TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

PCE3L-M
Construction Material and Testing

Cement Group
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ BSCE-2E

Leader: Peralta, Neil Andrei

Members:
​ ​ ​ ​ Abad, Jerald
​ ​ ​ ​ Cananes, Helen Joyce
​ ​ ​ ​ Dile, Ryza Anne
​ ​ ​ ​ Florano, Mikaela
​ ​ ​ ​ Martin, Ashley
​ ​ ​ ​ Rafol, Gwyneth
​ ​ ​ ​ Sabila, Renier Jake
​ ​ ​ ​ Sandagon, John Vergel
​ ​ ​ ​ Sunga, Annah Mariel

Engr. Jasinne Garna

Instructor
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

I.​ Introduction to Cement

A. Definition and Importance of Cement

Cement is a fine, gray powder that, when mixed with water, forms a paste that
sets and hardens through a chemical reaction known as hydration. It is a
fundamental material in the construction industry due to its binding properties,
which allow it to hold other materials together in concrete and mortar.

B. Historical Background of Cement

1. Early Use of Cementitious Materials

Ancient civilizations like the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used early forms of
cementitious materials such as lime and volcanic ash to construct durable
structures. These materials demonstrated the basic principles of hydraulic
binding.

2. Evolution of Modern Cement

The modern version of cement began to evolve during the 18th and 19th
centuries with the development of techniques to calcine limestone and clay. The
introduction of rotary kilns allowed for controlled manufacturing.

3. Development of Portland Cement

Portland cement, developed in the early 19th century by Joseph Aspdin, became
the standard in the construction industry. Named for its resemblance to Portland
stone, it is created by heating limestone and clay to form clinker, which is then
ground into a fine powder.

4. Role of Cement in the Construction Industry

Cement is critical in modern construction, serving as a core component in
concrete and mortar used for buildings, bridges, roads, and other infrastructure.
Its strength and durability make it a versatile and indispensable building material.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

5. Overview of Cement Types

There are various types of cement, each formulated for specific uses and
environmental conditions. Common types include Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC), Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), Rapid Hardening Cement, and
Sulfate-Resistant Cement.

II.​ Composition and Raw Materials of Cement

A. Primary Raw Materials

1. Limestone
A major source of calcium, limestone is the primary ingredient in cement
manufacturing, making up a significant portion of the raw mix.

2. Clay/Shale
These materials provide silica, alumina, and iron—essential components for the
chemical reactions in cement production.

3. Silica, Alumina, and Iron Oxide

These elements are essential for the formation of clinker phases. Silica
contributes to strength, alumina affects setting time, and iron oxide acts as a
fluxing agent.

B. Secondary Raw Materials and Additives

Materials like sand, fly ash, slag, and gypsum are used to modify the properties
of cement, improve performance, and reduce environmental impact.

C. Chemical Composition of Cement (Bogue’s Compounds)

The main chemical compounds in cement, known as Bogue’s compounds,
include:

4. Tricalcium Silicate (C₃S) – Provides early strength and contributes

significantly to initial hardening.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

5. Dicalcium Silicate (C₂S) – Responsible for long-term strength development.

6. Tricalcium Aluminate (C₃A) – Reacts quickly with water and contributes to

initial setting and heat release; also reacts with sulfates.

7. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C₄AF) – Provides minor strength contribution

and affects color and setting characteristics.

D. Role of Gypsum in Cement

Gypsum is added during the final grinding process to control the setting time of
cement. It prevents the cement from setting too quickly by moderating the
hydration of tricalcium aluminate.

III.​ Manufacturing Process of Cement

A.​ Dry Process Vs. Wet Process

Cement production can be classified into two main methods: the dry
process and the wet process. In the dry process, raw materials are
introduced into the kiln in a dry state. Conversely, the wet process
involves mixing raw materials with water to form a slurry before being fed
into the kiln.

B.​ Key Steps in Cement Production

-​ Quarrying and Crushing of Raw Materials​
Limestone and shale are quarried and crushed to the required size.
Other essential materials are mined and prepared for blending.​

-​ Grinding and Blending​

After initial crushing, the raw materials are mixed and finely ground
using a roller mill to create a homogeneous raw mix or raw meal. This
fine powder ensures chemical consistency in the final product.​

-​ Preheating and Calcination in Kiln​

The raw meal is preheated in a series of cyclones before entering the
TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

kiln. Calcination occurs in the kiln, where materials are heated to high
temperatures, causing chemical changes without melting.​

-​ Clinker Formation​
During calcination, limestone (calcium carbonate) decomposes into
calcium oxide (lime), which then reacts with other components to form
clinker, the primary ingredient in cement. This step is critical for
producing the cement’s binding properties.​

-​ Cooling and Grinding of Clinker​

The clinker exits the kiln at high temperatures and is rapidly cooled. It
is then ground into a fine powder, which is the base material for
cement.​

-​ Addition of Gypsum​
A small amount of gypsum is added during the final grinding phase to
regulate the setting time of cement by slowing down early hydration.​

-​ Packing and Storage​

The finished cement is stored in silos before being packed in bags or
transported in bulk via trucks.

