Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Renewable Energy ............................................................................................... 1

1.1 Overview of Renewable Energy Sources ............................................................................... 1
1.2 Global Energy Demand and the Need for Renewable Energy ............................................... 3
1.3 Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels vs. Renewables ........................................................ 3
2. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Technology............................................................................................. 5
2.1 The Photovoltaic Effect: How Solar Cells Generate Electricity ............................................... 5
2.2 Types of Solar Cells ............................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Conversion Efficiency ...................................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 The Voltage-Current Characteristic Curve ....................................................................... 9
2.2.3 Voc and Isc .................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.4 Impp, Vmpp, and Pmpp ................................................................................................. 11
2.2.5 P-V Curve ...................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.6 STC and NOCT ............................................................................................................. 13
2.2.7 Effect of Insolation and Temperature.............................................................................. 13
2.2.8 Ambient Temperature and Cell Temperature .................................................................. 14
2.2.9 Temperature Effects on Efficiency .................................................................................. 15
2.2.10 Series and Parallel Connections .................................................................................. 16
2.2.11 Wiring Different Solar Panels ....................................................................................... 19
2.2.12 Solar Panel Array ......................................................................................................... 19
2.2.13 Azimuth ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.2.14 Tilt Angle ...................................................................................................................... 21
2.2.15 Shading ....................................................................................................................... 24
2.2.16 Blocking Diodes ........................................................................................................... 26
2.3 Efficiency, Cost, and Performance of PV Systems ............................................................... 26
2.4 Manufacturing Processes and Materials Used in PV Panels ............................................... 26
3. Solar Thermal Systems ............................................................................................................. 27
3.1 Principles of Solar Thermal Energy Conversion ................................................................... 27
3.2 Types of Solar Thermal Systems ......................................................................................... 28
3.3 Applications of Solar Thermal Systems....................................................................................... 31
3.4 Case Studies of Large-Scale Solar Thermal Projects .......................................................... 32
4. Solar Energy Storage ................................................................................................................ 34
 4.1 Importance of Energy Storage in Solar Systems ................................................................. 34
4.2 Battery Technologies ............................................................................................................ 35
4.2.1 Lead-Acid Batteries ........................................................................................................... 35
4.2.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries ......................................................................................................... 35
4.2.3 Emerging Alternatives ....................................................................................................... 36
4.3 Thermal Storage Systems for Solar Thermal Applications ................................................... 36
4.4 Grid Integration and the Role of Storage.............................................................................. 37
5. Design and Installation of Solar PV Systems............................................................................. 37
5.1 Components of a Solar PV System ...................................................................................... 37
5.2 Site Assessment and Solar Resource Evaluation ................................................................ 38
5.2.1 Shading Analysis: .............................................................................................................. 38
5.2.2 Orientation and Tilt: .......................................................................................................... 38
5.2.3 Solar Irradiance Measurement: .......................................................................................... 38
5.2.4 Structural Integrity: ........................................................................................................... 38
5.3 Solar PV system sizing for off grid System .......................................................................... 39
5.3.1 Determine power consumption demands ............................................................................ 39
5.3.2 Size the PV modules .......................................................................................................... 39
5.3.3 Inverter sizing ................................................................................................................... 39
5.3.4 Battery sizing .................................................................................................................... 40
5.3.5 Solar charge controller sizing .............................................................................................. 40
5.3.6 Wire Size .......................................................................................................................... 42
5.3.7 Calculating Wire Sizes ................................................................................................... 43
5.4 Installation Best Practices and Safety Protocols .................................................................. 68
5.4.1 PV System Safety .......................................................................................................... 68
5.5 Grid-Tie and Hybrid Systems: Design Concepts .................................................................. 68
5.5.1 Manual Design and String Concepts: ................................................................................... 68
5.5.2 Inverter Topologies:........................................................................................................... 69
5.6 Software for PV System Sizing ............................................................................................ 69
6. Economics of Solar Energy ....................................................................................................... 73
6.1 Cost Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 73
6.1.1 Capital Costs ..................................................................................................................... 73
 6.1.2 Operational and Maintenance Costs ................................................................................... 73
6.1.3 Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) .......................................................................................... 73
6.2 Financial Incentives, Subsidies, and Policies ....................................................................... 73
6.3 Payback Period and Return on Investment (ROI) ................................................................ 74
6.4 Comparative Analysis: Solar vs. Conventional Energy......................................................... 75
7. The environmental and social impacts of solar energy systems ................................................ 75
7.1 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Solar Energy Systems ...................................................... 75
7.2 Environmental Benefits: Reduction in GHG Emissions ........................................................ 76
7.3 Social and Economic Benefits .............................................................................................. 76
7.4 Challenges ........................................................................................................................... 77
8. Innovations and Future Trends in Solar Energy......................................................................... 77
8.1 Emerging Technologies ........................................................................................................ 77
8.2 Advances in Solar Cell Efficiency and Materials................................................................... 79
8.2.1 Perovskite Solar Cells: ........................................................................................................ 79
8.2.2 Tandem Solar Cells: ........................................................................................................... 80
8.2.3 Copper-Indium-Gallium-Selenide (CIGS) Cells: ...................................................................... 80
8.3 Integration with Smart Grids and IoT.................................................................................... 80
8.3.1 Smart Grids: ..................................................................................................................... 80
8.3.2 Internet of Things (IoT): ..................................................................................................... 81
8.4 Role of AI in Optimizing Solar Energy Systems ................................................................... 81
8.4.1 Predictive Analytics: .......................................................................................................... 81
8.4.2 Energy Storage Optimization: ............................................................................................. 82
8.4.3 Maintenance and Fault Detection: ...................................................................................... 82
9. Policy and Regulatory Frameworks in Solar Energy .................................................................. 82
9.1 National and International Policies Promoting Solar Energy ................................................ 82
9.2 Renewable Energy Targets and Commitments (Paris Agreement) ...................................... 83
9.3 Net Metering, Feed-in Tariffs, and Regulatory Mechanisms ................................................. 84
9.3.1 Net Metering: ................................................................................................................... 84
9.3.2 Feed-in Tariffs (FiTs): .......................................................................................................... 84
9.3.3 Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS): ................................................................................. 85
9.3.4 Carbon Pricing: ................................................................................................................. 85
10. Solar Energy in Developing Countries ..................................................................................... 85
 10.1 Role of Solar Energy in Addressing Energy Poverty .......................................................... 85
10.2 Off-Grid Solutions: Solar Home Systems and Mini-Grids ................................................... 85
