Use of Dictionary - What is a Dictionary?

a book that contains a list of words in alphabetical order and explains

their meanings, or gives a word for them in another language.

dictionary
noun [ C ]

UK /ˈdɪk.ʃən.ər.i/ US /ˈdɪk.ʃən.er.i/

a book that gives information about a particular subject, in which the

entries (= words or phrases) are given in alphabetical order.

Dictionary: A cabinet of Curiosities.

Main Types: Monolingual + Bilingual (able to use two languages equally

well.)

Types of it: Biographical + Electronic + Medical.

The compilation of a dictionary is lexicography; lexicology is a

branch of linguistics in which, with the utmost scientific rigor, the
theories that lexicographers use in the solution of their problems
are developed.
The phrase dictionary order takes for granted that alphabetical
order will be followed, and yet the alphabetical order has been
called a tyranny that makes dictionaries less useful than they might
be if compiled in some other order. (So too, dictionary order
becomes a meaningless term for any language that lacks an
alphabet.) The assembling of words into groups related by some
principle, as by their meanings, can be done, and such a work is
often called a thesaurus or synonyms. Such works, however, need
an index for ease of reference, and it is unlikely that alphabetical
order will be superseded except in specialized works.
Lexicography, the compiling, editing, or writing of a dictionary. It
is distinct from lexicology, the study of the words in a given
language, including their origins, evolution, meanings, usage, and
contexts.

Practical and theoretical lexicography

Lexicography is divided into two fields: practical and theoretical. Practical
lexicography is concerned with compiling, writing, and editing dictionaries.
Practical lexicographers focus on creating user-friendly dictionaries with
accurate, up-to-date, and comprehensive information. Theoretical
lexicography, also called metalexicography, is concerned with dictionary
research. Theoretical lexicographers focus on researching structural and
semantic relationships among words in current dictionaries to improve
information organization and structure in future dictionaries. They often
focus their research on specific types of dictionaries or elements of a
dictionary’s compilation.

Types of dictionaries
The different types of dictionaries are vast and varied. In addition to what
are considered “general purpose” dictionaries and language learners’, or
bilingual, dictionaries, there are specialized dictionaries, including
etymological, pronunciation, and usage dictionaries. Some dictionaries
focus on the vocabulary of specific fields of knowledge—e.g., biology,
psychology, law, medicine, religion, literature, economics, and fine arts.

Practical lexicographical processes

Lexicographers continually track language by reading books, newspapers,
industry-specific journals, online corpora, social media, and any text in
which they might discover a new word or a new use for an already recorded
word. When lexicographers encounter a new word or usage, they create a
citation in a searchable database, noting the word’s context and source.
Then they search other databases of words from numerous different
sources, including everything from articles to popular literature to song
lyrics to speeches. Using these databases, they determine if a word meets
certain criteria for inclusion in a dictionary—such as frequent, widespread,
and meaningful use. If a word meets the criteria, lexicographers draft a
definition for the word and forward it to a series of editors for review. Once
the word and definition are approved, they are entered into the system,
reviewed by a copy editor, proofread, and added to a dictionary.
Lexicography in the digital age
The shift to digital dictionaries has added a new dimension to the way
lexicographers write definitions and structure digital dictionary entries.
Web analytics allow lexicographers to see which words users look up more
frequently, and the lexicographers can spend more time revising the
definitions of those words. Because digital dictionaries are interactive,
when lexicographers write definitions, they consider where to place
explanatory hyperlinks and how to structure entries for online
presentation, sometimes breaking up paragraphs into individual lines.
The distinction between a dictionary and an encyclopaedia is easy to state
but difficult to carry out in a practical way: a dictionary explains words,
whereas an encyclopedia explains things. Because words achieve their
usefulness by reference to things, however, it is difficult to construct a
dictionary without considerable attention to the objects and abstractions
designated.
A monolingual dictionary has both the word list and the explanations in the
same language, whereas bilingual or multilingual (polyglot) dictionaries
have the explanations in another language or different languages. The word
dictionary is also extended, in a loose sense, to reference books with
entries in alphabetical order, such as a dictionary of biography, a dictionary
of heraldry, or a dictionary of plastics.
This article, after an account of the development of dictionaries from
Classical times to the recent past, treats the kinds of dictionaries and their
features and problems. It concludes with a brief section on some of the
major dictionaries that are available. Examples for the sections on the types
of dictionaries and on their features and problems are drawn primarily
from the products of English lexicographers.
Take it from the people who know.

Of the approximately 1 million words in the English language, the average

English speaker knows 60,000 of those words. Besides helping with spelling and
word meanings, being able to use a dictionary effectively and regularly is a
perfect way to improve your English language skills through the dictionary's
range of other helpful information on everyday language usage and grammar.

Understanding Your Dictionary - Choose the right dictionary. It's also a good idea
to upgrade your dictionary every now and then so that you have access to the
latest new words that are added to the dictionary every year.
Consider purchasing specialist dictionaries if they'd be useful in your study
or career. Some examples of specialist dictionaries include language
dictionaries, technical dictionaries, rhymes, crossword, subject dictionaries
(for example, for math, chemistry, biology, horticulture, etc.), illustrated
dictionaries (excellent for learning another language or for technical
knowledge), slang and idioms, etc.

Many universities have subscriptions to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED)

that provides in-depth information on the history and origins of the word.

Note that many countries have their own native dictionaries that might be
more helpful than sourcing a dictionary from just anywhere, such as the
Macquarie dictionary in Australia, Oxford dictionary in England, Webster's
dictionary in the United States, etc.

Some schools, universities, and workplaces prefer the use of one particular
dictionary. This is for reasons of maintaining a consistent style and
understanding among everyone using them; make sure you use the right one
for your assignments, editing, and reports. Check the syllabus or employee
handbook to find out.

Read the introduction. The best way to learn how to use your particular
dictionary effectively is to read its introductory section where you'll find out
how the entries are arranged. The introductory section of your dictionary will
explain important information such as the abbreviations and pronunciation
symbols used throughout the entries.

● Introductions to dictionaries explain things like how entries are arranged (they
typically give the word, and the variations of the word; what part of speech the
word is; pronunciation of the word; definition, etc.). Reading the introduction
will give you a handle on how to find words and how to use the information that
you do find.
 ● There may also be information on the pronunciation of words with similar
spellings; this can be helpful if you have only heard a word and you're not sure of
its spelling. For example, if you hear "not", it might also be "knot" but the "k" is
silent, and this list can help you with suggestions.