C.​ Energy Consumption and Environmental Impact

Cement production is highly energy-intensive, relying heavily on thermal
energy from fossil fuels for calcination and large amounts of electricity to
power industrial machinery. This process emits significant carbon dioxide,
both from fuel combustion and the chemical decomposition of limestone,
making it a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally,
particulate matter released during kiln operations contributes to air
pollution. The wet process consumes substantial water, impacting local
water resources, while the extraction of raw materials such as limestone
and clay disrupts ecosystems and alters natural landscapes.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

IV.​ Types of Cement (ASTM & IS Codes)

IV. TYPES OF CEMENT (ASTM & IS Codes)​

​
A. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement which is
suitable for all general concrete construction. It is a type of Portland cement that is
mixed with water and aggregates to form concrete, mortar or plaster. ​
​

1. OPC Grade 33

OPC 33 has a compressive strength of 33N/mm2 at 28 days. While OPC 33 is

suitable for all general construction, it is particularly used for masonry and
plastering.

2. OPC Grade 43

OPC 43 is cement with a compressive strength of 43N/mm2 at 28 days. Along

with general construction, OPC 43 Grade cement is suitable for high strength
concrete work.

3. OPC Grade 53

OPC 53 Grade has a strength of 53N/mm2 at 28 days. OPC 53 is mostly used

for precast concrete, prestressed concrete, long span structures like bridges,
tall buildings, etc.

B. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Portland Pozzolana cement is integrated cement which is formed by synthesizing

OPC cement with pozzolanic materials in a certain proportion. PPC is often used for
projects like bridges, piers, dams, sewage works, or underwater concrete projects.
Compared to OPC, it has a higher resistance to various chemical reactions within
concrete.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Pozzolana / Pozzolanic Material

- Pozzolana is a volcanic powder found in Italy near Vesuvius. A pozzolanic

material can be a natural or artificial which contains silica and aluminous in a
reactive form.

· Natural Pozzolana

· Artificial Pozzolana

​
C. Rapid Hardening Cement

Rapid hardening cement is a special type of cement that achieves high strength
in less time. Large proportion of lime is the distinguishing feature of rapid hardening
cement. Based from its name, it is basically a type of cement that sets and gains
strength way faster than regular cement. It’s perfect for situations where you need the
concrete to harden quickly, like for repairs or when you’re working in cold weather.

D. Low Heat Cement

Low-heat cement is a type of cement designed to minimize the amount of heat

generated during the hydration process. This is particularly important in large concrete
pours, where excessive heat generation can lead to thermal cracking and damage the
structure.

​
E. Sulfate Resistant Cement

Sulfate-resistant cement is a type of cement designed to withstand attacks from

sulfate compounds, which can cause damage and deterioration in concrete. It contains
a lower content of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and is used in environments exposed to
sulfate-rich soils or water, such as marine and sewage applications.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

​
F. White Cement

White cement is a type of Portland cement made with raw materials that have
low iron oxide content, giving it a distinctive white color. It is used for decorative
purposes, such as in architectural finishes, precast concrete, and terrazzo flooring.

​
G. Blended Cement (Fly Ash, Slag Cement, Rice Husk Ash Cement)

Blended cement is a type of cement made by mixing Portland cement with other
materials such as fly ash, slag, or silica fume. This combination enhances properties like
durability, workability, and environmental sustainability.

​
H. Specialized Cement

Specialized cement refers to a range of cement types designed for specific

applications, such as high-performance, quick-setting, or heat-resistant needs. These
cements are formulated with additives or adjusted compositions to meet particular
environmental or structural requirements.

​
I. High Alumina Cement

High alumina cement is a type of cement made from calcium aluminate,

characterized by a high content of alumina (over 30%), which makes it super
heat-resistant. It offers rapid setting and high early strength but is more resistant to
high temperatures and chemical attacks compared to ordinary Portland cement.

This kind of cement is usually used in projects that involve extreme heat, like
furnaces, or even in areas with really hot weather. It’s perfect for when you need
concrete that can handle those high-temperature conditions without breaking down.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

​
J. Expansive Cement

Expansive cement is a type of cement designed to expand slightly during the

hydration process, counteracting shrinkage in concrete. As it expands, it fills in any gaps
or spaces that might form, making the concrete more solid and stable. It is used to
prevent cracking in structures like foundations, where shrinkage could lead to structural
issues.

​
K. Hydrophobic Cement

Hydrophobic cement is a type of cement that contains water-repellent additives,

which reduce the absorption of water. It is used in environments where moisture
resistance is crucial, such as in marine structures and damp conditions.

​
L. Colored Cement

Coloured cement is ordinary Portland cement that has been mixed with pigments
to produce a variety of colors. It is used for decorative purposes in applications like
terrazzo flooring, colored concrete, and architectural finishes.

