Materials Testing (1)

Hardness testing
 Hardness testing of Materials

Hardness testing measures the resistance of a material to:

• Permanent indentation under static or dynamic loads

(Indentation Hardness).
• Energy absorption under impact loads (Rebound hardness
tester).
• Resistance to scratching (Scratch Hardness).
• Resistance to abrasion (Wear Hardness).
• Resistance to cutting or drilling (Machinability).
 Indentation Hardness

• It depends on the (size/shape/material) of the indenter used

and how much force is used to push it into the specimen.
These testing parameters determine what scale is used to
report results.
• Macro-hardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials
measured using loads > 2 N.

• Micro-hardness - Hardness of materials typically

measured using loads < 2 N such as Knoop test (HK).

• Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 1–10

nm length scale using extremely small (~100 µN) forces.
 Merits of hardness testing

• Simplicity.
• Relatively inexpensive.
• Require moderate experience for their conduction.
• Some hardness tests are nondestructive.
• Could be conducted on finished parts and onsite
jobs.
 Applicability of hardness test

Hardness test results could be utilized for:

1. Grading similar materials according to hardness.

It should be observed that a hardness number can not be
applied directly in design.
2. Comparing/Controlling quality level of materials or
products by hardness test.
3. Indicating the uniformity of samples of metals, or the
uniformity of results of some heat treatments or case
hardening.
4. By establishing a correlation between hardness number
and some other desired properties .e.g. tensile strength.
For example, for steel
Ultimate tensile strength (in MPa) = 3.4 BHN
or Ultimate tensile strength (in kgf/mm2) = 0.346 BHN
Static Indentation Hardness Tests

1- Brinell hardness test

Brinell hardness test
 Brinell Hardness test
The indenter
• Frequently a spherical hardened
steel ball (10 mm diameter) but
for harder materials it is replaced
with a tungsten carbide sphere.

• The indenter is forced into the

specimen under a specified load.

• The diameter of the indentation is

recorded.

• The indentation diameter can be

correlated with the volume of the
indentation.
 Brinell Hardness test

Loads used Application

3000 kg For hard metal

1500 kg For metal of intermediate hardness
500 kg For soft metals

HBW = 0.102 BHN

Sometimes written as HBW 10/3000 (Tungsten, 10 mm
diameter, 3,000 kgf)
 Brinell hardness testing procedure

1. The surface of the specimen should be flat and well

polished. For some specimens, the indentation may be
made more distinct by using balls highly etched with
HNO3.
2. In the standard test, the full load is applied for 15 sec for
ferrous metals and 30 sec for softer metals. Often, however,
a 30 sec interval is used for ferrous metals and a 60 sec
interval for softer metals. t
3. The thickness of the specimen requires
being at least 10 times the depth of the 10 t

indentation. t = depth of indentation

 Brinell Hardness
2P
( ))
BHN =
πD D − (D 2
−d2
where p is the applied load [Kg]
d is the diameter of the indentation [mm]
D is the diameter of steel ball [mm]
 Merits of Brinell test
• This test is often used to determine the hardness of
castings and forgings whose grain structure is too course
for accurate Rockwell or Vickers testing.

• Almost all metals may be tested with the Brinell test by

simply varying the ball size and test force. As long as the
ball size to test force ratio remains constant, the results are
considered accurate.

• Results from the Brinell Hardness Test are used

extensively in industry as a basis of acceptance of
commercial shipments, and for quality control purposes
generally.

• Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic

Materials can be found according to ASTM E 10.
 Limitations to Brinell test
• Not adapted to test very hard material because the ball itself
deforms. (Max. permanent change not more than 0.01 mm for a
10 mm ball).
• Not for testing thin specimens, such as razor plates, because the
indentation is usually greater than the thickness of test piece.
• Not adapted to test case hardened surfaces, as the depth of
indentation may be greater than the thickness of the case, also
the yielding of the case invalidates the results. Moreover, for
such surface, the indentation is almost surrounded by a crack
that may cause fatigue failure of the part used in service.
• Not to be used for final parts that could lose their function or
value after being scratched.
 Limitations to Brinell- cont.
• Indentations too near to the edge of the specimen produces too
large and asymmetric indentation.