Learn the abbreviations. Dictionaries often have abbreviations in the definitions

for a word. This can be confusing if you don't know what the abbreviations stand
for. Typically a dictionary will have a list of abbreviations near the front of the

book; either in the introduction or after it.[2]

● For example "adj." stands for "adjective" and will tell you what kind of word the
word you're looking up is. "Adv." or "advb." can stand for "adverb; adverbially."
● Something like "n." can stand for at least three different things: the most obvious
and common is "noun," but it can also stand for "neuter" or "north" depending on
the context. So make sure that you check the context of the word when you're
looking it up.
●

Learn the guide to pronunciation. If you immediately jump right into reading the
dictionary without understanding the pronunciation guide, it can be difficult to
figure it out. Having an idea about the symbols of pronunciation will make it a lot

easier for you.[3]

● The pronunciation of a word will be placed between two reversed virgules (\ \) and
will typically be printed in italics.
● A single stress mark (') precedes the strongest syllable in a word. A double mark
precedes the syllable with a medium (or secondary stress) ("), and the third level
of stress has no marker. For example, penmanship would look like this
\'pen-m&n-"ship\.
● The symbol \&\ indicates an unstressed vowel. This symbol often intrudes
between a stressed vowel and a following \r\ or \l\, such as in sour \'sau(-&)r\.
● The symbol \ä\ symbolizes the type of "a" sound that appears in words like
"caught," or "fought." Compare this to the symbol \a\ which designates the sound
"a" in "mat, map, snap," and so on. The word doesn't necessarily have to have the
letter "a" to have a type of "a" sound.
 Find the section of the dictionary with the first letter of your word. Dictionaries
follow alphabetical order. For example, "dog" begins with "d" which means

that it will be in the section after "c" and before "e".[4]

● Don't forget the possible spellings for trickier words, such as "gnome" begins with
a "g", or "psychology" begins with a "p", or "knock" begins with a "k", etc.
● If you're not entirely sure what the first letter is, start with the letter it sounds like.
If you can't find the word under that section, then try other sections. For example,
if you didn't know that "psychology" begins with a "p" you might start looking in
the "s" section. When you couldn't find it there, you might try looking in the "p"
section next because you can think along the lines of "psychic" and "psychosis."
● Also, keep in mind that certain words sound alike that are spelled very differently.
For example, "throne" and "thrown" are spelled differently and mean very different
things. So be careful that you end up with the correct word.
 Read the guide words. These are the two words at the top of the page that tell you
what types of words are on the page. These words will help you find the word

you're looking for in the right letter section.[5]

● For example if you're looking for the word "bramble" you would begin
looking in the "B" section. You would look at the tops of the pages as you went
through it until you came to the page with the guide words "braid bread." This tells
you that all the words between braid and bread are on this page. Since "bramble"
starts with "b-r-a" it will be in this section.
● As always, the dictionary goes in alphabetical order, so bramble (b-r-a) will
come before bread (b-r-e).

Scan down the page for your word. If you were looking for the word "futile," for
example, you would move past "furry" and "fuse" and "fuss". Since the example
word begins with "f-u-t", go past all the "f-u-r" and all the "f-u-s" words
alphabetically until you reach the "f-u-t" area of the page. In this example, move

right down through "fut" and "Futhark" and this is where you will find "futile."[6]

● If you're looking up a word like “futilely” but can't find it, look at the root
work to see if it mentions the work you're looking for.

Read the definition. Once you've located the word it will tell you exactly what it
means (and if it has more than one meaning, it will tell you the most common one
first), how to pronounce it, how to capitalize it (if it's a proper noun), what part of

speech it is and so on.[7]

● Quite a few people get daunted by the definitions themselves because they can
involve words that you have to then look up. Don't feel discouraged. See if you
can figure out the meaning from the example sentences provided and if not, look
up the words you aren't sure of.
● Dictionaries can also sometimes give the synonyms (words that mean the same
thing as your word) and the antonyms of a word (words that mean the opposite of
your word). So, for example, if your word is futile some synonyms might be
 "fruitless" or "unsuccessful" and some antonyms might be "effective" or
"helpful." You can also find near neighbor words such as "futility".
● You might also find an etymology, derivation, or history of the word. Even if you
don't know Latin or Ancient Greek, you may find that this information helps you
to remember or understand the word. Check the Oxford English Dictionary (OED)
for in-depth looks at the origins of the word.
● Dictionaries also often provide spellings in other English derivations (US English,
British English, Australian English, etc.).

Alternatively, you could use an online dictionary. Online dictionaries are easy.
Choose a suitable free online dictionary, or a subscription one if your place of
work or study subscribes. Type in the word you're looking for. The search engine
will return the word to you and the definition section should contain most of the

elements discussed above.[8]

● Make use of the audio content provided with online dictionaries. This can help
considerably when you're unsure how to pronounce the word.
● To use Google to find online definitions, type: "define: futile". The search engine
will only look for definitions.
● Note that free services may not be as comprehensive as a subscription or book
dictionary, so keep this in mind when you're not sure that you've found the right
answer. Always check at least 2 different online definitions for the word you're
looking for.

Use the dictionary to find standard letter forms. Hard copy dictionaries
(rather than online ones) often have standard letters for jobs, for RSVPs, for
filing complaints, for various official writings.

Research various facts. Dictionaries often have more than just words and their
definitions. Some of them have lots of information about the world, usually in the
 form of various lists. These include geographical information (like maps,
countries, cities, capitals, etc.)

● Hard copy dictionaries often have different weights and volumes, as well as
conversion tables. This can come in handy if you need to convert pounds to
kilograms or vice versa.
● You can also usually find statistics on population in various cities and countries,
as well as lists of the flags of different countries, states, provinces, and regions
around the world.
● Many dictionaries also have lists of famous or historical people, which you can
peruse.

Have fun! Simply browse a dictionary to enlighten yourself about new words now
and then. Open the dictionary up to any page and scan the page for words that
are unfamiliar or seem interesting. Pinpoint them, read the definition and try to
add the new word to your thinking or talking during the next few days until it
becomes a remembered part of your natural vocabulary.

● Play the dictionary game with friends. This consists of getting some friends
together and a dictionary. The first player looks up a challenging word and uses it
in a sentence. The other players have to guess if the use of the word is accurate
or an outright fabrication. If a player guesses correctly, it's their turn next.
● Another dictionary game: Each player chooses a word which should be familiar
to the other players, then reads out the dictionary definition. The other players
compete to guess the word as quickly as possible - perhaps even shouting out
while the definition is still being read.
● Play Balderdash with a foreign language dictionary. Pick a random obscure word
and then have people make up definitions along with having the real definition,
having people guess which definition is the "real" one.
Diminutives - used to express the fact that something is small, often
either to show affection or to suggest that something or someone is not
important:

English language "usually forms diminutives by suffixing -y or -ie,

often to a reduced form of the source word, as in hanky for a
handkerchief, doggie for dog and Tommie for Thomas. But we also
use -ette, as in statuette and kitchenette."

Other examples of diminutives include booklet, a small book; circlet,

a small circle; duckling, a young duck; hillock a small hill; novelette, a
short novel; wavelet, a ripple or small wave; rivulet, a small brook or
stream; gosling, a young goose; coronet, a small crown; eyelet, a
small hole; and droplet, a tiny drop.

Diminutive Derivation -
"[I]n English, productive diminutive derivation hardly exists at all,
despite the existence of isolated baby forms such as handies, doggie
or birdie (one can say girlie but not *mannie, auntie but not *unclie,
horsie but not *goatie, and so on."

A Borrowed Italian Diminutive

"The food is so good because the ingredients are excellent, like the
bread that is made especially for 'ino at Blue Ribbon Bakery down the
block. But 'ino, a word ending that is an all-purpose Italian
diminutive, also offers a European-style warmth."