​
M. Oil Well Cement

Oil-well cement is a type of cement specifically designed for use in the

construction and sealing of oil and gas wells. It is formulated to withstand high
temperatures, pressures, and the corrosive effects of oil and gas environments.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

V.​ Physical and Chemical Properties of Cement

A.​ Physical Properties

1.​ Fineness of Cement
-​ Fineness indicates the size of the cement particles. Finer cement
increases the heat of hydration of cement, causing a flash set of
cement. Finer cement has a larger surface area, which allows for
faster hydration and strength development.

2.​ Specific Gravity

-​ Specific gravity of cement is the ratio of the mass of a given volume
of cement to the mass of an equal volume of water. It is generally
used in mixture proportioning calculations. A higher specific gravity
means denser cement.

3.​ Consistency of Cement Paste

-​ Consistency is the ability to flow cement paste in a normal
condition. The consistency of cement is a measure of water
required to make flowable cement paste and used easily in normal
condition.

4.​ Setting Time (Initial & Final)

-​ Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time
can vary depending on multiple factors. Cement used in
construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low
and a final setting time not too high.
●​ Initial set: The time at which cement paste is starting to gain hardening strength
(reducing its plasticity) after adding water. (typically occurs within 30-45
minutes).
●​ Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs
below 10 hours). It is obtained by performing the final setting time test on
cement in which Vicat apparatus and circular attachment needle is used.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

5.​ Soundness of Cement (Le Chatelier & Autoclave Method)

-​ Soundness refers to the ability of cement to retain its volume after
setting and hardening, without undergoing any significant
expansion or shrinkage.
●​ Le Chatelier Test - designed to determine the expansion characteristics of
cement and assess whether it will undergo significant changes in volume after
setting.
-​ Simpler, quicker, and more widely used in routine testing. However, it is
less precise compared to the autoclave method.
●​ Autoclave Test - a more precise and advanced method for determining cement
soundness. It is often used for cement types that might be affected by factors
like high lime content.
-​ More accurate, especially for determining the long-term stability of cement
under extreme conditions, but it is more time-consuming and requires
specialized equipment.

6.​ Strength of Cement (Compressive, Tensile, Flexural)

-​ a key factor in determining its quality and suitability for various
construction applications. Cement strength is typically evaluated by
the ability to withstand different types of stress or force without
failing or breaking.
●​ Compressive Strength - it is the ability to withstand axial loading (the
most common strength test).
-​ Compressive strength is crucial for the structural performance of
concrete.
●​ Tensile strength - is the ability of cement to resist forces that try to pull
it apart (tensile forces).
-​ Cement in its raw form is generally weak in tension, which is why it
is reinforced with steel or other materials in structural applications
to resist tensile forces (stretching).
●​ Flexural strength - is the ability of cement to resist deformation under
bending. It measures the stress at which cement or concrete fails when
subjected to a bending load.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

7.​ Heat of Hydration

-​ When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes
place is called hydration. Cement hydration releases heat. The
heat generated depends on the type of cement, the temperature,
and the rate of hydration. High-heat cement is used for large
concrete masses to prevent cracking due to temperature changes.

B.​ Chemical Properties

1.​ Hydration Process of Cement
-​ refers to the chemical reaction between the cement particles and
water, which leads to the hardening of cement and the
development of concrete strength.
-​ The complete hydration process of cement involves these various
compounds reacting with water and forming hydration products
like C-S-H gel, which is responsible for the binding properties of
cement, and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂).
​ ​ Key Components.
Hydration of Tricalcium Silicate (C₃S)
Hydration of Dicalcium Silicate (C₂S)
Hydration of Tricalcium Aluminate (C₃A)
Hydration of Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C₄AF)

2.​ Reaction with Water

When water is added to cement, the various chemical compounds present
in the cement react with the water and undergo hydration. The major
compounds in ordinary Portland cement (OPC) involved in this process
are:
Bogue’s Compound: refer to the main chemical compounds found in Portland
cement that contribute to its properties, particularly its hydration and
strength development.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

●​ Tricalcium silicate (C₃S) reacts with water to form C-S-H and calcium
hydroxide (CH).
-​ It is responsible for the early strength of concrete. Tricalcium of cement
produce more heat of hydration
●​ Dicalcium silicate (C₂S) also reacts with water to form C-S-H but at a slower
rate than C₃S.
-​ This hydrates and hardens slowly and provides much of the ultimate
strength. Dicalcium is responsible for the later strength of concrete.
●​ Tricalcium aluminate (C₃A) reacts with water in the presence of gypsum to
form ettringite and later monosulfoaluminate.
-​ This reaction with water is very fast and may lead to an immediate
stiffening of paste, and this process is termed as flash set. It does not
contribute to the strength of concrete.
●​ Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C₄AF) reacts to form ferrite hydrate.
-​ Tetracalcium aluminoferrite causes rapid hydration of cement. It
does not contribute to the strength of concrete.

