussed in detail Closed-loop control systems are more commonly called feedback control systems, and are consid- ered in more detail beginning in the next section. To classify a control system as open-loop or closed-loop, we must distinguish clearly the compo- nents of the system from components that interact with but are not part of the system. For example, the driver in Example 1.5 was defined as part of that control system, but a human operator may or may not be a component of a system, EXAMPLE 1.6. Most automatic roasters are open-loop systems because they are controlled by a timer. The time required to make “good toast” must be estimated by the user, who is not part of the system. Control over the quality of toast (the output) is removed once the time, which is both the input and the control action, has been set ‘The time is typically set by means of a calibrated dial or switch EXAMPLE 1.7. An autopilor mechanism and the airplane it conirols is a closed-loop (feedback) control system. Its purpose is to maintain a specified airplane heading, despite atmospheric changes. It performs this task by ‘continuously measuring the actual airplane heading, and automatically adjusting the airplane control surfaces (rudder, ailerons, etc.) so as to bring the actual airplane heading into correspondence with the specified heading, ‘The human pilot or operator who presets the autopilot is not part of the control system,