Contrasting Attitudes Toward Diminutives

Traditionally, the term 'diminutive' has been used to refer to words
which denote smallness and possibly also expressing an attitude. The
expressed attitude can be either positive or negative, i.e. either
affectionate or derogatory, depending on the specific interplay of
linguistic and situational factors in a given context."
"Diminutives are titles of endearment. Dr. Johnson calling Goldsmith
'Goldy' did equal honor to both."
"'Fanny' is a patronizing diminutive. It makes the author [Frances
Burney] sound like the harmless, childish, priggish girl-woman that
many critics want her to be--as if the heroine of Mansfield Park has
set up as a novelist. Let her have an adult full name."

The Trick of Shrinking -

"A charming trick almost every language has is the 'shrinking' of
someone or something you like by the use of diminutives. The
diminutive of Charles is Charlie. The diminutive of William is Billy.
The diminutive of star is starlet. The diminutive of pig is piglet. The
Olympics of diminutives is won hands-down by the Italians, who have
literally dozens of different forms of the diminutive, each conveying
its own special nuance of feeling for the noun undergoing the
shrinking."

Diminutives

Certain words are formed from other Nouns to express smallness, affection or contempt. Such words are called
‘Diminutives’.

Examples: -

Ankle Anklet Maid Maiden

Arm Armlet Owl Owlet
Babe Baby Pack Packet
Bird Birdie Part Particle
Book Booklet Ring Ringlet
Brook Brooklet River Rivulet
Bull Bullock Shade Shadow
Cat Kitten Stream Streamlet
Cigar Cigarette Table Tablet
Cock Chicken
Crown Coronet
Duck Duckling
Hill Hillock
Leaf Leaflet

Words indicating Offspring (Babies) of Animals

Bear \ Lion Cub Horse Colt, foal, filly

Cow Calf Hen Chicken
Cat Kitten Lion Whelp
Dog Puppy, Pup Sheep Lamb
Duck Duckling Stag Fawn
Goat Kid

Exercise of Diminutives -
There’s a minibus outside waiting to take you all to the station. (minibus = a bus
which is smaller than a standard bus)

Here’s a booklet which gives advice on keeping-fit. (booklet = a small book)

I can feel one or two droplets of rain. (droplet = little drops of rain)

Right, Matty, I’ve got some very good news for you. (Matty is formed from the
name ‘Matthew’)

I think she’s the perfect kitty for Jennifer. (kitty is formed from ‘kitten’ a young
cat)

We sometimes use a diminutive -y when we don’t want or don’t need to be

precise:

Her new dress was a sort of bluey color. (bluey = almost blue)

Homonyms + Homophones -

Homonyms

Book - The book that I just read was very inspirational.

Book - I need to book a flight.
Book - The police are going to book those criminals.

Address - to speak to / location.

Arm – body part / division of a company.

Bark - a tree’s out layer / the sound a dog makes / an insult to sb or sthg.
Circular - taking the form of a circle / a store advertisement.
Current - up to date / flow of water/ electric shock.
Desert - dry land / to abandon.
Fair - equitable / beautiful.

Homophones

The words with same sounds –

One, won
One: The mathematical number.
Won: The past tense of win – Our college cricket team has won the final match.

New, knew
New: Sthg that is so fresh and happening.
Knew: (Past tense of know) To know what has happened at that time.

Bread, Bred
Bread: A type of food.
Bred: (Past form of breed) – The old man bred the sheep very carefully till it breathed
it last.

Cereal, serial
Cereal: Grain used for food; type of dried breakfast eaten with milk.
Serial: In regular succession without gaps.
Flour, flower
Flour: Ingredient used to make bread and cake.
Flower: Seed – bearing part of a plant.

Meat: Food from the flesh of an animal.

Meet: Arrange or happen to cross paths with somebody.

Fetch up the blank using the right choice given in brackets:

1. You ______ (ought / aught) to have said it long ago.
2. ________ (Boys / Buoys) float on the sea to warn ships of danger.
3. He skidded because he did not apply the _______ (brake/ break).
4. The travelers had a terrible journey through _______ (torturous / tortuous) road.
5. If you want to reach God you have to _______ (forgo / forego) worldly pleasures.
6. She narrated series of ________ (discrete / discreet) events.
7. ________ (Ore / Oar) is used to row the boat.
8. The strength of Achilles was on his _______ (heal/ heel).
9. He told me the _______ (tail / tale) of a fox.
10. I did not have the _______ (hart / heart).
Articles -
Article Exercises -
Parts of Speech -

THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective,
adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the
word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual
word can function as more than one part of speech when used in different
circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is essential for determining the correct
definition of a word when using the dictionary.

1. NOUN

● A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

man... Butte College... house... happiness

A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article
(the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common
nouns do not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show
possession by adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for
example, a noun can be a subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or
object of a preposition.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Nouns" for further information.

2. PRONOUN

● A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

She... we... they... it

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a

specific noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for
the pronoun she is the girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns
refer to specific persons or things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive
pronouns are used to emphasize another noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a
subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Pronouns" for further information.

3. VERB - An action word

● A verb expresses action or being.

jump... is... write... become

The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes
one or more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping
verb.) A verb must agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural).
Verbs also take different forms to express tense.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Verbs" for more information.

4. ADJECTIVE

● An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.

pretty... old... blue... smart

An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually

answers the question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are
usually classified as adjectives.)

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Adjectives" for more information.

5. ADVERB

● An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

gently... extremely... carefully... well… majestically…

An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a
noun. It usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions,
or to what degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Adverbs" for more information.

6. PREPOSITION

● A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase

modifying another word in the sentence.

by... with.... about... until

(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying

another word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional
phrase. The prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an
adverb. The following list includes the most common prepositions:

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Prepositions" for more information.

7. CONJUNCTION

● A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.

and... but... or... while... because

A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between
the elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements:
and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not
equal: because, although, while, since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Conjunctions" for more information.

8. INTERJECTION - Injections of Interjections

● An interjection is a word used to express emotion.

Oh!... Wow!... Oops!

An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation

point.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Interjections" for more information.

Exercise for Parts of Speech:

In grammar, a part of speech is a linguistic category of words, which is generally

defined by the syntactic or morphological behavior of the lexical item in question.
Common linguistic categories include nouns and verbs, among others. There are
open word classes, which constantly acquire new members, and closed word
classes, which acquire new members infrequently if at all. Almost all languages
have the lexical categories noun and verb, but beyond these there are significant
variations in different languages. For example, Japanese has as many as three
classes of adjectives where English has one; Chinese, Korean and Japanese
have nominal classifiers whereas European languages do not; many languages
do not have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, adjectives and verbs
or adjectives and nouns, etc. This variation in the number of categories and their
identifying properties entails that analysis be done for each individual language.
Nevertheless the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal
criteria.