3.​ Heat Evolution During Hydration

-​ Heat Evolution During Hydration refers to the heat released as a
result of the chemical reactions between cement and water, a
process known as hydration. The rate and amount of heat
generated during this process are crucial factors in the strength
development and long-term durability of concrete.

4.​ Impact of Cement Composition on Strength and Durability

-​ The durability of cement is its ability to withstand the effects of
various environmental factors over time, such as exposure to
moisture, temperature fluctuations, and aggressive chemicals.
Cement composition affects permeability, chemical resistance,
and the overall long-term performance of the concrete.
Key Components:
Tricalcium Silicate (C₃S) and Dicalcium Silicate (C₂S) - While both C₃S and
C₂S contribute to strength, they also contribute to the formation of C-S-H gel,
which reduces the permeability of the concrete.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Tricalcium Aluminate (C₃A) - C₃A is highly reactive, and when exposed to

sulfates in soil or water, it can cause sulfate attack in concrete.
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C₄AF) - Although C₄AF doesn’t directly influence
strength, it affects the overall performance of cement in aggressive
environments.
Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) - the presence of excessive calcium hydroxide
can reduce the concrete’s long-term durability by increasing its
permeability.
Mineral Additives and Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) -
These materials fill in the spaces between the cement particles, reduce
permeability, and enhance the resistance to chemical attack (especially against
sulfates, chlorides, and acids).
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

VI.​ Hydration Process of Cement

●​ Chemical Reaction During hydration

The hydration process of cement is a chemical reaction between
cement and water that leads to the material's hardening. This process
forms calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium hydroxide, crucial for
strength and durability. The hydration process is critical because it governs
both the hardening (setting) and the long-term strength development of
concrete.

●​ Role of water in hydration

○​ Workability: Water improves the plasticity and flowability of the
cement paste, making it easier to mix, transport, and place.
○​ Setting and Hardening: Water initiates setting, transforming the
cement paste from a fluid state to a solid mass. The hardening
continues over time as hydration progresses.
○​ Curing: Sufficient water must be maintained during curing to
prevent premature drying and shrinkage, ensuring proper strength
gain and durability.
●​ Factors affecting Hydration
○​ Temperature - The temperature during the curing process can
affect the rate of hydration. Higher temperatures accelerate
hydration. Cold temperatures slow down the process.
○​ Water-Cement ratio - The water-cement ratio is one of the most
important factors. Too little water will result in incomplete
hydration, while too much water can dilute the cement paste,
weakening the concrete.
○​ Cement Type - Different types of cement react with water at
different rates. Choosing the right type of cement for specific
applications is crucial for achieving desired performance.
●​ Formation of hydration products
○​ Calcium silicate hydrate (c-s-h gel) - This gel is the primary
product of cement hydration and is responsible for the binding
properties of concrete. C-S-H gel fills the gaps between cement
particles and aggregates.
TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

○​ Calcium hydroxide - Another significant product, CH, also known

as portlandite, forms during cement hydration. While it contributes
to early strength development, its long-term contribution to
concrete strength is limited compared to C-S-H gel.
○​ Ettringite formation - It is formed particularly in cement mixes
containing supplementary cementitious materials like slag or fly
ash.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

VII.​ Cement Testing Procedures (ASTM Standard Tests)

●​ Importance of cement testing

○​ Cement testing is a procedure used to determine the quality and
characteristics of Cement. These tests include physical, chemical, and
performance testing.
○​ By conducting Cement testing, engineers and builders can be confident in
the quality and durability of the Cement used in their projects.​
●​ Laboratory Test for Cement
○​ Fineness Test - Determines the particle size of cement. Sieve Test,
Blaine Air Permeability Test
○​ Specific gravity test - The specific gravity of cement is the ratio of its
density to the density of water. It helps determine cement quality and
helps in mix design calculations. Specific Gravity Bottle
○​ consistency test - Determines the water required to make cement paste.
Vicat Apparatus.
○​ setting time test - The time it starts hardening and it finishes setting.
Vicat, Gillmore Needle Apparatus,
○​ soundness test - Checks expansion due to excess lime or magnesia,
which may cause cracking. Le Chatelier Apparatus or Autoclave Test.
○​ compressive strength test - Determines the cement’s strength after 3,
7, and 28 days of curing. Compression Testing Machine (CTM).
○​ tensile strength test - Determines the tensile resistance of cement.
Briquette Test
○​ flexural strength test - Determines the ability of cement mortar or
concrete to resist bending. Flexural Testing Machine
●​ Field Test For Cement
○​ color test - Cement should be uniform grey with a greenish tint.
○​ float test - A small quantity of cement thrown in water should float
before sinking.
○​ Presence of lumps - Cement should be free from lumps, indicating no
moisture absorption.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