10.2.1 Solar Home Systems (SHS): ............................................................................................... 85
10.2.2 Mini-Grids: ..................................................................................................................... 86
10.3 Challenges: ........................................................................................................................ 87
10.3.1 High Initial Costs: ............................................................................................................ 87
10.3.2 Limited Financing: ........................................................................................................... 87
10.3.3 Technical Expertise: ......................................................................................................... 87
10.3.4 Policy Barriers: ................................................................................................................ 87
10.4 Opportunities: ..................................................................................................................... 87
10.4.1 Falling Technology Costs:.................................................................................................. 87
10.4.2 Innovative Business Models: ............................................................................................ 87
10.4.3 Job Creation: .................................................................................................................. 87
10.4.4 International Support: ..................................................................................................... 87
10.5 Case Studies from Africa, Asia, and Latin America ............................................................ 87
10.5.1 Africa (Kenya): ................................................................................................................ 87
10.5.2 Asia (Bangladesh): ........................................................................................................... 88
10.5.3 Latin America (Peru): ....................................................................................................... 89
11. Electrical Connections & Grid Integration for Solar PV Systems ............................................. 89
11.1 DC Connections for Solar PV Generators .......................................................................... 89
11.1.1 Combiner Boxes: ............................................................................................................. 89
11.1.2 DC Load Disconnects: ...................................................................................................... 89
11.2 PV String Connections, Blocking Diodes, and Bypass Diodes ........................................... 90
11.2.1 PV String Connections:..................................................................................................... 90
11.2.2 Blocking Diodes:.............................................................................................................. 90
11.2.3 Bypass Diodes: ................................................................................................................ 90
11.3 Grid-Tie Inverters:............................................................................................................... 91
11.4 Public Network Compliance:............................................................................................... 92
11.5 Efficiency Factors: .............................................................................................................. 92
11.6 Metering: Induction Meters, Electronic Meters, and Remuneration Tariffs .......................... 92
11.6.1 Induction Meters:............................................................................................................ 92
 11.6.2 Electronic Meters (Smart Meters): .................................................................................... 93
11.6.3 Remuneration Tariffs: ...................................................................................................... 94
12. Mounting and Safety Considerations for Solar PV Systems .................................................... 94
12.1 Roof-Mounted Systems...................................................................................................... 94
12.1.1 Sloped Roofs: .................................................................................................................. 94
12.1.2 Flat Roofs: ...................................................................................................................... 95
12.1.3 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV): ........................................................................... 95
12.2 Open-Field Systems and Tracking Systems ...................................................................... 96
12.2.1 Open-Field Systems (Ground-Mounted):............................................................................ 96
12.2.2 Tracking Systems: ..................................................................................................... 100
12.2.3 Electrical Wiring and Power Transfer Considerations ......................................................... 101
12.3 Installation Testing............................................................................................................ 102
12.3.1 Visual Inspection: .......................................................................................................... 102
12.3.2 Residual Current Device (RCD) Testing: ............................................................................ 102
12.3.3 Loop Impedance Testing: ............................................................................................... 103
13. Lightning Protection & Risk Assessment for Solar PV Systems ............................................ 104
13.1 Lightning Risk Assessment for PV Installations ............................................................... 104
13.2 Surge Protection for PV Systems ..................................................................................... 104
13.3 Photovoltaics on Buildings with and Without Lightning Protection ................................... 105
13.3.1 Buildings with Lightning Protection Systems (LPS): ............................................................ 105
13.3.2 Buildings without Lightning Protection Systems: ............................................................... 105
14. Hybrid Solar PV Systems ...................................................................................................... 106
14.1 Types of Hybrid Systems and Configurations................................................................... 106
14.1.1 Solar + Battery Hybrid: ................................................................................................... 106
14.1.2 Solar + Grid Hybrid: ....................................................................................................... 106
14.1.3 Solar + Diesel Generator Hybrid: ..................................................................................... 107
14.1.4 Solar + Wind Hybrid:...................................................................................................... 107
14.2 Grid-Tied vs. Off-Grid Hybrid Systems ............................................................................. 108
14.2.1 Grid-Tied Hybrid Systems: .............................................................................................. 108
14.2.2 Off-Grid Hybrid Systems: ................................................................................................ 109
14.3 Inverter Charger Topologies ............................................................................................. 109
 14.3.1 Multimode (Hybrid) Inverters: ........................................................................................ 109
14.3.2 DC-Coupled Systems: ..................................................................................................... 110
14.3.3 AC-Coupled Systems: ..................................................................................................... 110
14.4 Integration with Batteries and Diesel Gensets ................................................................. 111
14.4.1 Battery Integration: ....................................................................................................... 111
14.4.2 Diesel Genset Integration: .............................................................................................. 111
15. Practical Training & Hands-on Exercises for Solar PV Installation ........................................ 111
15.1 Identifying, Listing, and Using Solar PV Installation Equipment ....................................... 111
15.1.1 Solar Panels: ................................................................................................................. 111
15.1.2 Inverters: ...................................................................................................................... 111
15.1.3 Charge Controllers: ........................................................................................................ 111
15.1.4 Batteries:...................................................................................................................... 112
15.1.5 Mounting Structures:..................................................................................................... 112
15.1.6 Tools and Accessories: ................................................................................................... 112
15.2 Site Assessment for Rooftop and Ground-Mounted PV Systems .................................... 112
15.2.1 Rooftop System Assessment: .......................................................................................... 112
15.2.2 Ground-Mounted System Assessment: ............................................................................ 112
15.3 DC and AC Connections for Grid-Tied and Hybrid Systems ............................................ 113
15.3.1 DC Connections:............................................................................................................ 113
15.3.2 AC Connections: ............................................................................................................ 113
15.4 Installation Checks: Visual Inspection, Electrical Testing, and Commissioning ................ 113
15.4.1 Visual Inspection: .......................................................................................................... 113
15.4.2 Electrical Testing: .......................................................................................................... 113
15.4.3 Commissioning: ............................................................................................................ 114
15.5 Safety Procedures for Working at Heights ....................................................................... 114
15.5.1 Fall Protection Equipment: ............................................................................................. 114
15.5.2 Safe Work Practices: ...................................................................................................... 114
15.6 Changing Solar PV Configurations for Different System Topologies ................................ 114
15.6.1 Grid-Tied to Hybrid Conversion: ...................................................................................... 114
15.6.2 Off-Grid System Setup:................................................................................................... 114
15.6.3 Expanding PV Arrays: ..................................................................................................... 114
16. References ............................................................................................................................ 115
1. Introduction to Renewable Energy
1.1 Overview of Renewable Energy Sources
Renewable energy comes from sources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. The major
types include:

 Solar Energy: Captures sunlight using photovoltaic (PV) cells or solar thermal systems to generate
electricity or heat. It's an abundant and increasingly cost-effective source of clean energy.

 Wind Energy: Uses wind turbines to convert the kinetic energy from wind into electrical power.
Wind farms can be installed on land (onshore) or at sea (offshore) where winds are typically
stronger.

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 Hydropower: Generates electricity by harnessing the energy of moving water, often from rivers or
dams. It's the most established renewable energy source, providing reliable and consistent power.

 Geothermal Energy: Exploits heat from beneath the Earth's surface for electricity generation and
direct heating applications. It is especially viable in volcanic regions with high geothermal activity.

 Biomass Energy: Involves converting organic materials such as agricultural waste, wood, or other
plant matter into heat, electricity, or biofuels. It can contribute to waste reduction while generating
energy.

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1.2 Global Energy Demand and the Need for Renewable Energy
As the global population grows and economies develop, the demand for energy continues to rise.
Historically, this demand has been met through fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—which are finite
resources. Relying heavily on these depleting sources leads to several challenges:

 Resource Scarcity: Fossil fuel reserves are diminishing, making energy security a critical global
concern.
 Economic Volatility: Fossil fuel prices are subject to geopolitical tensions and market fluctuations.
 Sustainability Goals: To meet international climate targets, countries must shift toward low-carbon
energy systems.

Renewable energy offers a sustainable solution to meet growing energy needs without depleting resources
or causing environmental harm. Many nations are setting ambitious targets to increase their share of
renewables in the energy mix, promoting innovation and infrastructure development.

1.3 Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels vs. Renewables

The environmental consequences of relying on fossil fuels are well-documented:

 Air Pollution: Burning fossil fuels releases harmful pollutants like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
and particulate matter, contributing to respiratory illnesses and smog formation.

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  Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Fossil fuels are the primary source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, a
major driver of climate change.

 Habitat Destruction: Activities like mining and oil drilling lead to habitat loss, deforestation, and
water contamination.

In contrast, renewable energy technologies offer significant environmental benefits:

 Reduced Emissions: Solar, wind, and hydropower generate electricity with little to no direct
greenhouse gas emissions.
 Minimal Pollution: Most renewable energy systems have a much lower environmental footprint
than fossil fuels.

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  Sustainable Resource Use: Renewable resources like sunlight and wind are naturally replenished,
making them an endless source of energy.

Transitioning to renewable energy is not only essential for mitigating climate change but also for reducing
air and water pollution, preserving biodiversity, and ensuring a healthier environment for future
generations.

2. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Technology

2.1 The Photovoltaic Effect: How Solar Cells Generate Electricity
The sun delivers its energy to us in two main forms: heat and light. There are two main types of solar
power systems, namely, solar thermal systems that trap heat to warm up water and solar PV systems
that convert sunlight directly into electricity as shown in Figure below. (Bhatia)

The word photovoltaic comes from “photo,” meaning light, and “voltaic,” which refers to producing
electricity. And that's exactly what photovoltaic systems do -- turn light into electricity!
The basic unit of a photovoltaic system is the photovoltaic cell. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of at least
two layers of semiconducting material, usually silicon, doped with special additives. One layer has a
positive charge, the other negative.

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The photovoltaic (PV) effect is the fundamental principle behind solar energy conversion. When sunlight
strikes the surface of a solar cell, photons from the light transfer their energy to electrons in the cell's
semiconductor material. This energy excites the electrons, freeing them from atoms and creating an
electric current. The movement of these electrons through an external circuit generates direct current (DC)
electricity, which can be converted to alternating current (AC) using an inverter for practical use.

2.2 Types of Solar Cells

The solar cell is the basic unit of a PV system. A typical silicon solar cell produces only about 0.5 volt, so
multiple cells are connected in series to form larger units called PV modules.

Usually 36 solar cells are connected to give a voltage of about 18V. However, the voltage is reduced to say
17V as these cells get hot in the sun. This is enough to charge 12V battery. Similarly, a 72 cells module
produces about 34V (36V - 2V for losses), which can be used to charge a 24V battery.

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A 12-volt battery typically needs about 14 volts for a charge, so the 36-cell module has become the
standard of the solar battery charger industry.

 PV String

Individual modules can be connected in series, parallel, or both to increase either output voltage or
current. This also increases the output power. When number of modules is connected in series, it is called a
PV string.

In series connection, the negative terminal of one module is connected to the positive terminal of the next
module. In series connections, voltage adds up and the current remain constant.

V Total = V1 + V2+ ... + Vn

I Total = I1 = I2 = … = In

Reverse happens when modules are connected in parallel. In parallel connection, current adds up and
voltage remains constant.

V Total = V1 = V2 = ... = Vn

I Total = I1 + I2 + … +In

 PV Array

Multiple PV strings are connected in parallel to form a Solar Array. Parallel connection increases the
current, while voltage remains the same.

The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired voltage; the
individual strings are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce more current. Solar
arrays are typically measured by the electrical power they produce, in watts, kilowatts, or even
megawatts.