• Indentations too close to previous one, it may be too large

owing to lack of sufficient supporting material or too small
owing to work hardening of the first indentation 2.5d

Indentation-to-indentation or indentation-to-edge 2.5d 2.5d

d
distance, d = diameter of indentation

• In rolled materials, the average B.H. may be obtained by

measuring the diameter as the average in four directions roughly
45° apart.
• For a curved surface (specimen’s radius less than 25 mm) the
diameter of indentation may be taken as the smaller radii.
• Specimen radius more than 25 mm a flat spot may be prepared
on the surface of the specimen.
 Examples of BHN

Materials B.H.N.
Ordinary steel 100 - 500
Medium carbon structural steels 130 - 160
(0.23 % C)
very hard special steels 800 - 900
Pure Cu less than
50
Cu-alloys 50 – 160
Al alloys 30 – 160
Sn alloys 10 – 30
Pb alloys 3 – 10.
 Source of errors and precautions in B.H. test
A rapid rate of applying the load affects the diameter indentation:-
The effect of inertia of the piston cause rise of the load above 3000 Kg and
enlarge the indentation.

A rapid rate of penetration allows low time for the plastic flow of the
material resulting in decreasing the size of indentation.
The flow for most metals is quite rapid during the first 30 sec, error is less
than 1 % for loading intervals between 30 and 120 sec.

• The error in the BHN is less than 1 % as long as the error in diameter does
not exceed 0.01 mm
The error in reading the diameter of indentation may be due to:
• An error in reading the microscope.
• indefiniteness of the boundary of the indentation.
• The error in reading a modern Brinell microscope should not exceed 0.02
mm.
 Source of errors and precautions in B.H. test

• BHN > 650, It is not recommended to use Brinell hardness

test for hard materials.

• It is necessary to make B.H test with a ball less than 10 mm

diameter for small thin specimen.
The variations from standard size and shape of modern well
made balls are usually too low.
Flattening of the ball particularly when the hardness of the
specimen approaches that of the ball may give serious errors.
BHN > 400, the ball should be frequently checked for
distortion,
BHN 450 to 630, Tungsten carbide WC balls
 Conversions

For steels
The relationship between the minimum ultimate strength and the
Brinell harness number for is

0.495 H B kpsi
Su = 
3.41H B MPa
Cast Iron
The minimum strength, as defined by the ASTM, is found to be

0.238 H B − 12.5kpsi
Su = 
1.58 H B − 86 MPa
Static Indentation Hardness Tests

2- Rockwell Hardness Test

 Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement

based on the net increase in depth of impression as a
load is applied. Hardness numbers have no units and are
commonly given in the A, B, C, R, L, M, E, … scales. The
higher the number in each of the scales means the harder
the material.

The depth of the indentation determines the materials

hardness on a scale of 0-100
 Differences between Brinell and Rockwell tests

1. Rockwell test is used for materials which have a high

hardness.
2. The resulting indentation in Rockwell test is smaller.
3. The indenter and the loads are smaller than that of the Brinell
test.
4. Rockwell test is faster than Brinell test, as it gives direct
reading.
5. In Rockwell the indentation depth is taken as a measure of the
hardness number while in Brinell the indentation diameter is
the base of the BHN
ASTM E 18-07 Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness
of Metallic Materials is the active and current standard by
which Rockwell Hardness Testing is performed, and is also the
most frequently used hardness testing method.
 Procedure of Rockwell Test
1. The test begins with applying a pre-load or minor load (10
kg ) to the sample using a diamond (or a tungsten carbide
ball). This breaks through the surface to reduce the effects of
surface finish and provide a reference or zero position.