VIII.​ Storage and Handling of Cement

A. Proper Storage Conditions (Temperture, Humidity, Shelf Life)

Proper storage and handling of cement are essential to maintain its quality and
effectiveness. Cement should be stored in a cool environment, ideally between 5°C and
30°C. Exposure to high temperatures can cause it to lose moisture or harden
prematurely, which negatively affects its setting time and overall performance. Humidity
is another critical factor; levels above 75% can cause the cement to absorb moisture
from the air, leading to clumping and hardened chunks. This not only makes it difficult
to use but also reduces its strength when applied in construction. To avoid this, cement
should be kept in a dry, well-ventilated, enclosed space with controlled humidity levels.
Additionally, cement has a shelf life of about 3 to 6 months. Beyond this period, it starts
to lose its bonding strength, which may result in weaker structures. Hence, it’s
important to always check the manufacturing date and use cement within the
recommended timeframe.

B. Impact of Improper Storage on Cement Quality

Improper storage can have significant consequences on cement quality. Exposure to

moisture leads to clumping and premature setting, making it hard to measure and
weakening the final product. Excessive heat can also disrupt the chemical reactions
necessary for proper setting and hardening, and in some cases, may dry out the cement
entirely, making it unusable. Contamination is another major risk; storing cement in
open or unclean areas may introduce dirt and debris, which compromises the
consistency and strength of the concrete mixture.

C. Safety Precautions in Handling Cement

When handling cement, safety precautions are crucial. Because it is a fine powder,
cement can irritate the skin, eyes, and respiratory system. Workers should wear
protective gear such as gloves, dust masks or respirators, safety goggles, long sleeves,
and closed shoes. Since cement bags can weigh up to 50 kg, proper lifting
techniques—like bending at the knees rather than the back—should be used to avoid
injuries. For heavy loads, mechanical aids like forklifts and cranes are recommended. In
case of accidents, immediate first aid is necessary. Skin contact should be rinsed with
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

water, and eye exposure should be treated with a thorough flush followed by medical
attention. Cement spills should be cleaned promptly using appropriate tools while
wearing protective equipment to prevent accidents.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

IX.​ Application of Cement in Construction

A.​ CONCRETE

Concrete is the most common and versatile use of cement. Concrete is a mixture
of cement, aggregates (like sand, gravel, or crushed stone), and water. Cement
is the fundamental material in construction, cement is the key ingredient in
concrete that gives concrete its structural strength and durability. In concrete
production, cement is the one that binds the aggregates together when mixed
with water which allows the concrete to harden into a solid mass, creating a
strong and versatile material..

B.​ MIXING PROPORTIONS

The proportions of cement, aggregates, and water are crucial for achieving the
desired strength, workability, and durability of concrete. These proportions are
carefully determined based on the specific application and design requirements.
The mixing proportions depend on what it will be used for and what is the
desired strength for it.

For instance, if you need more compressive strength, you'll be needing more
rocks. On the other hand, if you need more workability, you need more sand and
less rock

C.​ WATER-CEMENT RATIO

Concrete's final properties (strength, workability, and durability) depend heavily

on the precise proportions of cement, aggregates, and water. These proportions
are carefully calculated based on the structure's specific needs. Too much water
can lead to less durability and increased porosity. The porosity of concrete is the
percentage of empty spaces or voids within a concrete mixture. If there are
many tiny holes in a concrete, it will affect its strength and durability. Therefore,
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

it is necessary to determine the right water cement ratio to reduces the risk of
foundational issues, enhaces durability, minimises shrinkage and cracks

D.​ MORTAR

A mixture of cement, sand, and water, used to bind bricks, blocks, or stones
together in masonry construction.

Unlike concrete, mortar has no gravel or crushed stone. Mortar is like a paste
used in hollow blocks to bind it together

E.​ PLASTERING

The process of applying a layer of mortar or plaster (a mixture of cement, sand,

and lime) to walls or ceilings to provide a smooth and even surface.

But it's not only for having a smooth and even surface, it also provides protection
for walls and ceilings from water damage, dents, and impacts. Additionally,
plaster can also be fire-resistant, can absorb sound, and used for making
moldings like crown cornices and ceiling roses.

F.​ GROUTING

The process of filling gaps or voids in concrete or masonry structures with a

flowable cement-based mixture. Before doing grouting, it is necessary to wait
enough time to firm up slightly the concrete but not completely harden to ensure
that the gout is properly bonded with the substrate.

Grouting is used to:

●​ Increase the strength and stability of structures.
●​ Repair cracks and damage.
●​ Waterproof foundations and basements

G.​ INJECTION
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Similar to grouting, but involves injecting a specialized cement-based mixture

into cracks or voids under pressure. This technique is often used for structural
repairs and strengthening. Injection is almost the same as grouting but this one
has specialized cement-based mixture and chemical solutions. Often used for
repairing cracks, waterproofing of structures or to stabilize soil

H.​ RIGID PAVEMENTS

Concrete roads are durable, low-maintenance, and withstand heavy traffic. Rigid
(concrete) pavements last 30–40 years; flexible (asphalt) ones last 10–20 years.