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There are several types of solar cells used in PV technology, each with distinct characteristCell

 Monocrystalline Silicon (Mono-Si):

Made from a single crystal structure, the most electrically efficient with (18-22%), which means
they require less surface area than other cell types to produce an equivalent amount of power. They
also have a wide range of transparency options. Disadvantages are their higher costs,

 Polycrystalline Silicon (Poly-Si):

Composed of multiple crystal fragments melted together.

Slightly lower efficiency (15-17%) but more cost-effective than monocrystalline.

 Thin-Film Solar Cells:

Thin film photovoltaics are produced by printing or spraying a thin semiconductor layer of
PV material onto a glass, metal or plastic foil substrate. By applying these materials in thin
layers, the overall thickness of each photovoltaic cell is substantially smaller than an
equivalent cut crystalline cell, hence the name “thin film”. As the PV materials used in these
types of photovoltaic cells are sprayed directly onto a glass or metal substrate, the
manufacturing process is therefore faster are cheaper making thin film PV technology more
viable for use in a home solar system as their payback time is shorter.

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Less efficient (10-12%) but flexible and lightweight, making them suitable for unconventional
applications like curved surfaces.

 Perovskite Solar Cells:

A newer, rapidly advancing technology using perovskite-structured compounds.

High potential efficiency (20% and above) with low manufacturing costs, though stability and long-
term durability are still under research.

2.2.1 Conversion Efficiency

The conversion efficiency of a solar panel represents the maximum power output that the module
can provide based on a specific module size area. Therefore, a solar panel with higher efficiency
needs less area to provide the same power output.
Higher efficiency values are linked to higher costs, but they also imply less solar panels and space
to reach the same energy needs.

2.2.2 The Voltage-Current Characteristic Curve

Since solar panels generate DC electricity, two parameters determine the power output of the PV
module:

Voltage
Current
As you already know, voltage (V) multiplied by current (I) makes up the power (Watt) of a
device.
Voltage and current parameters are variable according to ambient conditions. The pattern
change of these two parameters follows a specific curve. The purpose of this curve is to find out
the equivalent power output for two voltage and current values provided.

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 I-V curve of a solar

The red curve (top) represents the I-V curve that shows variations of current according to
voltage values. The I-V curve shows multiple parameters that are worth noticing.

2.2.3 Voc and Isc

The open-circuit voltage (Voc) and the short-circuit current (Isc). These parameters are located
on the external points of the curve and they represent the highest values that both voltage and
current can have.

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 Specifications of a solar panel

The highest point of the curve is Isc. This point represents a short-circuit condition in which the
solar panel is connected to a very low resistance (ideally zero) that allows electrical current to
flow at maximum value. It would be equivalent to wire the positive and negative terminals of the
panel together (do not try!).

Now, as the resistance is increased, the voltage starts rising. The current starts reducing step by
step until resistance is too big to allow current to flow, which leads to the open-circuit condition.
Under this condition, voltage is at its highest value (Voc), and the current is zero. This is equivalent
to leaving the two terminals of the solar panel without connection to any load (here the
maximum resistance is the non-conductive air).

2.2.4 Impp, Vmpp, and Pmpp

The maximum power point current (Impp) and the maximum power point voltage (Vmpp) or
Sometimes Imp and Vmp are used, which are similar to Impp and Vmpp.

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The MPP represents the maximum power output that the solar panel can provide for specific
ambient conditions. Vmpp and Impp represent the corresponding voltage and current values
(respectively) associated with the MPP point.

Calculating the Pmpp:

Pmpp, Vmpp, and Impp of a solar panel

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2.2.5 P-V Curve

The other curve, which is green (bottom), is known as the P-V curve. It represents variations of
power output with respect to voltage. Here the Pmpp (MPP) is the only point of interest. The
linear relation between current and voltage can be seen until reaching MPP.

2.2.6 STC and NOCT

There solar industry needs a way to categorize and compare modules. This is done through a lab
test to test their performance under the same conditions. These are known as the Standard Test
Conditions (STC).

The STC reference parameters used in lab tests are:

Irradiance: 1kW/m2
Temperature: 25°C (77°F)
Air Mass: 1.5AM
This temperature is referenced to the operating temperature of the module (not ambient
temperature). All parameters explained before in the I-V curve will be referenced to STC in the
datasheet of the solar panels.

Another typical reference value is the NOCT, acronym for Nominal Operating Cell Temperature.
This standard uses parameters closer to the typical operation of the solar panel since STC
conditions are many times, unreal. The temperature value that is stated in NOCT represents the
temperature of the cell under the open-circuit condition and under the following circumstances:
 Irradiance: 800W/mZ
 Wind Speed: 1 m/s
 Ambient Temperature: 20°C (68°F)
 The temperature in the surface of the panel: 45°C (113°F)
 Mounting system: Open rack
As we can see, there is a difference between the ambient temperature and the operating
temperature of the cell. The NOCT temperature value will generally be located between 45-48°C
(113-118°F), depending on the manufacturer.

2.2.7 Effect of Insolation and Temperature

The I-V curve depends on ambient conditions, mainly on two of them: irradiance and
temperature.

A higher irradiance means more solar radiation. Higher solar radiation also means more photons
that reach the surface of the module, and therefore, more moving electrons.

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Meaning higher current. In other words, more solar irradiance means more current, and less
irradiance means less current. The relationship between these two variables is proportional and
linear. Irradiance does not affect voltage.

On the other hand, the temperature is different. The effect of temperature affects all variables.
However, the most important effect is on voltage. Unlike irradiance, the relationship between
temperature and voltage is inversely proportional and logarithmical.

This means that when the temperature of the cell increases, the voltage reduces, while if
temperature decreases, the voltage rises. The following figure shows a graph illustrating the
effects of irradiance and temperature on current and voltage respectively.

Effect of temperature on voltage (left)

Irradiance on current (right)

On the left, we see that the voltage of the solar cell decreases with increasing temperatures
while the current stays the same.

On the right, we see that the current decreases once less irradiance (sunshine) reaches the
panel while the voltage stays the same.

2.2.8 Ambient Temperature and Cell Temperature

The cell temperature increases according to two factors:

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  The amount of current flowing through the cell
 The ambient temperature

The first one depends on the load that the solar panel is connected to and the irradiance levels
as well. When current flows through any conductor, an ohmic loss effect is created, which
translates into heat. The same happens inside the solar cell. The second factor is entirely
dependent on the location where the panel will be installed.