2. Next, an additional test force (or major load) is applied to

reach the total test force. This force is then held for a
specified period of time to overcome elasticity.

3. The major load is then released and the resulting

indentation is measured against the preliminary position.
Then the measurement is converted into a hardness number
using the appropriate Rockwell scale.
 Procedure of Rockwell Test
1 2 3

F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf

F1 = additional major load in kgf
HR = E - e
F = total load in kgf
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1
measured in units of 0.002 mm
E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond
indenter, 130 units for steel ball indenter
HR = Rockwell hardness number
 Rockwell – C (RC)

1. It's applied for hard materials.

2. The indenter is a diamond cone with a rounded apex
having an apex angle of 120° and the radius of rounding is
0.2 mm.
3. The total load used is usually 150 kg (10 kg minor load +
140 kg major load)
4. The hardness found in this case has the notation HRC (C =
cone).
5. The useful range is between HRC 20 and HRC 70.
 Rockwell – B (RB)
1. It is used for relatively softer materials.
2. The indenter is a steel ball having 0.16 mm or 3.6 mm diameter.
3. Major loads usually 60, 100 and 150 kg are used.
4. The useful range is between HRB 0 and HRB 100.

Rockwell carbide ball indenters with different ball

diameters

0.32 mm 0.64 mm 1.27 mm 1.9 mm

 Limitations to Rockwell test
1. The test surface should be flat and free from scales, oxide films,
pits, and foreign materials.
2. Oiled surfaces generally give slightly lower reading than dry
ones.
3. The bottom surface should be free from scale, dirt or other
foreign materials that might crush or flow under the test
pressure.
4. The thickness of piece tested should have no bulge pieces or
other marking opposite the indentation.
5. For hard materials the thickness ~ 0.025 mm.
6. All hardness tests should be made on a single thickness.
 Precautions
• For testing curved surfaces, small flat spot should be prepared
before making the indentation then correction of the observed
Rockwell values of cylindrical specimens having diameters 0.64
mm to 3.8 mm.
• Avoid vibration of the table on which the Rockwell hardness
tester is mounted.
• If curved plates are tested, the concave side should face the
indenter to avoid the flattening of the piece on the anvil.
• Check the indenter regularly to see that they don’t become
blunted or shipped.
 Rockwell superficial hardness tester

This tester is a special purpose machine. The minor load is 3

kg while the major load is 15, 30 or 45 kg.
The common uses of Rockwell superficial are:
1. When a very shallow indentation is required.
2. To know the hardness of the specimen close to the
surface.

Special uses
1. For testing nitride steels, softy razor blades, and lightly
carburized pieces.
2. For testing brass, bronze and steel sheet.
 Rockwell Hardness Test Scales
Scale symbol penetrator Load (kg)

A Brale 60
B 1/16 in. Ball 100
C Brale 150
D Brale 100
E 1/8 in. Ball 100
F 1/16 in. Ball 60
G 1/16 in. Ball 150
H 1/8 in. Ball 60
K 1/8 in. Ball 150
L 1/4 in. Ball 60
M 1/4 in. Ball 100
P 1/4 in. Ball 150
R 1/2 in. Ball 60
S 1/2 in. Ball 100
V 1/2 in. Ball 150
 Superficial Tester Scales

Scale symbol penetrator Load (kg)

15N, 30N, 45N N Brale 15, 30, 45

15T, 30T, 45T 1/16 in. Ball 15, 30, 45

15W, 30W, 45W 1/8 in. Ball 15, 30, 45

15X, 30X, 45X 1/4 in. Ball 15, 30, 45

15Y, 30Y, 45Y 1/2 in. Ball 15, 30, 45

For the complete and latest specifications for the Rockwell test see
ASTM E 18-07
 Comparisons
The relative sizes of the
indentations made by Brinell (B),
Rockwell-C (C) and Rockwell
superficial hardness tester (A).

