Queens College

Department of Management

Organizational Research

Title: - Operational research

Prepared by: Adugna Seifew

ID: 000 4/14

Submitted to:

Submission date: Dec/04/2024

Contents
1. Describe basic psychological concepts..................................................................3
2. Compare and contrast the major theoretical perspectives in psychology.........................4
3. Discuss different aspects of human development.....................................................6
4. Compare and contrast different learning theories.....................................................8
5. Summarize Motivational and Emotional processes.................................................11
6. Demonstrate social and interpersonal skills in everyday life.....................................12
7. Set an adaptive goal and plan for future..............................................................13
8. Apply knowledge of psychology to one’s own life and to develop life skills..................13
9. Explain ways how self-confidence self-esteem self-efficacy assertiveness responsible
behaviors interpersonal skills will be strengthened.................................................15
10. Apply different stress coping mechanisms..........................................................16

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 11. Appreciate the use of life skill principles for every life..........................................17
12. Be grateful to the application of different learning theories.....................................18
Reference...................................................................................................19

1. Describe basic psychological concepts.

Psychological concepts:
i. Behaviorism: - Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and their relationship with
environmental stimuli. Key figures like B.F. Skinner and John Watson emphasized that
all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment via conditioning.
ii. Cognitive Psychology: - This branch of psychology studies mental processes such as
perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. It emphasizes the role of
internal thought processes and how they influence behavior.
iii. Psychoanalysis: - Founded by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis explores the influence of
unconscious processes on behavior. Freud believed that early childhood experiences and
unconscious desires shape an individual's personality and behavior.
iv. Humanistic Psychology: -Humanistic psychology, promoted by figures like Carl Rogers
and Abraham Maslow, focuses on individual potential and personal growth. It emphasizes
the importance of self-actualization and the innate goodness of people.

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 v. Biopsychology: -Also known as behavioral neuroscience, this field examines the
relationship between brain function and behavior. It integrates principles from biology
and psychology to understand how brain activity affects emotions, thoughts, and actions.
vi. Developmental Psychology: - This area of psychology studies how people grow and
change throughout their lifespan. It covers physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
development from infancy to old age.
vii.Social Psychology: -Social psychology explores how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors are influenced by social interactions and societal factors. It investigates topics
such as group dynamics, conformity, and interpersonal relationships.
viii. Positive Psychology: - Positive psychology focuses on strengths and virtues that
enable individuals and communities to thrive. It emphasizes the study of happiness, well-
being, and what makes life worth living.

2. Compare and contrast the major theoretical perspectives in

psychology
In the comparison and contrast of major psychological perspectives.
i. Behaviorism vs. Cognitive Psychology
a. Behaviorism:
 Focus: Observable behavior and environmental influences.
 Key Figures: B.F. Skinner, John Watson.
 Key Concepts: Conditioning (classical and operant).
 Strengths: Strong empirical support; practical applications (e.g., behavioral
therapies).
 Weaknesses: Ignores mental processes; can be overly deterministic.
b. Cognitive Psychology:
 Focus: Mental processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving.
 Key Figures: Jean Piaget, Ulric Neisser.
 Key Concepts: Information processing, cognitive development.
 Strengths: Highlights importance of mental processes; has led to cognitive-
behavioral therapies.
 Weaknesses: Can overlook the influence of emotions and social factors.

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ii. Psychoanalysis vs. Humanistic Psychology
a. Psychoanalysis:
 Focus: Unconscious mind and early childhood experiences.
 Key Figures: Sigmund Freud.
 Key Concepts: Defense mechanisms, psychosexual stages.
 Strengths: Comprehensive theory of personality; therapeutic techniques like
free association.
 Weaknesses: Lack of empirical evidence; often considered unscientific.

b. Humanistic Psychology:
 Focus: Individual potential and self-actualization.
 Key Figures: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow.
 Key Concepts: Hierarchy of needs, unconditional positive regard.
 Strengths: Emphasizes personal growth and self-determination; holistic
approach.
 Weaknesses: Lacks rigorous scientific methods; can be overly idealistic.
iii.Biopsychology vs. Social Psychology
a. Biopsychology:
 Focus: Relationship between brain function and behavior.
 Key Figures: Roger Sperry, Paul Broca.
 Key Concepts: Neurotransmitters, brain structures, genetic influences.
 Strengths: Strong scientific basis; advances in neuroimaging.
 Weaknesses: Can be reductionist; may overlook environmental and social
influences.
b. Social Psychology:
 Focus: Influence of social interactions and societal factors on behavior.
 Key Figures: Solomon Asch, Stanley Milgram.
 Key Concepts: Conformity, group dynamics, social identity.
 Strengths: Emphasizes real-world social context; extensive research on
social influence.