Hot ambient temperatures will add a thermal effect to the module. Therefore, increasing the
temperature of the cell. This is an undesirable condition as excessive temperatures decrease
voltage, and therefore, reduce the power output of the modules.

Low ambient temperatures favor the thermal cooling of the cell due to ohmic effects. Therefore,
are always desirable for solar panels.

Ironically, many locations with excellent solar resources also have high temperatures that
translate into thermal losses (one of the most important photovoltaic losses). Therefore, there
are some cases in which a location with cooler ambient temperature and lower solar irradiance
could be better for solar since thermal losses will be lower.
You can increase the cooling effect by mounting your solar panels on a stand where circulating
air can cool the panels.

2.2.9 Temperature Effects on Efficiency

Temperature affects the solar panel power output. The efficiency of the solar panel is dependent
on the Pmpp. Therefore, temperature intrinsically affects the efficiency of the solar panel as well.
The relationship of this effect is linear as can be seen in the following figure with an example of
a solar panel with an efficiency of 14.8% under STC 25°C (77°F).

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 Efficiency variations according to temperature
changes. Source: "The Effect of Temperature on
Cell Efficiency"

We can see that the efficiency drastically decreases if the temperature increases. Therefore, it is
important that your solar panels get as much ventilation as possible.

2.2.10 Series and Parallel Connections

The solar panels need to be combined in series or parallel to increase power outputs and the size
of a PV system.

A set of solar panels connected in series is known as a string. A mix between solar panels in series
and parallel connections is known as an array.

When solar panels are wired in series, the voltage of each module is added while current stays
the same.

On the other hand, when solar panels are wired in parallel, current increases while voltage stays
the same.

Higher current values translate into higher gauges for PV wires. Therefore, series connections are
preferred when connecting solar panels.

As a general rule of thumb, solar panels must be wired in series until the accumulated voltage is

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right under the permissible input voltage of your charge controller.

Series wiring of solar panels

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 Parallel wiring of solar panels

Placing your panels in series or parallel will depend on the kind of charge controller that you will
use. A PWM charge controller will only take 12 or 24 Volts while an MPPT can take voltages up
to 100 Volts or more.

PWM charge controllers are cheaper than MPPT. If you wire your panels in series, the voltage
will increase while the current stays the same. This will influence the diameter of your wire. The
money you save on wiring in series instead of parallel can be spent on a more efficient MPPT
inverter.

Another point to take into consideration is the angle of the sun in the morning and the evening.
Because of the low angle, your panels won’t generate as much voltage (low irradiance). If you
wire three panels in parallel and each one of them generates 5 Volts, you will send 5 Volts to your
charge controller, which won’t be enough to charge batteries (under the minimum required input
voltage).
If you wire the panels in series, you have 15 Volts (5V+5V+5V=15Volts), which can start to charge
the batteries early in the morning or late in the evening.

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2.2.11 Wiring Different Solar Panels

Another important rule that must be considered is that solar panels with different specs must
never be wired together.

The PV system will not work optimally. In the series connection, the current output must be the
same through the entire system. If four solar panels are wired in series and one solar panel’s
output is 2A while the others are 3A, then the whole connection will only provide 2A.

The solar panel with lower output would not be capable of providing 3A. Therefore, the system
must adjust and provide 2A. This translates into underusing the capacity of the other solar
panel(s). A similar problem occurs with parallel connections, but with voltage.

2.2.12 Solar Panel Array

When making series and parallel connections, there is another factor that must be considered.

Let’s say you have 8 solar panels, and the maximum number of modules that can be connected
in series is 5 due to charge controller input restrictions.

Now, you may think that you could make a string of 5 solar panels and another string of 3
modules, then connecting the outputs in parallel and wire it to the inverter. However, this would
be incorrect for two reasons.

The first reason is that the weaker string will have a lower voltage. Current always flows from
the highest voltage point to the lowest voltage point. This principle will generate an effect in
which the other strings will try to make current flow toward the weaker string. This is extremely
undesirable since it can lead to malfunctioning and be devastating under short-circuit conditions.

The second reason is more related to energy losses. The charge controller must accurately find
the MPP of the solar panels every time to operate optimally. If strings of different voltages are
connected in parallel, then the I-V curve would lose its regular shape, and it would make tracking
of the MPP very hard for the charge controller. This would end up in tremendous mismatch losses
due to voltage differences.

Therefore, going back to our example, if you have 8 solar panels, then you would have to size 4
modules in series (string) and put them in parallel to become an array. If the charge controller
only allowed for 3 modules, then you would have to either work with 6 panels (which could go
below your required power capacity to cover energy demands) or add an extra solar panel to
have 9 modules in total, of which 3 are in series.

19
 2 series strings connected in parallel to the combiner box

2.2.13 Azimuth

The azimuth angle is referred to as the direction of solar panels regarding the sun’s orientation.
For locations in the northern hemisphere of the Earth, solar panels must face south to harness
the maximum power output. Locations in the southern hemisphere, solar panels should face
north.

Alternative azimuth directions are east or west, either one of them. Panels should never point
north if you are in the northern hemisphere.

20
2.2.14 Tilt Angle

Finding the optimal tilt angle is always related to the latitude of the location.

Displaying latitude
Source: Geography
Realm

Most of the time, for locations near the Equator, choosing the latitude directly as the
reference is usually the best approach.

Besides the location, another important factor that must be considered before setting the
optimum tilt angle is related to the type of system that will be implemented. Also, since the
altitude and direction of the sun vary according to the season, it is important to know when
the system will be used mostly.

In grid-tied PV systems, the idea is to optimize solar power harnessing to generate as much
energy as possible. Therefore, since solar power is generally higher during summer months,
then the PV system angle is optimized to harness as much energy as possible during summer.
To calculate the optimum tilt angle under these conditions, you must apply the following
simple expression.

21
Where will be the optimum tilt angle and will be the latitude of the location.

Example for New York in summer:

For stand-alone PV systems, the priority is not harnessing as much energy as possible but to
always be able to cover the energy needs of the system to provide stability. Therefore, the
critical season under which the PV system must be optimized is no longer summer, but
winter. For these cases, it is advisable to use the simple expression below.