Below you'll find printable parts of speech worksheets. On these worksheets,

students learn to identify the part of speech of a word according to how it is used
in a given sentence. Then, they are given the opportunity to practice writing
sentences using the specified part of speech. All eight parts of speech are
covered in this section: Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions,
Interjections, Pronouns, and Conjunctions.
PRETEST

Study the following sentence and identify selected parts of speech. For each
word listed underline the correct part of speech. Compare your answers with
those at the bottom of the page.

The customer and I critically evaluated information on the company Website.

1. customer a. noun b. pronoun c. verb d. adjective

2. and a. preposition b. conjunction c. adjective d. Adverb
3. critically a. adjective b. conjunction c. preposition d. adverb
4. evaluated a. adverb b. noun c. verb d. adverb
5. on a. preposition b. conjunction c. adjective d. Adverb.

Without pronouns: Scott gave the book to Kelli so that Kelli could use the book to
study.

With pronouns: Scott gave the book to Kelli so that she could use it to study.

Verbs express an action, an occurrence, or a state of being.

Jason built an excellent Web site. (Action) It has many links. (Occurrence) He is
proud of it. (State of being).

Stacy submitted her application to become a management trainee. (Action verb)

Her résumé is just one page long. (Linking verb) She has been training to become
a manager. (Verb phrase) Stacy feels bad that she will be leaving her current
colleagues. (Linking verb and verb phrase)
Tenses -

TENSES
The basic three categories of tenses are: -
▪ Past tense
▪ Present tense
▪ Future (Past participle) tense.

There are in total 12 forms of tenses used as main tools of grammar: -

PRESENT TENSE

1. Simple present tense: Subject + 1st form of verb + s/es.

(To express what is actually now taking place)

Ex: She eats food as her regular habit at the terrace of her house.
The cobbler polishes the shoes of the customers who visit his shop each day.
The mother asks the servant why the baby has not taken dinner.

Note: -{ There is no use of attachment of helping verbs used in simple tense}

(To express a habitual action)

Ex: The flower blossoms in the garden every day.

My grandfather exercises early in the morning with other friends.
The World brushes its teeth to start a day afresh. (Totalitarian of Humanity)

(To express universal truths of the universe)

Ex: The soul is immortal.

The path of duty is the way to glory.
Where there is a will, there is a way.

(To express a future action, when futurity is indicated by a simple context)

Ex: School starts again on 15 December after a long vacation.

He sails for England next Monday.

(To express the action in time or taken as condition)

Ex: They stay in the hotel until the manager comes back soon.
If you wear a grey shirt, you will look handsome in the birthday party.
Unless you pack your bag, what will you think about going on vacation to Mauritius?
(To express in a narrative way very vivid and in a dramatic manner)
Ex: The Girl slips with her bicycle. She gets badly hurt. She manages to go to the hospital.

Present Continuous or Progressive Tense: Subject + is/are/am + 1st form of Verb +ing
(To express an action going on at the time of speaking)

Ex: The Carpenter is carving a beautiful design on the wooden sofa set.
Schools of fishes are travelling for many miles in search of food in sea.
The woman is marrying someone whom she doesn’t like at all.

(To express an action that is now progressive but not necessarily used while speaking)

Ex: The joker of the circus is planning to have a high-jump from here.
The ladies of the colony are talking to each other now-a-days.
The Gardener is watering a dead plant in his house garden for a long.

(To express a definite action in the near future)

Ex: We are going out for a business trip tonight.

We are listening to rock music tomorrow.
The Glass House is going to be painted green within two days.

Present Perfect Tense: Subject+ Has/ Have+ III form of verb

(To express an action that has just been over)

Ex: I have known my friend for few years.

The fish seller has just sold her fishes on beach of Goa to foreigner.
I have already got the petrol for my bike from the petrol station.

(To express a past action the results of which still continue)

Ex: I have lived in Seychelles for 2 years (now). It implies that the speaker is still living in Seychelles.
The shed for cows has been made to protect them from searing heat.

Note:- { A little bit of touch of past influence with present is available in situations like these}

(To express a future perfect when words such as: when, before, as soon as, till, after are used before it)

Ex: I shall visit my aunt’s home after I have done my lessons)

I will attend to this business as soon as I have finished my letter.

Note: {the preposition “to” imply the perfectness of the word as attached with the condition
respectively. We cannot remove the preposition “to” or else the condition will be wrong}
 Present Perfect Continuous Tense: Subject+ Has been/Have been+ v+ ing+ For/Since.
(It expresses the action that has started sometime in the past and is continued till present)

Ex: The mother has been preparing dinner in the kitchen for the family since 30 minutes.
The people have been protesting against government’s policy for the last 5 days.
My sister has been suffering from fever since Wednesday last.

Note: {In this form of the tense, we use “since” to indicate point of time and “For” to indicate period of
time.}

Ex: (Since morning, since last night, since Tuesday last, since February last, since 1978, since eight o’
clock, etc.)
(For a long time, for 5 days, for 4 months, for 8 years, etc.)

PAST TENSE

2. Simple Past Tense: Subject+ II form of verb+ rest of the sentence.

(To express that something was done or took place in past time)

Ex: The dentist cured the toothache of patient and relieved him of pain forever.
The child ate entire food of the plate and made her mother happy.
The contractor constructed the building at a cost of Rs. 2 Crore.

(To express an action actually going on at the time stated in past but as simple tense)

Ex: While they bathed, we fished seven large fishes from the pond.
As long as elephant danced with football, public clapped in circus.

Rule: {`The most important feature of a situation is to understand whether the ‘verb’ taken is regular or
irregular. If a regular verb is considered than all “3” forms of verb change whereas for an irregular verb
no form of the verb change and only ‘ed’ attached with the verb.}

Ex: Go went Gone

See Saw Seen
Hear Heard Heard
Cast Cast Cast (Irregular)
Broadcast Broadcast Broadcast (Irregular)
Put Put Put (Irregular)
Love Loved Loved

Past Continuous: Subject+ Was/were+ V+ ing+ rest of the sentence

(To express an action that was still going on in the past time referred to as)

Ex: The Singer was singing onto the stage, when I called upon her.
Why was the dog running and barking at the stranger of the colony?
The women of the village were fetching water in bucket for cleaning the buffaloes.

Past Perfect: Subject+ Had+ III form of verb+ rest of the sentence

(To denote an action which had been over at some point in the past time before another action commenced
(started)

Ex: Then train had left before we reached the station.

The Ship had sunk and the Navy couldn’t find it for long.
The pocket had gone torn due to more pressure of coins inside it.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense: Subject+ Had been+ v+ ing

(To express an action of writing that had continued for a certain time previous to the point of past time named
but not been made confirmed whether it finished or not in past successfully)

Ex: She had been singing for two hours. (Imperfect past)
She had been singing for two hours when you came to meet her. (Perfect past)
The chauffeur (driver) had been driving Mercedes Benz for his Boss on city streets two days ago.

Note:{The confusion with PPCT is that the situation of the past is rather doubtful all the time because the time
always asks for something to be completed which tends to never get complete and is left with uncertainty of
an action performed.}

Future Tense

Simple Future Tense: Subject+ Will/Shall+ 1st form of verb.

(To express an action that is about to occur or that will take place in the future)

Ex: We shall go to swim in a swimming pool tomorrow with family.