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  Weaknesses: Can be overly focused on Western societies; sometimes
underestimates biological factors.
iv. Commonalities and Differences
 Commonalities: All these perspectives aim to understand and explain human
behavior and mental processes but do so from different angles and with varying
methods.
 Differences: Each perspective has its own unique focus, key concepts, strengths,
and weaknesses. While behaviorism emphasizes environmental conditioning,
cognitive psychology highlights internal thought processes. Psychoanalysis delves
into the unconscious mind, whereas humanistic psychology focuses on personal
growth and self-actualization. Biopsychology investigates the biological bases of
behavior, while social psychology examines the influence of social interactions
and societal factors.

3. Discuss different aspects of human development

Human development is an intricate tapestry of growth and change, spanning various
dimensions throughout life. Here's a comprehensive overview:

i. Physical Development

This encompasses the changes in the body over time. It includes:

 Growth: Height and weight changes, muscle development, and changes in body
proportions.

 Motor Skills: The refinement of gross motor skills (e.g., walking, running) and fine
motor skills (e.g., writing, drawing).

 Puberty and Aging: Hormonal changes during adolescence and the gradual physical
changes that occur as people age.

ii. Cognitive Development

This aspect deals with the changes in thinking, problem-solving, and learning. Key
elements include:

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 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operational stages.

 Information Processing: How we encode, store, and retrieve information.

 Executive Function: Skills like planning, decision-making, and self-regulation.

iii.Social Development

Social development involves changes in how individuals interact with others. Major
components are:

 Attachment: The bonds formed between children and their caregivers.

 Relationships: Friendships, peer relationships, romantic relationships, and family

dynamics.

 Social Skills: Communication, empathy, and conflict resolution.

iv. Emotional Development

This dimension includes changes in how individuals experience, express, and manage
emotions:

 Emotion Regulation: The ability to manage and respond to emotional experiences.

 Self-Concept and Self-Esteem: How individuals perceive themselves and their worth.

 Emotional Intelligence: Recognizing and managing one's own emotions, as well as

understanding and influencing others' emotions.

v. Moral and Ethical Development

This involves the evolution of a person's understanding of right and wrong:

 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development: Pre-conventional, conventional, and post-

conventional levels.

 Ethical Behavior: Developing a sense of justice, fairness, and compassion.

vi.Cultural and Societal Influences

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 Human development doesn't occur in a vacuum but is influenced by cultural and societal
contexts:

 Cultural Norms and Values: How culture shapes behaviors, beliefs, and expectations.

 Socioeconomic Factors: The impact of economic status, education, and community

resources on development.

vii. Lifespan Perspective

Development is a lifelong process, with each stage of life bringing its own challenges and
achievements. This perspective emphasizes:

 Continuity and Change: How certain traits and behaviors remain stable while others
evolve.

 Contextual Influences: The role of environmental factors at different life stages.

4. Compare and contrast different learning theories

Learning theories provide frameworks for understanding how individuals acquire,
process, and retain knowledge. By compare some of the most prominent theories:

I. Behaviorism

Key Figures: B.F. Skinner, John Watson Focus: Observable behaviors and their
responses to stimuli. Key Concepts:

 Classical Conditioning: Learning through association (Pavlov’s dogs).

 Operant Conditioning: Learning through rewards and punishments (Skinner’s
box).

Strengths:

 Emphasizes measurable and observable behaviors.

 Effective in behavior modification techniques.

Limitations:

 Ignores internal cognitive processes.

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  May oversimplify learning as just responses to external stimuli.

II. Cognitivism

Key Figures: Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner Focus: Internal mental processes and how
they influence learning. Key Concepts:

 Schema: Mental structures used to organize knowledge.

 Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, formal operational (Piaget).

Strengths:

 Recognizes the importance of internal thought processes.

 Provides a developmental perspective on learning.

Limitations:

 May underestimate the influence of social and emotional factors.

 Can be difficult to observe and measure cognitive processes directly.

III. Constructivism

Key Figures: Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget Focus: Learners actively construct their
own understanding and knowledge. Key Concepts:

 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what learners can
do without help and what they can achieve with guidance (Vygotsky).
 Scaffolding: Support given to learners that is gradually removed as they become
more proficient.