Example for New York in winter:

Figuring out the best tilt during the whole year:

How to find out the latitude of your location:

Go to google maps and click on the location you would like to know the latitude from. The
first numbers are the latitude. The one after is the longitude. In this example, the latitude is
32°.

22
Figuring out the latitude of your location

23
2.2.15 Shading

Shading losses are one of the most underestimated factors in terms of power loss for any PV
system, and must always be considered. There are mainly two types of shadings: near-shading
and far-shading.

Far-shading is associated with losses in diffused irradiance caused by mountains or high buildings.
There is not much that can be done about them.

On the other hand, near-shadings are associated with nearby objects that can project shades
over the solar panels. Things such as trees, walls, antennas.

When a solar panel is shaded, the current output of the module is affected. Remember solar
irradiance (Watts/mZ) has effects on the current, not the voltage. So, if you were to shade one
panel in a string (series connection), only the panel with the lowest current would decide the
power output.

Effect of shading on series connections

The electrical current can only be as high as the current generated by the weakest module
(shaded module in this case).

To account for solar power losses due to shadings, solar designers use simulation software that

24
calculates the projection of the shade across the day and its impact on the PV system.

So, solar panel manufacturers install bypass diodes in a box located in the backside of the module,
known as the junction box. In case the solar panel is partially shaded, these bypass diodes allow
electric current circulation from the other sides of the module. This means the reduction in power

output due to shading will not be total, but partial. Most solar panels generally have 3 bypass
diodes in residential and commercial applications.

Bypass diodes in solar panels

In the following diagram, you can see the effect of shading on parallel connections. If you

25
compare this to the series connection, you can see that we have a higher wattage output. This is
because, in parallel, the amps are added together while the voltage stays the same.

Effect of shading on parallel connections

The downside with parallel connections is that you need to have a bigger wire diameter to
handle the increased current.

2.2.16 Blocking Diodes

Blocking diodes are also sometimes used in battery-based applications that involve solar panels.

Back when charge controllers did not exist, installers needed to add a blocking diode between the
module and battery to avoid this reverse current effect.

Nowadays, solar panel manufacturers already take care of this element by adding what is known
as a Schottky barrier diode, which combines the functions of both blocking and bypass diodes.
Therefore, you do not need to worry about that.

2.3 Efficiency, Cost, and Performance of PV Systems

 Efficiency: Measures how effectively a solar cell converts sunlight into usable electricity.
Monocrystalline cells typically offer the highest efficiencies, while thin-film cells are less
efficient but cheaper to produce.
 Cost: The cost of solar PV systems has dropped significantly over the past decade. Factors
affecting cost include the type of cell, installation expenses, and government incentives or
subsidies.
 Performance: Influenced by environmental conditions such as temperature, shading, and
geographic location. Performance metrics include:
 Capacity Factor: Actual output compared to maximum possible output over time.
 Degradation Rate: The annual reduction in performance, typically around 0.5-1% for modern
panels.

2.4 Manufacturing Processes and Materials Used in PV Panels

The manufacturing of PV panels involves several steps and materials:

 Materials:

Semiconductor Material: Typically silicon for monocrystalline and polycrystalline cells.

Conductive Metals: Silver or copper for electrical connections.

26
Encapsulation: Protective glass and polymer layers to shield the cells from environmental damage.

 Processes:

Ingot and Wafer Production: Silicon is melted and formed into ingots, then sliced into thin wafers.

Cell Fabrication: Wafers are treated, doped, and coated to create the PV effect.

Module Assembly: Cells are interconnected, laminated, and framed to create durable panels.

Advances in manufacturing technology, such as laser processing and improved material efficiency,
continue to drive down costs and improve the performance of PV systems worldwide.

3. Solar Thermal Systems

3.1 Principles of Solar Thermal Energy Conversion
Solar thermal systems harness sunlight to generate heat rather than electricity. The basic principle
involves capturing solar radiation through collectors, converting it into thermal energy, and then
using that heat for various applications. The captured energy typically heats a fluid (such as water
or oil), which is then transferred for direct use or stored for later use. Unlike photovoltaic systems,
solar thermal systems are generally more efficient for heating purposes because they convert
sunlight directly into thermal energy without an intermediate electrical conversion process.

27
3.2 Types of Solar Thermal Systems

There are three main types of solar thermal systems, each suited for different applications and
efficiency levels: (Robert Foster, 2009)

 Flat-Plate Collectors

Flat-plate solar collectors are the most common ones.

o Consist of a dark absorber plate enclosed in a transparent cover, typically glass.

o Absorb heat from sunlight and transfer it to a fluid running through tubes attached
to the absorber plate.
o Commonly used for residential water heating and space heating.

 Evacuated Tube Collectors:

o Composed of multiple glass tubes with vacuum-sealed insulation.
o Minimize heat loss and maintain higher efficiency in colder climates or low-sunlight
conditions.

28
 o Ideal for both residential and commercial heating applications.

 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP):

o Uses mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight onto a small area, generating high
temperatures.
o Typically used for large-scale power generation by producing steam to drive turbines.
o Includes technologies like parabolic troughs, solar power towers, and dish Stirling
systems.

29
Parabolic Trough Collector Power Tower Receiver

Parabolic Dish Collector

30
3.3 Applications of Solar Thermal Systems

Solar thermal systems have a wide range of applications across residential, commercial, and
industrial sectors:

 Water Heating:
o One of the most common uses, particularly in residential settings.
o Reduces the need for conventional water heaters, lowering energy costs.

 Space Heating:
o Used in colder climates to heat air or water for circulation in buildings.

31
 o Can be integrated with underfloor heating systems for improved comfort and
efficiency.

 Industrial Processes:
o Provides high-temperature heat for industrial applications such as pasteurization,
drying, and chemical processing.
o Reduces reliance on fossil fuels in energy-intensive industries.

3.4 Case Studies of Large-Scale Solar Thermal Projects

 Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System (USA):

o A CSP facility located in California’s Mojave Desert.
o Uses mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto central towers, producing steam to
generate electricity.