A = superficial indentation
- Minor load = 3kg and major load 15, 30 or 45 kg, (Diamond cone).
- Each hardness number = 0.001 mm depth.

B = Indentation of Brinell Hardness tester

- 3000 kg load, Steel ball 10 mm diameter.
- Depth of indentation ~ 0.025 mm for one point of the hardness number.

C = Indentation of the common Rockwell C

- Total load = 150 kg, - Diamond cone.
- Depth of indentation ~ 0.013 mm for one point of the hardness number.
 Comparisons
Selected Indenter Applied load
hardness
scales
Rockwell – B 1/16” diameter ball 100 kg
scale
Rockwell – C 120° diamond cone with a 0.2 mm 150 kg
scale radius spherical tip
Rockwell – 1/16” diameter ball 15 kg
15T scale
Rockwell – 1/16” diameter ball 30 kg
30T scale
Vickers Square-based pyramid diamond Typically 10 g
indenter with a 136 ° included to 1 kg
angle
Brinell Spherical indenter, with a Typically 1 kg
diameter typically ranging from to 3000 kg
1mm to 10mm.
 Applications to Rockwell Hardness Testing
A Cemented carbides, thin steels and shallow case hardened steel. Only scale that
is continuous over a wide range of material hardness values.
B Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminium alloys and malleable irons.
C Hardened Steels, hard irons, deep case-hardened steel and other materials
harder than 100 HRB

D Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron
E Cast iron, aluminium, magnesium alloys and bearing metals

F Annealed copper alloys and thin soft sheet metals

G Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper and malleable irons

H Aluminium, zinc and lead

K, L, M, P, Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
R, S, V
N Same materials for HRA, HRC and HRD but for thinner gauge or case depths
T Same materials for HRB, HRF and HRG but for thinner gauge
W, X, Y Bearing materials, plasma spray coatings
Static Indentation Hardness Tests

3- Vickers Hardness Test

Micro hardness testing
 Vickers Hardness Test
Loads used:-
The load used lies between 5 and 120 Kg in increments of 5 Kg,
but the normal one is taken as 30 Kg.

Vickers procedure
1. The specimen is placed on the anvil and raised by a screw
until it is close to the point of indenter.
2. The load is slowly applied to the indenter and released. The
load attains its maximum in 15 sec. and then acts for about 30
sec. on the specimen. Then the load is removed and the anvil
is lowered.
3. After the anvil is lowered the mean diagonal of the square
indentation measured to 0.001 mm.
 Vickers Hardness Test
Indenter:
A pyramid shaped diamond indenter with an apical angle of
136°

• The average of the two axis

measurements is converted into
a Vickers Hardness number
using a formula, or a chart.

• Note that a higher test load, if

applicable, produces larger
indentation with better
measurement resolution and
more reliable results.
 Merits of Vickers Hardness Testing

1. It is a fairly rapid method.

2. More accurate reading of the diagonal of the square
indentation than of the circle diameter.
3. It can be used for testing hardened steel and thin pieces
as thin as 0.015mm.
4. It is accurate for hardness as high as 1300 (about 850
Brinell).
5. This method does not depend on the load applied, so
that it is comparable.
 Comparison between the BHN and VHN
Brinell hardness number is nearly the same as Vickers hardness number up to
300.
1000

Vickers hardness number B.H.N.

800

600

400

200

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Brinell hardness number B.H.N.
Relation between Vickers and Brinell hardness numbers
Correlation
between
Hardness and
Tensile
Strength
• Both hardness and tensile
strength are indicators of
a metal’s resistance to
plastic deformation.
• For cast iron, steel and
brass, the two are roughly
proportional.

• Tensile strength (psi) =

500*BHR 42
 Micro Hardness Testing

• For measuring individual microstructures within a larger

matrix, very thin foil like materials, or when determining the
hardness gradient of a specimen along a cross section.

• The test surface usually must be highly polished.