Strengths:

 Emphasizes active learning and personal meaning-making.

 Encourages collaborative and contextual learning.

Limitations:

 Can be challenging to implement effectively in large classrooms.

 Requires highly skilled educators to provide appropriate scaffolding.

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 IV. Social Learning Theory

Key Figure: Albert Bandura Focus: Learning through observation, imitation, and
modeling. Key Concepts:

 Observational Learning: Learning by watching others.

 Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations.

Strengths:

 Highlights the importance of social interactions and modeling.

 Useful for understanding the influence of media and peers on behavior.

Limitations:

 May not fully account for individual cognitive processes.

 The effects of observational learning can be variable and context dependent.

V. Humanistic Learning Theory

Key Figures: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow Focus: Personal growth and self-
actualization. Key Concepts:

 Self-Actualization: Realizing one's full potential (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

 Learner-Centered Education: Emphasizes the importance of personal choice and
motivation.

Strengths:

 Focuses on the whole person and their unique experiences.

 Encourages a positive, supportive learning environment.

Limitations:

 May lack specific strategies for practical application.

 Some concepts can be abstract and difficult to measure.

VI. Comparison and Contrast

Aspect Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism Social Learning Humanistic Learning Theory

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 Theory

Key Figures Skinner, Watson Piaget, Bruner Vygotsky, Piaget Bandura Rogers, Maslow

Focus Observable Mental Active knowledge Observation and Personal growth and self-
behaviors processes construction imitation actualization

Learning Conditioning Schema ZPD, scaffolding Observational Learner-centered, self-

Process through stimuli formation, learning, self- actualization
cognitive stages efficacy

Strengths Measurable, Recognizes Active, contextual Social Personal choice, supportive

observable internal learning interaction, environment
processes modeling

Limitations Ignores Hard to measure Difficult in large Variable effects, Abstract, hard to measure
cognitive internal settings context-
processes processes dependent

5. Summarize Motivational and Emotional processes

I. Motivational Processes

Motivational processes refer to the internal drives and external incentives that prompt
individuals to act in certain ways.

Intrinsic Motivation:
 Definition: Performing an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some
separable consequence.
 Examples: Enjoying a hobby, learning out of curiosity.
Extrinsic Motivation:
 Definition: Engaging in an activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment.
 Examples: Studying for a grade, working for a paycheck.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
 Basic Needs: Physiological (food, water) and Safety (security, stability).
 Psychological Needs: Belongingness (relationships) and Esteem (recognition).
 Self-Actualization: Realizing personal potential and self-fulfillment.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT):

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  Components: Autonomy (control over one’s actions), Competence (feeling
effective), and Relatedness (connection with others).
Expectancy Theory:
 Core Idea: Motivation is based on the expected outcome of behavior, the value of
the outcome, and the likelihood of achieving it.

II. Emotional Processes

Emotional processes involve the experiences, expressions, and management of emotions.

Basic Emotions:
 Primary Emotions: Happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust.
 Characteristics: Universally recognized across cultures, typically short-lived.
Emotion Regulation:
 Definition: The ability to manage and respond to emotional experiences
appropriately.
 Strategies: Cognitive reappraisal (changing thought patterns), suppression
(inhibiting emotion expression).
Emotional Intelligence (EI):
 Components: Self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness, relationship
management.
 Importance: Linked to better personal and professional relationships, mental
health, and leadership abilities.
Affective Forecasting:
 Definition: Predicting future emotional states.
 Accuracy: People often misjudge the intensity and duration of their future
emotions.
Stress and Coping:
 Stress: A response to perceived threats or challenges.
 Coping Mechanisms: Problem-focused coping (solving the problem) and
emotion-focused coping (managing emotions).

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6. Demonstrate social and interpersonal skills in everyday life
Essential social and interpersonal skills:
 Active Listening: Pay attention, nod, and avoid interruptions.
 Effective Communication: Be clear, concise, and mindful of body language.
 Empathy: Show genuine interest and validate others' feelings.
 Conflict Resolution: Stay calm, focus on solutions, and listen to all sides.
 Teamwork: Share responsibilities, respect viewpoints, and celebrate
achievements.
 Assertiveness: Use “I” statements, set boundaries, and be respectful.
 Adaptability: Stay open-minded and embrace change.
 Patience: Take deep breaths and listen attentively.
 Trustworthiness: Keep promises and be honest.
 Positive Attitude: Approach challenges with optimism and express gratitude.