32
 o Generates up to 392 MW of power, enough to serve over 140,000 homes.

 Shams 1 (UAE):
o One of the largest CSP plants in the Middle East.
o Generates 100 MW of electricity using parabolic trough technology.
o Plays a key role in the UAE’s strategy for sustainable energy development.

33
  Andasol Solar Power Station (Spain):
o Uses parabolic trough collectors with molten salt storage for continuous power
generation.
o Generates 150 MW enough for approximately 500,000 people

These case studies highlight the potential of solar thermal systems to contribute significantly to
global energy needs while reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

4. Solar Energy Storage

4.1 Importance of Energy Storage in Solar Systems
Energy storage plays a critical role in maximizing the efficiency and reliability of solar power
systems. Since solar energy generation is inherently intermittent—dependent on weather
conditions and daylight hours—energy storage systems (ESS) help bridge the gap between energy
production and consumption. This ensures a consistent power supply, particularly in off-grid
systems or during peak energy demand times. Energy storage:

 Balances supply and demand by storing excess energy for use when sunlight is unavailable.
 Ensures energy availability during cloudy periods or nighttime.
 Enhances the reliability of solar energy systems, reducing dependence on fossil fuel-
powered backup generators.
 Supports energy independence for off-grid applications.

34
4.2 Battery Technologies
4.2.1 Lead-Acid Batteries

Lead-acid batteries are among the oldest and most widely used storage technologies. They are
cost-effective and relatively simple to install, making them popular in small-scale, off-grid solar
systems. However, they come with limitations:

 Shorter lifespan compared to newer technologies.

 Lower energy density, meaning they require more space for the same storage capacity.
 Regular maintenance requirements, especially for flooded lead-acid batteries.

4.2.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries have become the preferred choice for modern solar systems due to their
superior performance:

 Higher energy density allows for more compact storage solutions.

 Longer lifespan and fewer maintenance needs.
 Higher efficiency, resulting in reduced energy losses during charge and discharge cycles.
 Higher initial cost but better long-term value due to extended durability and reduced
maintenance.

35
4.2.3 Emerging Alternatives

Several new battery technologies are being developed to address the limitations of traditional
batteries:

 Flow Batteries: These offer long life cycles and are highly scalable, making them ideal for
large-scale applications. They are particularly suited for systems requiring frequent, deep
discharges.
 Solid-State Batteries: Promising higher energy density and improved safety due to their
solid electrolyte. They are still in the research phase but show potential for future solar
storage.
 Sodium-Ion Batteries: A cost-effective, environmentally friendly alternative with good
scalability potential for grid applications.

4.3 Thermal Storage Systems for Solar Thermal Applications

Thermal storage systems are designed to store heat rather than electricity, making them ideal for
solar thermal energy applications:

 Molten Salt Storage: This technology stores heat at high temperatures and is commonly
used in concentrated solar power (CSP) plants.
 Water Tanks: A simple, cost-effective method for domestic solar water heating systems.
 Phase-Change Materials (PCMs): Store and release heat during phase transitions (e.g., solid
to liquid), offering high storage density for residential and commercial applications.

36
4.4 Grid Integration and the Role of Storage

Energy storage is vital for integrating solar power into the electrical grid and ensuring system
stability:

 Grid Stabilization: Storage systems help balance fluctuations in solar energy production,
ensuring consistent power delivery.
 Backup Power: Provides an energy reserve for periods of high demand or grid outages.
 Energy Trading and Demand-Response: Stored energy can be sold back to the grid during
peak demand periods, enhancing economic viability for grid-tied solar systems.

In conclusion, incorporating robust energy storage solutions is essential for optimizing solar power
systems, ensuring reliability, and supporting the broader adoption of renewable energy.

5. Design and Installation of Solar PV Systems

5.1 Components of a Solar PV System

 Solar Panels:

Converts sunlight into electricity (DC).

Types: Monocrystalline, Polycrystalline, and Thin-film panels.

37
  Inverters:

Converts DC electricity from the panels into AC for grid or appliance use.

Types: String Inverters, Microinverters, Hybrid Inverters.

 Mounting Structures:

Provides support for the solar panels on rooftops, ground, or poles.

Types: Fixed tilt, Adjustable tilt, and Tracking systems.

 Balance of System (BoS):

All other necessary components, including:

Wiring & connectors (MC4, cables)

Fuses, breakers, and disconnect switches

Charge controllers for battery systems

Monitoring systems for performance tracking

5.2 Site Assessment and Solar Resource Evaluation

5.2.1 Shading Analysis:
Use tools like Solar Pathfinder or apps like Sun Surveyor to assess shading impacts.

5.2.2 Orientation and Tilt:

Maximize exposure by aligning panels toward true south (in the Northern Hemisphere) or true
north (in the Southern Hemisphere) with an optimal tilt angle based on latitude.

5.2.3 Solar Irradiance Measurement:

Measure site-specific solar radiation data using tools like a pyranometer or consult regional solar
maps.

5.2.4 Structural Integrity:

Check rooftop load capacity and ground stability for mounting systems.

38
5.3 Solar PV system sizing for off grid System
5.3.1 Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy consumption
of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system as follows:
(https://www.leonics.com/support/article2, 2025) (Mayfield, 2019)

1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-hours per day which
must be delivered to the appliances.

1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost in the system) to get
the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panels.

5.3.2 Size the PV modules

Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out the sizing of PV
module, the total peak watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the
PV module and climate of site location. We have to consider panel generation factor which is
different in each site location. For Thailand, the panel generation factor is 3.43.

To determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as follows:

2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules

Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules (from item 1.2) by 3.43 to get
the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate the appliances.

2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system

Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV modules available
to you. Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest full number and that will be the
number of PV modules required.

Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules are installed, the
system will perform better and battery life will be improved. If fewer PV modules are used, the
system may not work at all during cloudy periods and battery life will be shortened.

5.3.3 Inverter sizing

An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of the inverter
should never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal
voltage as your battery.

39
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount of Watts
you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of
appliances. In case of appliance type is motor or compressor then inverter size should be minimum
3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the inverter capacity to handle surge
current during starting.

For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV
array rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.