I.​ DAMS

Cement is used in dams because it forms strong, durable concrete that can
handle the heavy pressure of holding back water. It's resistant to temperature
change and constant water exposure, making it ideal for long-lasting structures.
It's also easy to shape and provides the strength necessary to keep the dam
stable and secure over time.

J.​ BRIDGES

Cement is used in bridges for its strength, durability, and resistance to weather,
traffic, and environmental factors, ensuring stability and safety. Its versatility also
allows for the creation of complex bridge structures.

K.​ MARINE STRUCTURES

In marine structures, it requires cement that can resist saltwater corrosion. For
example, special types of cement, like sulfate-resisting cement, are used to
withstand the harsh marine environment.

The durability of these projects rely on the right cement mix, proper proportions, and
effective curing to ensure the concrete sets correctly. Various types of cement are
available for different purposes, and additives can be used to adjust the concrete’s
characteristics to meet specific needs.
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College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

X.​ Common Defects and Failures in Cement-Based Structures

A. Cracking and Shrinkage

Autogenous shrinkage occurs in high-strength concrete due to internal chemical

reactions during cement hydration, not from drying out. As water is consumed
internally in the hydration process, it creates stresses that lead to shrinkage. Drying
shrinkage happens after the concrete has hardened, caused by the slow loss of
water, which can lead to cracking if excessive. Plastic shrinkage occurs in fresh
concrete before it hardens, mainly due to rapid water loss from the surface in hot, dry,
or windy conditions, causing surface cracks. Thermal shrinkage results from
temperature differences within the concrete, where the heat generated during
hardening causes the inside to expand while the cooler outside creates stress and
cracks. Lastly, carbonation shrinkage is caused by carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere reacting with hydrated cement compounds, forming carbonates that lead
to gradual shrinkage over time.

B. Efflorescence and Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)

Efflorescence occurs when soluble salts within concrete move to the surface as
water evaporates, leaving a white, powdery residue. While it does not directly cause
thermal cracking, efflorescence can signal moisture problems in the concrete. Excess
moisture may lead to deterioration, including cracking, especially during freeze-thaw
cycles.

Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) happens when alkali hydroxides in the cement paste
react with reactive silica in the aggregates, forming a gel that expands upon absorbing
water. This expansion can cause significant cracking over time, particularly in moist
conditions. Although ASR does not involve thermal cracking, the stresses from
expansion can worsen existing cracks or create new ones, affecting the overall
structural integrity.

C. Carbonation and Sulfate Attack

 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Carbonation is a reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide in
concrete, which reduces the concrete's alkalinity. This loss of alkalinity can weaken the
protection of steel reinforcing bars, making them more susceptible to corrosion.

On the other hand, sulfate attack occurs when sulfate ions from soil or water react
with certain compounds in the cement paste. This reaction causes the concrete to
expand and crack, damaging its structure over time.

D. Chloride-Induced Corrosion of Reinforcement

Corrosion occurs when chloride ions from seawater or de-icing salts penetrate
concrete and attack the reinforcing steel inside. This process causes the steel to rust,
which leads to expansion and cracks in the concrete. As the corrosion progresses, it
can significantly weaken the structure, making it more prone to damage.

E. Remedial Measures and Preventive Strategies

Preventive Strategies
A low water-cement ratio creates stronger, more durable concrete, while
choosing appropriate aggregates enhances strength and reduces the risk of
Alkali-Silica Reaction. Curing involves keeping the concrete moist during hardening to
ensure proper hydration, leading to better durability. Protective coatings and
sealants act as barriers against water, chemicals, and other harmful substances,
preventing damage. Additionally, using corrosion-resistant steel reinforcement,
like epoxy-coated or stainless steel rebar, helps guard against chloride-induced
corrosion. Controlling temperature during large pours can prevent thermal
cracking, and ensuring good drainage reduces the risk of water pooling, which can
lead to problems like efflorescence and sulfate attack.

Remedial Measurements
Crack injection involves filling cracks with epoxy or other materials to seal them,
helping to restore the structural integrity of the concrete. Concrete patching and
repair consist of removing damaged sections and replacing them with new concrete
to regain the original shape and strength. Surface treatments involve applying
sealants or coatings to protect the concrete from further damage, preventing water
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

and chemicals from penetrating. Lastly, cathodic protection is a technique that

stops the corrosion of steel reinforcement by applying a small electrical current to the
steel, preventing it from rusting.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

XI.​ Sustainable and Green Cement Technologies

A. Blended Cement (Fly Ash, Slag, Rice Husk Ash)

Blended cement is a type of cement made by mixing Portland clinker with other finely
ground materials such as pozzolans or industrial by-products like fly ash, slag, or rice
husk ash.