• The smaller the force applied, the higher the metallographic

finish required. Microscopes with a magnification of around
500x are required to accurately measure the indentations
produced.
Vickers micro-hardness Test
 Microhardness tests
Load: small force of 10 to 1000gmf.

Vickers microhardness tester

Made of diamond indenter with an apical angle of 136° with the same
principals of Vickers hardness test.

Knoop microhardness tester

Made of narrow pyramid shaped diamond indenter with angles 136o. and
170 ° 30’
MicroVickers and Knoop hardness tests are defined by standards ASTM
E 92 (for indentation forces of 1 kgf. to 120 kgf.) and ASTM E 384 (for
indentation forces below 1 kgf.)

Brinell microhardness tester

Made of 1mm carbide ball indenter.
ASTM E 10 is the standard for micro Brinell Hardness Testing.
 The Knoop hardness test
• A diamond pyramid indenter
with angles 130° and 170 ° 30’ is
used in this method.

• The Knoop Hardness Test is

applied for testing soft material
and thin coating, since the
penetration depth is very small
(about 1/30 of the impression
length).

• The loading force in the Knoop

method are usually in the range
of 10 gf to 1000gf (micro-
hardness range).
 The Knoop hardness number (K.H.N.)
It is the ratio of the applied load [in Kg] to the unrecovered projected area [in mm2]

P( Load [kg ])
KHN =
Ap ( projected unre cov ered area [mm])

14.229 P
K .H .N = [kg/mm 2 ]
l2 Diagonal ratio
 The common uses of Tukon Knoop tests
1. Small parts such as those in watches.
2. Thin material parts.
3. Small wire.
4. Tips of cutting tools.
5. Single crystals or constituents of alloyed metals (phases,
precipitates, grain size, etc..).
6. Surface layers for exploring variations in hardness of small
areas such as over the thickness of thin sheets (thickness up
to 0.08 mm) adjacent to the critical surface.

The Knoop indenter may be replaced by Vickers indenter

with its all properties
Dynamic Hardness Tests

The shore Scleroscope

 The shore Scleroscope
The shore Scleroscope hardness is expressed by a number given by the
height of the rebound of small pointed hammer after falling within a glass
tube from a height of 10", against the surface of the specimen.

1. The standard hammer is approx. ¼ " in diameter, ¾ "

long and weighs 1/12 Kg with a diamond striking tip
rounded to a 0.01" radius.

2. The hardness obtained by these instrument depend

upon the resilience (is defined as the work done by an
elastic body in returning to its original shape) of the
hammer as will as that of the material tested.
 The shore Scleroscope: Main features

1. The height of rebound is taken as a measure of hardness.

2. The scale is divided into 140 divisions, a rebound of 100

being equivalent to the hardness of martensitic high carbon
steel.

3. It should be noted that the scleroscope H.N. are arbitrary

and that they are comparable only when determined on
similar materials
 Types of shore Scleroscope
1. Direct reading or visual type in which the height of rebound
must be caught by eye.
2. An improved dial recording instrument in which the dial
hand remains at the high of rebound until reset.
Both instruments are portable and quite rapid.

• The minimum thicknesses of the specimen which can be

tested depend upon its hardness. For hard steel, as in safely
razor blades, the thickness should be at least 0.015 mm, for
cold rolled brass and steel it should be 0.025 mm , and for
annealed sheets 0.04 mm.
• The Scleroscope is very useful for testing the hardness of
case-hardened surface in at least 0.04 mm thick.
 Precautions on using shore Scleroscope

1. The surface of the specimen should be flat, smooth and free

from oil or other materials.
2. The glass tube through which the hammer falls must be
carefully adjusted to avoid rubbing of the hammer on its inner
surface.
3. All specimens should be securely clamped to the anvil to
avoid inertia effects.
4. The hammer should not be dropped more than once on any
one spot because of the possible effect of strain hardening.
5. The diamond point should be checked frequently by using
hardened steel reference blocks.