Will we ever have a chance to relish “Disneyland”?

Future Continuous Tense: Subject+ Will be/Shall be+ V+ ing

(To denote an action going on at some point in future time)

Ex: The mouse of the laptop will not be working properly.

My mother will be making ‘Chapattis’ in the kitchen 15 min from now.
(The tense is used to describe an action which is expected to occur in the normal course)

Ex: My meeting with the minister will be fixed tomorrow at Hotel Sheraton.
 The Share market will be balanced at the Bombay Exchange Board tomorrow.

(The tense indicating in negative is used for an action that will not occur in normal course)

Ex: The child will be scolding his father for not taking him to amusement park due to his sickness.
The Tap of the house will be running off for 3 long days as the water-motor has short-circuited.

(The tense considered under an action taken as interrogative but is asked as polite question)

Ex: Will you be gently lifting the fragile glass flower pot in my absence from my office?
Should she be helping the beggar to get him cross the road properly?

Future Perfect Tense: Subject+ Will have/Shall have+ 3rd form of (V)

(An action simplifies that it will definitely end or sometime in near future)

Ex: The servant will have done household works until the landlady should arrive at home.
Nobody will have taken anything from you by the time you reach home in evening.
The play will have begun when you get to the theatre.

Future Perfect Continuous Tense: Subject+ Shall have/will have been+ V+ ing
(An action explains that the action of writing whether finished or unfinished will have been in progress for
sometime)

Ex: The workers of the coal mine will have been working non-stop inside the mine for 45 days.
I shall have been listening you for half an hour until my breakfast ends.
My cousin will have been living in ‘Pachmarhi’ for five long years by the end of this week.

`Total no. of forms of tenses`

✔ She dances outside her house in rain.
✔ She is dancing outside her house in rain.
✔ She has danced outside her house in rain.
✔ She has been dancing outside her house in rain.
✔ She danced outside her house in rain.
✔ She was dancing outside her house in rain.
✔ She had danced outside her house in rain.
✔ She had been dancing outside her house in rain.
✔ She will dance outside her house in rain.
✔ She will be dancing outside her house in rain.
✔ She will have danced outside her house in rain.
✔ She will have been dancing outside her house in rain. END

Miscellaneous sentences based on PRESENT + PAST + FUTURE (Tense)

Present tense
✔ They often go fishing and catch nothing from there.
 ✔ My friends work in Switzerland; they buy and sell expensive cars.
✔ They wash their hands and dry them over towel. ……………………………………….
✔ Do these ladies generally go to theatre on Saturday evenings or do they stay at home?
✔ His brothers work hard all day and want to rest in the evening.
✔ These boys say that they always listen carefully, but do not always understand their teachers because
they speak rapidly and choose very difficult words.
✔ They tell me that when they get home every afternoon they have some food and then change their
clothes; they never eat or drink anything while they are at the office, unless the hot weather makes
them very thirsty.
✔ These men go to work by train every day. They stay in the train for half an hour and sit or stand there
and read their newspapers. They try to read all the news during the journey and in that way know a
lot about the topics of the day.
✔ These boys play in the garden every morning and usually break something or tear their clothes or cut
themselves when they fall. Small boys cry when they hurt themselves but as they grow older they
hide their feelings and become less noisy.
✔ Babies are a great nuisance. They need attention all the time. If they do not disturb you by crying,
they have to be fed, bathed or looked after. They do not even thank the people who take care of
them.

Past tense

✔ Scenes from the whole of his past life flashed through the sailor’s mind as he got drown once in
life.
✔ It was a long and stern face but with eyes that twinkled in a kindly way.
✔ The child went to his classroom as his mother lead him into the hall and everyone turned and
stared
at him.
✔ The boy cooked his own breakfast when called by mother and shouted at her until she realized her
mistake and made her son happy again.
✔ I sold lot of my favorite books last month and decided never to collect then in bulk. This helped me in
taking vital decisions about unnecessary expenses. I felt a great relief after that event took place.
✔ When I saw him he sat asleep in a chair relaxing himself until the dog barked and awakened him to his
surprise with a very heavy voice.
✔ While I walked through the park with my girl last night, a man snatched her purse from her hand and
ran away. I couldn’t run after him because it was pitch dark everywhere and it scared her when I left
her alone. The Police failed to catch him from the crime spot.

Future tense

✔ What are you going to do now for the problem that exists?
✔ When are you going to have your next English lesson?
✔ Ask the girl if she is going to watch the movie tonight with us?
✔ Will you have time to do an exercise this week with me at the gymnasium?
✔ You shall never be answering me correctly without the help of answering machine of your house.
✔ I will never believe you for you are untrustworthy.
✔ He will feel sick if he talks to you anymore long.
✔ The baby shall get his tooth removed at the dentist’s clinic.
 ✔ The sun is going to shine in the sky at anytime.
✔ Won’t you kiss me `goodnight`?

Errors in the use of Tenses

Incorrect: I did not write the letter yet.

Correct: I have not written the letter yet.

Incorrect: I lived in New Delhi since 1986.

Correct: I have lived in New Delhi since 1986.

Incorrect: The servant has not come when called.

Correct: The servant did not come when called.

Incorrect: My brother had gone America last week.

Correct: My brother went to America last week.

Incorrect: He told me that she was ill for six days.

Correct: He told me that she had been ill for six days.

Incorrect: He will reach home before the sun will set.

Correct: He will have reached home before the sun sets.

Correct forms of verb

Cricket (play) in England for more than six hundred years now. (Incorrect)
Cricket has been played for more than 600 years now in England. (Correct)
Cricket is been played in England for long. (Correct)
England has been conducting the game of Cricket for more than six hundred years now. (Differently patterned)

While the Cat (cross) the road she (run) over by a speeding car. (Incorrect)
While the Cat was crossing the road she was running over by a speeding car. (Correct)
While the Cat crosses the road she runs over by a speeding car. (Correct)
While the Cat decides to cross the road she gets hit by a speeding car. (Differently patterned sentence)
It (be) almost 15 years since my niece (leave) for Switzerland. (Incorrect)
It is being almost 15 years since my niece left for Switzerland. (Correct)
It is almost 15 years since I met my niece in this city before she left for Switzerland. (Correct)
It has been 15 long years since I saw the face of my niece from Switzerland. (Differently patterned sentence)

Since her husband (die) she (be) very upset and unhappy. (Incorrect)
Since her husband died she is been very upset and unhappy. (Correct)
Ever since her husband died she is been very upset and unhappy. (Correct)
Since the death of her husband she has been very upset and unhappy. (Correct)
Knowing the death of her beloved husband she is been highly upset and unhappy since. (Differently patterned)

We (not see) her since we (leave) school yesterday. (Incorrect)

We haven’t seen her since we left school yesterday. (Correct)
We did not see her since we leave the school yesterday. (Correct)
She has not been seen anywhere in school since we left the premise the previous day. (Differently patterned)
She couldn’t be seen in school anywhere yesterday. (Differently patterned)