1.​ Fly Ash - Fly ash is a fine powder produced as a by-product of burning pulverized
coal in power plants. It reduces the need for Portland clinker, lowering energy
use and emissions. It also helps manage industrial waste and increases the
strength and durability of concrete, making it a more sustainable choice for
construction.

2.​ Slag - Slag is a by-product of smelting ores like iron, copper, and lead. When
cooled and ground, it becomes a useful material for blended cement. Slag adds
excellent strength and durability to concrete and is highly resistant to chemical
attacks. Its low permeability helps protect against water damage and freeze-thaw
cycles.

3.​ Rice Husk Ash - Rice husk ash (RHA) comes from burning rice husks during the
milling process. It is rich in silica dioxide (SiO₂), which helps form calcium silicate
hydrate (C-S-H) gel in concrete. This gel makes the concrete stronger, denser,
and less porous.

B. Alternative Binders (Geopolymer Cement, Magnesium-based Cement)

Alternative binders are materials that can replace ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in
concrete while still providing similar strength and durability. Unlike OPC, these binders
do not contain Portland cement, making them more sustainable and reducing
environmental impacts like carbon emissions.

1.​ Geopolymer Cement - Geopolymer cement is an alternative binder created by

reacting aluminosilicate materials with an alkaline solution to form a strong gel. It
is environmentally friendly, often utilizing industrial waste to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions. It is also durable, resistant to freeze-thaw cycles, sulfates, and
corrosion, making it ideal for infrastructure.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

2.​ Magnesium-based cement - Magnesium-based cement is an alternative binder

that uses magnesium oxide as the main ingredient, combined with materials like
chlorides, sulfates, or silica. Its low calcination temperature reduces energy
consumption during production. Additionally, it can incorporate industrial
by-products and is especially effective for encapsulating heavy metal waste.

C. Carbon Capture in Cement Industry

Carbon emission capture in the cement industry involves collecting CO₂ emissions during
cement production to stop them from entering the atmosphere. This process helps
lower the environmental impact of cement manufacturing by reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, which contribute to global warming.

1.​ Amine Scrubbing - Amine scrubbing is a process that captures CO₂ from flue
gases using special liquids called amine solvents. These solvents absorb CO₂ from
the exhaust gases produced in cement plants. When the solvent is heated, it
releases the captured CO₂, which can then be collected for storage or further use.
2.​ Calcium Looping - Calcium looping is a process that uses calcium oxide (CaO) to
absorb CO₂. The CO₂ reacts with CaO to form calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). This
compound is then heated to release the CO₂ and regenerate the calcium oxide,
allowing the cycle to continue.

D. Using Recycled Aggregates and Supplementary Cementitious Materials

Recycled aggregates are crushed materials that have been previously used in
construction projects. By reusing these aggregates, the demand for natural resources is
reduced, excavation costs are minimized, and waste sent to landfills is limited, making it
a sustainable choice for construction.

Alongside recycled aggregates, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) like fly

ash are used to replace a portion of the cement. By reducing clinker, it does not only
reduces the environmental impact of cement production by lowering carbon emissions
but also enhances the strength, durability, and lifespan of concrete.

E. Energy Efficiency in Cement Manufacturing

 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Another method to improve the environmental impact of cement production is the use
of alternative fuels, such as biomass. These fuels typically have a lower carbon footprint
compared to traditional fossil fuels and can often be sourced locally. This not only
reduces emissions but also makes the cement manufacturing process more sustainable
and cost-effective.

In addition to using alternative fuels, continuous improvements in the cement

production process, such as better control of temperature and material flow, can
significantly reduce both energy consumption and emissions. By optimizing these
processes, cement manufacturers can further minimize their environmental impact while
maintaining production efficiency.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

XII.​ Future Trends and Innovations in Cement Industry

A.​ Self healing cement (Microbial & Chemical Approaches)

Self-Healing Cement is an advanced material developed to repair its own

cracks autonomously, extending the durability and reducing maintenance costs of
concrete structures. Two main approaches, microbial and chemical, are employed
to achieve this innovative functionality.

1.​ Microbial Approach- Bacteria and a nutrient source, such as calcium

lactate, are added to the concrete mix. When cracks form and water
penetrates the structure, the bacteria activate, consume the nutrients, and
produce calcium carbonate, which fills the cracks and restores the
concrete's integrity.
2.​ Chemical Approach - Chemical agents such as sodium silicate or
superabsorbent polymers react with water to form solid compounds like
calcium silicate hydrate, effectively sealing the cracks.
​ ​
Self-healing cement has promising applications, particularly in infrastructure
prone to frequent damage, such as bridges, roads, and buildings in harsh
climates. Its ability to self-repair ensures fewer interventions, saving time and
resources.

B. Nanotechnology in Cement Manufacturing

Nanotechnology- involves manipulating materials at the nanoscale, typically at

dimensions smaller than 100 nanometers.