7. Set an adaptive goal and plan for future

An adaptive goal and plan for your future
 Identifying long-term vision? Think about where you see yourself in the next 5-10
years. It could be related to your career, personal growth, health, relationships, or
hobbies.
 Importance of my goal Understanding the motivation behind your goal will help
you stay committed.
 short-term goals that can lead to your long-term vision These could be things you
can accomplish in the next few months to a year.
 challenges Identifying potential obstacles can help you prepare to overcome them.
 resources or support Consider what tools, knowledge, or people you might need to
achieve your goals.
 Measuring the progress Think about how you can track your achievements and
stay motivated.

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8. Apply knowledge of psychology to one’s own life and to develop
life skills.
Applying knowledge of psychology to your own life can be incredibly beneficial for
developing life skills here are some:
i. Emotional Intelligence
 Self-Awareness: Reflect on your emotions and understand how they influence
your thoughts and behaviors. Keep a journal to track your feelings.
 Self-Regulation: Learn techniques to manage your emotions, such as deep
breathing, mindfulness, or taking a pause before reacting.
ii. Social Skills
 Empathy: Practice putting yourself in others' shoes to understand their feelings
and perspectives. This can improve your relationships and communication.
 Active Listening: Pay full attention to the speaker, make eye contact, and avoid
interrupting. Show that you’re listening through nods and affirmations.

iii.Motivation
 Goal Setting: Use psychology principles like the SMART criteria (Specific,
Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) to set and achieve your goals.
 Intrinsic Motivation: Find internal reasons for your actions, such as personal
growth or passion, rather than external rewards.
iv. Stress Management
 Coping Strategies: Identify healthy ways to cope with stress, like exercise,
hobbies, or talking to a trusted friend.
 Time Management: Prioritize tasks, set deadlines, and break larger projects into
smaller, manageable parts.
v. Positive Thinking
 Cognitive Restructuring: Challenge and change negative thought patterns by
looking for evidence against them and considering alternative viewpoints.
 Gratitude Practice: Regularly acknowledge and appreciate the positive aspects of
your life. This can boost overall well-being.

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 vi.Problem-Solving
 Identify the Problem: Clearly define the issue you’re facing.
 Generate Solutions: Brainstorm multiple ways to address the problem without
judging them initially.
 Evaluate and Choose: Consider the pros and cons of each solution and choose the
best one.
 Implement and Review: Put the chosen solution into action and review its
effectiveness. Adjust if necessary.
vii. Self-Care
 Healthy Lifestyle: Ensure you’re getting enough sleep, eating balanced meals, and
engaging in regular physical activity.
 Mental Health: Seek professional help if you’re struggling with mental health
issues. Therapy or counseling can provide valuable support and strategies.

9. Explain ways how self-confidence self-esteem self-efficacy

assertiveness responsible behaviors interpersonal skills will be
strengthened
How to strengthen these key areas:

a. Self-Confidence

 Set Achievable Goals: Start with small, realistic goals and celebrate each
achievement.
 Positive Self-Talk: Replace negative thoughts with positive affirmations.
 Step Out of Comfort Zone: Try new things to build resilience and confidence.

b. Self-Esteem

 Self-Acceptance: Embrace your strengths and weaknesses.

 Avoid Comparisons: Focus on your journey, not others'.
 Practice Self-Care: Take care of your physical and emotional needs.

c. Self-Efficacy

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  Believe in Your Abilities: Recognize your skills and successes.
 Learn from Failures: View setbacks as opportunities to learn and grow.
 Set Clear Goals: Work towards specific, measurable objectives.

d. Assertiveness

 Communicate Clearly: Express your thoughts and feelings honestly.

 Learn to Say No: Stand up for your needs and boundaries.
 Practice: Role-play assertive conversations to build confidence.

e. Responsible Behaviors

 Accountability: Take responsibility for your actions and decisions.

 Plan and Prioritize: Manage your time and commitments effectively.
 Reflect: Regularly review your behavior and make necessary adjustments.

f. Interpersonal Skills

 Active Listening: Pay attention to others and show empathy.

 Effective Communication: Be clear, concise, and respectful in your interactions.
 Build Relationships: Invest time in nurturing and maintaining connections.