My sister (go) out at seven o’ clock in the evening and (not yet return). (Incorrect)
My sister goes out at seven o’ clock in the evening and does not return. (Correct)
My sister has gone out at seven and has not yet returned? (Correct)
My sister went out at seven and still there isn’t any sign of her? (Correct)
My sister leaves premise (home) at seven and does not return? (Is a matter of worry?) (Differently patterned)
She went out at seven and she hasn’t returned yet? (Correct)

He (take) a bath when the telephone rang. (Incorrect)

He was taking a bath when the phone rang. (Correct)
He took a bath when phone rang. (Correct)
He was taking a bath when the phone was ringing. (Correct)
The telephone rang at the time of his bath. (Differently patterned)
He got disturbed by the acute sound of telephone ring while taking a pleasant bath. (Differently patterned)
The ring of the phone was unheard to him as long as he stayed inside the bathroom. (Differently patterned)

At the moment the baby (sleep) in the cradle. (Incorrect)

At the moment the baby sleeps in the cradle. (Correct)
At the moment the baby is sleeping in the cradle. (Correct)
The baby sleeps in the cradle at this moment. (Differently patterned)
The cradle of the baby is occupied with his siesta. (Differently patterned)

Although the work (be) difficult, I (finish) it within the given time and (go) home.
Although the work was difficult, I finished it within the given time and went home.
Although the work had been difficult, I finished it within the given time period and had gone home.
Although the work had been difficult I finished it and went home within the given time period.
The work being so difficult to handle I somehow finished it and went home in the given time period.
I went home in given time period as I managed to handle and finish such a difficult work in hand.

Tenses in conditional sentences

There are mainly three kinds of condition: -

1. Open condition: - In such condition an action may or may not be fulfilled.

Ex: If the father is angry he might not take us to the parlor to make us eat an ice-cream.

Note: - {He might take us or not we do not know}

Unless the baby drinks milk mother won’t sleep in the night.

Point 1

The reference to the present used both for conditional and the main clause: -

If I eat spicy food it causes me indigestion.

If you press the wrong button you lose your money.
If water goes below freezing point it turns into ice.

Point 2

The reference focused to the future where the present tense is used in conditional clause and future tense
in the main clause: -

If I find anything wrong, I shall inform you.

If you meet her ask her how her parents are getting on.
If it rains remind the girl to take her umbrella with her inside the car.
If he is not sick tell the worker to start digging earth once again.

Point 3

The reference given as a polite usage to define a situation: -

 I should consider it a favor if you would lend me your scooter.

2. Rejected Condition: - a condition which might have been fulfilled but it is not.

If I weren’t so tired, I would go to the cinema with you.

If I had time I should have made visit to the exhibition.

Note: - {These sentences imply that I am tired and that I have no time.)

If the reference is to the past, this becomes: -

If I had not been so busy, I would have gone cinema with you.
If I had had time, I should have visited the exhibition.
If he had worked harder, he would have passed the examination.

3. Imaginary Condition: - This is a condition i.e. one which could not be true.

If I were you, I would have bought an expensive car.

If I were a millionaire I would help the poor.
What would you have done if you were attacked by a robber?

Condition that correctly completes a sentence

If I have time a. I shall visit the exhibition.

b. I should visit the exhibition.
c. I ought to visit the exhibition.
Answer: - “B”.

If he were a year older a. he would be eligible for the post.

b. he will be eligible for the post.
c. he would have been eligible for the post
Answer: - “C”.

If he had all the wealth in the world a. he will not be happy.

b. he would not be happy.
c. he would not have been happy.
Answer: - “B”.
Had I known you were coming a. I will stay at home.
b. I would stay at home.
c. I would have stayed at home.
Answer: - “C”.

He would have passed the examination a. If he worked harder.

b. If he had worked harder.
c. If he would work harder.
Answer: - “B”.
The Sequence of Tenses

Sequence type no.1

Ex: I knew that he wanted to go home.

She was telling us that she knew the secret of his birth.
I would do this if I were allowed.
He never understood how this came about.

Sequence type no.2

Ex: They have told us that the film wasn’t good.

They are saying that they will win the match.

Note: {The use of “will” taken as variations in the sentence}

Ex: - He will think that she works hard.
He will think that she worked hard.
He will think that she will work hard.

Sequence no. 3

Ex: The teacher taught us that the earth is round.

The King said that all men are mortal.
He learnt from his experience that pride has a fall.

Sequence no. 4

Ex: She likes you better than she likes me

She likes you better than she liked me.
She liked you better than she likes me.
She will like you better than she has liked me.
She has liked you better than she liked me.

Sequence no. 5

Ex: She likes me as well as she liked him.

She liked me as well as she likes him.
She will like me as well as she liked him.

`The use of ‘in the same way’ to rewrite the same sentence` as: -

She likes me in the same way she liked him.

She liked me in the same way she likes me.
She will like me in the same way she liked me.
 More examples of Conditional tenses: -
If/ I see Mary/ I will tell her

If Condition Result

If Tamara is free tomorrow she will invite her friend at the birthday party.
If it rains tomorrow will you stay at home?
If it rains heavily what will you do?

Result If Condition
Will + base verb If simple present
I will tell Mary If I see her.
He will invite Tara if she is free tomorrow.
Their teacher will be sad if they do not pass their exam.
Will you stay at home if it rains tomorrow?
What will you do if it rains heavily?
Note: {The sentences just written is only the reciprocating way of writing conditional tense situations)

Sentence Structures -

Write the sentences in order

1 . by train / sometimes / Steven / to work / drives / .

2. are making / toys / We / for all the children / .

3 . soccer / play / during the break / Cloe and Taylor / .

4 . a new tv set/ My father / us / bought / .

5. His family / Mary / to the party / invited / .

6 . from Martha's vineyard / a postcard / Samuel / sent / .

7 . for my brother / made / The tailor / a suit / .

8 . all her friends / cooked / a delicious meal / He /.

9 . bought / two years ago / We / this car / .

10 . to the seaside / drives / He / at the weekend /.

11. in Wales / live / in a flat / The family / in a big city.

Subject-Verb Agreement -

Subject Verb Agreement

It simply means the subject must agree in number. This means both need to
be singular or both plurals.

§ My monkey passionately monkey’s around over an artificial branch

of a plastic tree of my backyard.

§ Basketballs roll across the court floor to delight the live audience
in a match of 1 hour.

§ These clothes of my mother you are wearing in trial room might have
virus infections on the surface.

§ Peter dislike buying many vegetables for a day as he lives in an

apartment alone.

Compound Subjects for SV Agreement

Compound subjects: Two subjects in the same subject that usually take a
plural verb, unless the combination is treated as singular in popular usage or
two subjects refer to the same thing or person.

Examples –

1 2

Sugar and flour is/ are needed for tonight’s recipe.

Neither my dad nor my brothers know how to Ski on the surface of the Snow.
Pepperoni and cheese topping appear fantastic on The Pizza.