Nanotechnology in cement manufacturing represents a groundbreaking

advancement in the construction industry. By manipulating materials at the
nanoscale (dimensions smaller than 100 nanometers), this technology enhances
the properties of cement and concrete, making them stronger, more durable, and
environmentally sustainable.

It explores how nanotechnology enhances the strength, durability, and

self-healing properties of cement. By manipulating cement particles at the
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

nanoscale, the surface area increases, leading to better bonding and a denser
concrete matrix. Nanomaterials like silica fume, fly ash, and graphene are added
to improve the concrete’s resistance to cracking and increase its load-bearing
capacity

C. 3-D Printing Using Cement Based Materials

3D concrete printing, or simply concrete printing, refers to digital

fabrication processes for cementitious materials based on one of several different
3D printing technologies. 3D-printed concrete eliminates the need for formwork,
reducing material waste and allowing for greater geometric freedom in complex
structures.

D. Lightweight and High- Performance Cement

Lightweight and high-performance cement is an advanced construction

material designed to reduce structural load while maintaining superior strength,
durability, and efficiency. This innovative cement is widely used in modern
construction, providing solutions for sustainable and resilient infrastructure.

Lightweight cement is formulated using a combination of:

1.​ Lightweight Aggregates – Materials such as expanded clay, perlite, or

pumice reduce the density while maintaining strength.
2.​ Air-Entraining Agents – Improve workability and insulation by
introducing small air voids into the cement matrix.
3.​ High-Performance Additives – Includes silica fume, fly ash, and
nano-materialS to enhance durability and mechanical properties
4.​ Polymer or Fiber Reinforcements – Improves crack resistance and
flexibility. making it suitable for high-stress applications.

E. Smart Cement with Embedded Sensors

Smart cement is an advanced construction material embedded with sensors to

monitor structural integrity, durability, and environmental conditions in real-time.
By integrating sensor technology, smart cement enhances safety, reduces
maintenance costs, and improves the longevity of infrastructures.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

APPLICATIONS:

The critical applications in civil infrastructure, such as bridges, tunnels,

and highways, by detecting potential failures to ensure safety and durability.
High-rise buildings benefit from structural health monitoring systems that
enhance earthquake resistance and overall stability. In oil and gas wells,
monitoring plays a crucial role in tracking pressure, temperature, and well
integrity during deep drilling operations. Furthermore, dams and water reservoirs
rely on advanced early warning systems to prevent catastrophic failures,
safeguarding both structural integrity and surrounding communities.

ADVANTAGES:

The advantages includes enhanced safety through the early detection of

structural weaknesses, effectively minimizing risks of collapse. It promotes cost
efficiency by reducing long-term maintenance and repair expenses, while
real-time data analysis provides engineers with accurate and timely insights to
make informed decisions. Additionally, it supports sustainability by reducing
material waste and extending the lifespan of infrastructures, contributing to
environmentally-friendly and durable construction practices.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

XIII.​ Case Studies and Practical Examples

A. Use of Cement in Major Construction Projects

Cement has played a crucial role in many major construction projects. For instance, the
Hoover Dam in the United States, built in the 1930s, relied heavily on high-quality
cement to withstand intense water pressure and environmental stress. Similarly, the
Burj Khalifa in Dubai—the tallest building in the world—used specially formulated
high-strength cement designed to endure the building’s immense weight and extreme
climatic conditions.

B. Failures Due to Improper Use of Cement

There are also examples where improper use of cement led to tragic failures. One such
case is the Florida International University pedestrian bridge collapse in 2018, where
concrete cracks were ignored and reinforcement was inadequate, leading to the bridge
falling and resulting in six fatalities. Another example is the Sampoong Department
Store collapse in South Korea in 1995, where more than 500 people died due to
improperly mixed cement and ignored structural flaws.

C. Lessons Learned from Real-World Applications

These real-world cases offer important lessons. Quality control is important throughout
the cement production and application process—from mixing to testing. Understanding
the appropriate type of cement for each project is equally important; for example,
Portland cement is suited for general use, while sulfate-resistant cement is better for
environments exposed to harsh chemicals or salt. Finally, proper curing is essential to
allow cement to achieve its full strength. Skipping or mishandling the curing process can
lead to cracks and significantly weaker structures over time.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

XIV.​ Summary and Reflection Questions

●​ What is the main use of cement in civil engineering

Cement is mainly used as a binder in concrete, which is a basic material
for all types of construction, including housing, roads, schools, hospitals, dams
and ports, as well as for decorative applications

●​ Why do we need to take everything into account

To ensure they meet specific standards and are suitable for their intended
use in a project, ultimately guaranteeing the safety and structural integrity of the
building by preventing potential failures due to substandard materials.

●​ Why is it needed to go through all that process

○​ Understanding material behavior
○​ Ensuring structural safety and durability
○​ Compliance with standards and regulations
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

XV.​ References

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Department of Civil Engineering

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Department of Civil Engineering

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