10. Apply different stress coping mechanisms

Applying different stress coping mechanisms can help you manage stress effectively of
various strategies:

i. Physical Techniques

 Exercise Regularly: Engage in physical activities like walking, running, yoga, or

any sport. Exercise releases endorphins which boost your mood.
 Relaxation Exercises: Practice deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, or
meditation to calm your mind and body.

ii. Mental Techniques

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  Mindfulness: Stay present and focused on the current moment. Mindfulness
practices can reduce anxiety and improve emotional regulation.
 Cognitive Restructuring: Challenge and change negative thought patterns.
Replace them with more positive, constructive thoughts.

iii. Emotional Techniques

 Express Your Feelings: Talk to a friend, family member, or therapist about your
stress. Writing in a journal can also help you process your emotions.
 Emotional Release: Allow yourself to cry, laugh, or express other emotions in a
healthy way. It can provide relief.

iv. Social Techniques

 Connect with Others: Spend time with supportive friends and family. Social
interactions can provide comfort and distraction from stress.
 Seek Support: Join a support group or seek professional help if needed. Talking to
others who understand can be very reassuring.

v. Behavioral Techniques

 Time Management: Prioritize tasks, set realistic deadlines, and break larger
projects into smaller, manageable steps.
 Healthy Habits: Maintain a balanced diet, get enough sleep, and avoid excessive
caffeine or alcohol.

vi. Problem-Solving Techniques

 Identify Stressors: Recognize what’s causing your stress. Break down the problem
and find practical solutions.
 Set Goals Create achievable goals to address the issues causing stress. Take
proactive steps toward resolving them.

11. Appreciate the use of life skill principles for every life
Essential Life Skill Principles for managing life's challenges:
 Self-Awareness: Understand your emotions and behavior.

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  Empathy: Relate to others' feelings.
 Critical Thinking: Make informed decisions.
 Creative Thinking: Find innovative solutions.
 Decision Making: Choose wisely after considering options.
 Problem-Solving: Overcome obstacles effectively.
 Effective Communication: Express and listen well.
 Interpersonal Skills: Build and maintain healthy relationships.
 Coping with Emotions: Manage your feelings.
 Coping with Stress: Use healthy strategies to handle stress.
Recommendation Practice Life Skills
 Reflect on your emotions and actions.
 Empathize with others.
 Engage in problem-solving activities.
 Communicate openly and clearly.
 Seek Feedback to improve.
 Learn continuously.

12. Be grateful to the application of different learning theories

valuable insights learning Theories and Their Benefits
 Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behaviors and the effects of learning through
conditioning. Application: Use rewards and punishments to reinforce desired
behaviors.
 Cognitivism: Emphasizes mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-
solving. Application: Create meaningful learning experiences that help understand
complex concepts.
 Constructivism: Learners construct knowledge through experiences and
interactions. Application: Encourage hands-on activities and collaborative
learning.
 Social Learning Theory: Learning occurs through observation and imitation of
others. Application: Provide role models and opportunities for social interaction.

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  Humanism: Focuses on personal growth and self-actualization. Application:
Create a supportive learning environment that fosters personal development.
Recommendations
 Apply Behaviorism: Use positive reinforcement to encourage good habits and
learning behaviors.
 Leverage Cognitivism: Develop engaging and interactive learning materials to
enhance understanding and retention.
 Embrace Constructivism: Incorporate experiential learning activities, such as
projects and group work, to facilitate deeper understanding.
 Use Social Learning: Encourage group discussions and peer learning to enhance
observational learning and collaboration.
 Promote Humanism: Foster a supportive and nurturing environment that
emphasizes personal growth and self-directed learning.

Reference
1. "Introduction to Psychology" by Charles Stangor

2. "Foundations of Behavioral Neuroscience" by Neil R. Carlson

3. Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence" by David R. Shaffer and

Katherine Kipp

4. "Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective" by Dale H. Schunk

5. "Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice" by Robert E. Slavin

6. "The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource
Development" by Malcolm S. Knowles, Elwood F. Holton III, and Richard A. Swanson

7. "The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction" by Robert Gagné

8. "Life Skills: How to Do Almost Anything" by Chicago Tribune Staff

9. "The Life Skills Handbook" by Clare Hanbury

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10. "The Relaxation and Stress Reduction Workbook" by Martha Davis, Elizabeth Robbins
Eshelman, and Matthew McKay

11. "The Stress-Proof Brain: Master Your Emotional Response to Stress Using Mindfulness
and Neuroplasticity" by Melanie Greenberg

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