Corned beef and cabbage is a traditional meal in Ireland. (Popular Usage)

The creator and producer is arriving soon. (both refer to the same person).
Punctuation -
Speech Drills -
Prompt Material Scenario -

You visit a market shop. You want to buy an item. Choose any prompt of your choice from the
shop you fancy the most and try to introduce or greet yourself by sharing few dialogues:

English Etiquettes / Cute Polite Phrases - "EXCUSE ME"

● Please allow me
● May I borrow your pen for a minute please? ✔ Please give me a pen?
● Thanks a million! / Thanks loads
● You look off-color to me today? What is the matter like? I am in the pink. Thank you for
asking.
● How is the world been treating you today? The world is been treating me absolutely
fine.
● Can I beg a favor of you?
● I'm sorry I couldn't make it that day or make it on time.
● Hold your horses! Will you permit me to speak something else as well, please!
● Can you move a bit softly, please. Or can you speak a bit softly?
● Can I have a word with you in private, please? Or Could you spare a few moments with me…? Or
May I have a word with you somewhere quiet, please? Or Can you lend me your ear for a
minute/ alone…? It is urgent!
● Do you need a helping hand? / Do you need any assistance? / Can I trouble you for a lift, please!?
● Please feel at home!
● I apologize for the inconvenience caused by me to you. Or Please forgive me! Or I beg your
pardon!
● I 'm loaded today. Let us have a treat at Dominos.
● My pockets are burnt out. Can we all GO DUTCH!
● Don't mistake me for a doctor, I am a Civil Engineer.
● Have a heart!
● How may I be of help!
● May I be delighted to have an address of yours?
● With all due respect…
● My family is eagerly awaiting for your gracious presence at the party.
● When can I expect to be at your dinner party, tonight!
● What is the time by your watch, please?
● Yes, indeed! It is heavily polluted.
● I am afraid I am not at all familiar with how people make a choice.
● Everyone must be desperately waiting for mouth-watering delicacies at the hotel tonight. Don't
you think!
COMMONLY USED WORDS AND PHRASES IN EVERYDAY USAGE

● I would like to + (Verb)

● I plan to + (Verb)
● I 'm calling to + (Verb)
● I 'll help you to + (Verb)
I think I should + (Verb)
What do you think about + V + ing
● Do you want me to + (verb)
● There is something wrong with +(Noun)
● Please make sure that + (Subject + Verb)

● What have you been up to lately ?

Reply: I have been on rough edges for the last 4 months.

● Anyway! It is quite late for me. I should get going now.

● Would you happen to know…? Would you happen to know that we can be
attacked by our neighbors anytime soon?

Reply: I would have happened to think the same way as you are. This truly terrifies me a lot!

● I don't suppose you (would) know…? I don’t suppose you (would) know the
dreadful condition in which we live in this vicinity?

Reply: I am well aware of the everyday evils of this place called "home" we live about over
here.

● I have been wondering…what/how/whether…? I have been wondering what

_name of actor__ would look like in real life?

Reply: Based on public's reaction he would be no different in his real life than a reel life.

● It doesn't make any real difference to me.

● I have got no opinion on the matter just discussed in the forum at all.
● I do not have strong feelings either way.
● I've never given it much thought.
Class Assignment -
Given are the statements very useful for speaking. Try to make out the sense by framing a
single line sentence with them -

1.) It is driving me up the wall TO BE FRUSTRATED AND IRRITATED WITH SOMETHING

2.) I have had all I can take of TO BE CONTENDED WITH EVERYTHING YOU HAVE GOT

3.) It really gets on my nerves UNABLE TO TOLERATE ANYMORE

4.) I like the idea of that TO BE HAPPY OF WHAT RECEIVED IN RETURN

5.) I cannot say that I find it interesting TO DEPEND ON ENTIRELY ON YOUR MOOD

6.) It is as interesting as watching a paint dry TO FELL SOMETHING SO MUCH BORING

7.) Just a stone thrown away RIGHT AT YOUR DOORSTEP

8.) She is always up for a party Or She is life and soul of the party READY TO ENJOY PARTY

9.) Why on earth did you go and do it? TO CRITICIZE SOMEBODY FOR MISTAKE

10.) Is there anything I can do to help TO SHOW THAT YOU CONCERN FOR SOMETHING

Make 3 different sentences of your own choice out of the common vocabulary -

Benefit:

1.
2.
3.

Besides:

1.
2.
3.

Bet:

1.
2.
3.

Beyond:
1.
2.
3.

Blame:

1.
2.
3.

Blanket:

1.
2.
3.

Blow:

1.
2.
3.

Board:

1.
2
3.

Boat:

1.
2.
3.

Bombing:

1.
2.
3.

● Wet-baggage on the seashore

● Emergency exit door

● Total blackout in the colony

● Common bore for people of colony

● The bottle of 'Pepsi' of the shop

● The cheap digital camera for the birthday party

● A mosquito bite on my skin

 ● The rain-cover of the car of the house

● The pick-pocket stealing money inside a public bus.

● A bus-driver takes a nap while driving at night.

Speaking Skills -

The Drill - An Airplane Crash Investigation

Alp Mountains (Germany) - Speed of Airbus (700 KMS) - Flight : From Russia
to Germany - No. of Passengers on board: 350 . - No. of crew members 04. -
Type of flight hours: Long trip of 14 to 18 hours.

All participants are required to speak at least for 2 minutes on the

prescribed theme + each one of you will have to frame questions related to
the theme as well

Frame at least 5 to 7 questions of your choice.

Time duration to think about: 3 to 5 minutes

Time duration to speak theme + questions: 7 minutes
Total duration: 12 minutes

● Assume you are in an Ice-Cream producing factory 'Top-N-Town' located at

Mandideep. You have gone for internship offered by your college and do
not have knowledge about Ice Creams at all. What or How would you say
and ask things at the factory meeting strangers over there?

● How would you describe a situation under which an innocent woman gets
robbed inside an ATM machine by few thugs (hooligans).

Time to participate in a two way conversation - (2 persons only)

 Subject matter session:

a. Do credit cards actually benefit the customers of society?

Features:

● Yes! Credit cards do benefit customers.

● No, I am afraid not! / No, they do not benefit at all.

b. Talking about company - Which scenario is best tailored for your future job?

c. Saki is appearing for a job interview at an office of a renowned firm -

Should she have first researched at her own level to collect thorough
information about the company?

Why is it good to know about a company's business, products, and

services?

Why must an applicant be very confident in providing answers to

employers?

The applicant expected to be briefed about the company after being

selected.

c. What is customer service and how will you handle an angry customer?

Features:

Why is it essential to get special training for clients who go angry and are
very challenging too?

Why is International Customer Service tenfold better than Domestic

Customer Service?
Class Assignment -

Look at the images and speak for 5 minutes -

Secret Snap -
Pronunciation & Accent
Accent Vs Pronunciation -

Accent and pronunciation, though closely related words, have differences between them
when it comes to their meaning. However, the two words are often confused as words that
give the same meaning. Now, when it comes to a language, according to the Oxford English
dictionary, an accent is ‘a distinctive way of pronouncing a language, especially one
associated with a particular country, area, or social class.’ Accent also refers to the stress or
emphasis that has to be placed on a letter in a particular word. On the other hand,
pronunciation is the manner in which a word should be articulated for the better
understanding of it. This is the main difference between accent and pronunciation.

What is Accent?
Accent is related to a language. Having an accent or not does not harm the way a language
is used. Accent is mostly related to poetry. In the composition of poetry, by accent, you
mean the stress or emphasis that has to be placed on a letter in a particular word. Then, an
accent is important in composing music and poetry.

Accent is all about intonation. If the accent goes wrong, then intonation also goes wrong.
Hence, what you speak is not usually well received. However, if you have a strong British
accent then an American speaker might not understand what you say immediately.
However, that does not say you are pronouncing it wrong. With time, the American listener
will understand as the word is pronounced correctly. Accent sometimes refers to the tone of
voice.

What is Pronunciation?
On the other hand, pronunciation is more about speaking a language and articulation.
Language is defined as a mode of expression of thought by means of articulate sounds.
The articulate sounds referred to in the definition refer to pronunciation. Only if the
pronunciation of a particular word is rightly made, the listener can understand the sense of
it. Otherwise, he may not be in a position to understand what you speak. Pronunciation is
important in speaking.

Pronunciation is all about articulation. On the other hand, if articulation goes wrong, then the
entire pronunciation goes wrong, and the person who is spoken cannot understand what
you are trying to say. On the other hand, pronunciation refers to the elocution aspect of
speech. This is the reason why pronunciation is given great importance during elocution
competitions in schools and colleges.
What is the difference between Accent and Pronunciation?
• When it comes to a language an accent is ‘a distinctive way of pronouncing a language,
especially one associated with a particular country, area, or social class.’

• Accent also refers to the stress or emphasis that has to be placed on a letter in a particular
word.

• On the other hand, pronunciation is the manner in which a word should be articulated for
the better understanding of it.

• Accent is all about intonation, whereas pronunciation is all about articulation.

• Having a different accent does not mean that you are speaking a language wrongly.
However, if you are not pronouncing the word as it should be pronounced wrongly then you
are speaking a language wrongly.

These are the important differences between the two words that are often confused,
namely, accent and pronunciation.

Speech Test Example:

Got ten people lined up like sardines on the floor of this little studio flat.

Variously referred to as the ‘Queen’s English’, ‘BBC English’ or ‘Oxford English’,

Received Pronunciation, or RP for short, is the accent usually described as
typically British. Find out more about its origins and its current status in the UK.
RP: a social accent of English

Received Pronunciation, or RP for short, is the instantly recognisable accent

often described as ‘typically British’. Popular terms for this accent, such as ‘the
Queen’s English’, ‘Oxford English’ or ‘BBC English’ are all a little misleading.
Queen Elizabeth II, for instance, spoke an almost unique form of English, while
the English we hear at Oxford University or on the BBC is no longer restricted to
one type of accent. RP is an accent, not a dialect, since all RP speakers speak
Standard English. In other words, they avoid non-standard grammatical
constructions and localized vocabulary characteristic of regional dialects.
RP is also regionally non-specific, that is it does not contain any clues about a
speaker’s geographic background. But it does reveal a great deal about their
social and/or educational background.
Well-known but not widely used -

RP is probably the most widely studied and most frequently described variety of
spoken English in the world, yet recent estimates suggest only 3% of the UK
population speak it. It has a negligible presence in Scotland and Northern Ireland
and is arguably losing its prestige status in Wales. It should properly, therefore,
be described as an English, rather than a British accent. As well as being a living
accent, RP is also a theoretical linguistic concept. It is the accent on which
phonemic transcriptions in dictionaries are based, and it is widely used (in
competition with General American) for teaching English as a foreign language.
RP is included here as a useful reference, not to imply it has greater merit than
any other English accent, but because it provides us with an extremely familiar
model against which comparisons with other accents may be made.

What’s in the name?

RP is a young accent in linguistic terms. It was not around, for example, when Dr
Johnson wrote A Dictionary of the English Language in 1757. He chose not to
include pronunciation suggestions as he felt there was little agreement even
within educated society regarding ‘recommended’ forms. The phrase Received
Pronunciation was coined in 1869 by the linguist, A J Ellis, but it only became a
widely used term to describe the accent of the social elite after the phonetician,
Daniel Jones, adopted it for the second edition of the English Pronouncing
Dictionary (1924). The definition of ‘received’ conveys its original meaning of
‘accepted’ or ‘approved’ – as in ‘received wisdom’. We can trace the origins of RP
back to the public schools and universities of 19th-century Britain – indeed
Daniel Jones initially used the term Public School Pronunciation to describe this
emerging, socially exclusive accent. Over the course of that century, members of
the ruling and privileged classes increasingly attended boarding schools such as
Winchester, Eton, Harrow and Rugby and graduated from the Universities of
Oxford and Cambridge. Their speech patterns – based loosely on the local accent
of the south-east Midlands (roughly London, Oxford and Cambridge) – soon came
to be associated with ‘the Establishment’ and therefore gained a unique status,
particularly within the middle classes in London.

Broadcaster’s choice -
RP probably received its greatest impetus, however, when it was selected in 1922
by the BBC Advisory Committee on Spoken English as a broadcasting standard –
hence the origins of the term BBC English. The Committee believed Standard
English, spoken with an RP accent, would be the most widely understood variety
of English, both here in the UK and overseas. Members of the committee were
also conscious that choosing a regional accent might run the risk of alienating
some listeners. To a certain extent their decision was understandable, and their
attitude only reflected the social climate at the time. But since RP was the
preserve of the aristocracy and expensive public schools, it represented only a
very small social minority. This policy prevailed at the BBC for a considerable
time and probably contributed to the sometimes negative perception of regional
varieties of English.

There’s more than one RP -

A speaker who uses numerous very localized pronunciations is often described

as having a ‘broad’ or ‘strong’ regional accent, while terms such as ‘mild’ or ‘soft’
are applied to speakers whose speech patterns are only subtly different from RP
speakers. So, we might describe one speaker as having a broad Glaswegian
accent and another as having a mild Scottish accent. Such terms are inadequate
when applied to Received Pronunciation, although as with any variety of English,
RP encompasses a wide variety of speakers and should not be confused with the
notion of ‘posh’ speech. The various forms of RP can be roughly divided into
three categories. Conservative RP refers to a very traditional variety particularly
associated with older speakers and the aristocracy. Mainstream RP describes an
accent that we might consider extremely neutral in terms of signals regarding
age, occupation or lifestyle of the speaker. Contemporary RP refers to speakers
using features typical of younger RP speakers. All, however, are united by the
fact they do not use any pronunciation patterns that allow us to make
assumptions about where they are from in the UK.
It is important to pay attention to stress and intonation if we want to learn a
language properly. In this article, we are going to look at these two concepts
differently and then move onto the discussion about the difference between
Stress and Intonation.

What is Stress?
Stress is the emphasis given to a specific syllable or word in speech, usually
through a combination of relatively greater loudness, higher pitch, and longer
duration. Syllable is a part of a word that is pronounced with one uninterrupted
sound. It is also important to remember that we stress the vowel sound of the
word, not the consonant sound.
The stress placed on syllables in a word is called lexical stress or word stress.
Stress placed on some words within a sentence is called sentence stress or
prosodic stress.
The Necklace by Guy De Maupassant
A Shadow By R.K. Narayan -