5.3.4 Battery sizing

The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle
battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle
charged and discharged day after day for years. The battery should be large enough to store
sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find out the size of battery,
calculate as follows:

4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.

4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the number of days that you
need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the required
Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)

5.3.5 Solar charge controller sizing

The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities. Select the
solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify which type
of solar charge controller is right for your application. Make sure that solar charge controller has
enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.

For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input current
which is delivered to the controller and also depends on PV panel configuration (series or parallel
configuration).

According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit
current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3

Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3

40
Example: A house has the following electrical appliance usage:

One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 4 hours per day.

One 60 Watt fan used for 2 hours per day.

One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with compressor run 12 hours and off 12 hours.

The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV module.

1. Determine power consumption demands

Total appliance use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 24 x 0.5 hours)

= 1,092 Wh/day

Total PV panels energy needed = 1,092 x 1.3

= 1,419.6 Wh/day.

2. Size the PV panel

2.1 Total Wp of PV panel = 1,419.6 / 3.4

capacity needed

= 413.9 Wp

2.2 Number of PV panels

= 413.9 / 110
needed

= 3.76 modules

Actual requirement = 4 modules

so this system should be powered by at least 4 modules of 110 Wp PV module.

3. Inverter sizing
Total Watt of all appliances = 18 + 60 + 75 = 153 W
For safety, the inverter should be considered 25-30% bigger size.
The inverter size should be about 190 W or greater.

4. Battery sizing
Total appliances use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)
Nominal battery voltage = 12 V
Days of autonomy = 3 days
41
 Battery capacity = [(18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)] x 3
(0.85 x 0.6 x 12)
Total Ampere-hours required 535.29 Ah
so the battery should be rated 12 V 600 Ah for 3 day autonomy.

5. Solar charge controller sizing

PV module specification
Pm = 110 Wp
Vm = 16.7 Vdc
Im = 6.6 A
Voc = 20.7 A
Isc = 7.5 A
Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A
So the solar charge controller should be rated 40 A at 12 V or greater.

6. Generator Size

The backup generator should cover peak loads and recharge batteries as needed.

Generator Sizing: To determine the generator size, multiply the peak load by a safety factor 1.5:

Generator Rating = Peak Load × 1.5

Power Factor (PF) = Real Power (P)/ Apparent Power (S)

Use power factor of 0.9

5.3.6 Wire Size

Wiring is an essential part of any electrical installation. Solar PV installations also need special
considerations in this matter.
In this chapter, we are going to look at the different types of wires, factors that contribute to wire
sizing and how to calculate the diameter of the wire. (Seghers, 2020)
 Wire Types
We can divide the type of wire that you need to use by sections of the PV system:

 Solar panels - Combiner box

 Combiner box - Charge controller - Loads
 Battery cables

42
5.3.7 Calculating Wire Sizes

In this chapter, we will calculate the wire size you need for each stage of the solar system. We
have to take the sizing factors into consideration.

 PV Modules – Combiner box

In this section, your reference must be the short-circuit current that is established in the
datasheet of the PV module and then apply a security factor associated with higher irradiance
levels, as well as the voltage drop. The maximum current a solar cell can produce is:

Calculate the maximum current through the wire:

For this section of the PV system, you will note that wire sizes with a manufacturer’s temperature
rating of 90°C can be as small as #14AWG.

However, this is without taking voltage drop into consideration. We need to calculate the wire
size to reduce the voltage drop to an acceptable 1% at 20ft (6 meters).

To calculate the voltage drop, you must apply the following expression:

43
Where:
A= Transversal section of the cable [ ρ= Specific Resistance [fi
ρ= Specific Resistance [fi

For copper
For aluminum

2= Total travel length for both + and - wire

l= Length of the cable [m]
I= Nominal current through the cable [A] (Imp in this case)
= Permissible voltage drop in the cable [no unit]
Vsys= Open circuit voltage [V] (Vmpp of the string)

As an example, we can consider two solar panels in series that has a range of 82ft (25-meter)
from the most distanced connection point to the charge controller, and that the string has a
maximum power point current (Impp) of 5.8A and a maximum power point voltage (Vmpp) of
35V ( ).

The desired voltage drop in the system will be 1%.

11.37mmZ or #6AWG is needed to wire the solar panel to the combiner box. However, if you buy
MC-4 connector cables, they will only be available in #10AWG. The reason for this is that they
limit the voltage drop to 3% instead of 1%. Let’s explain this with an example. These cables are
20ft (6 meters) long.

44
3.79mmZ is rounded up to a wire that is #10AWG. This will only be the case if you were to wire
the cable for 20ft (6meters) without an extension. Therefore, it is important that you calculate
this correctly to avoid unnecessary power loss.

This wire will be used for every connection between modules and to send the electric current up
to the fuses in the combiner box.

As you can see, the result is established in mm2. This represents the transversal section that the
copper wire must have to ensure a 1% voltage drop. We can transform this mm2 to AWG by
referring to the following table. As listed in the following table, for this application, we would
require a #4AWG size cable.

45
 AWG to mm2 conversion table

Voltage drop is only important when the length of the wire is long. It doesn’t need to be
calculated for the rest of the system as long as the components are close together.

 Combiner box – Charge Controller

The output of the combiner box will go to the charge controller. This section will contain all the
electric current that flows from all the strings of solar panels. To estimate the wire size, we must
46
use the following expression:

The number of strings represents the number of parallel connections made in the solar array, and
the factor 1.5625 is associated with security factors. For this section, wire sizes between #10AWG
and #6AWG should work depending on the type of solar array.

For example, one array of two panels in parallel:

Calculate the voltage drop if the wires travel 16ft (5 meters) to the charge controller:

Using a 1% voltage drop:

Using a 3% voltage drop:

If you have your panels connected in series, the voltage will increase, but the amperage will stay
the same.

Example of two panels in series with a 1% voltage drop:

47
We can see that a series connection requires a wire with a smaller diameter. This is because the
wire diameter is decided by the number of amps that run through the wire. In parallel, amps will
be added up. In series, the voltage will be added up.

 Charge Controller – Battery

The current that flows from your charge controller to the batteries is decided by the charge
controller itself. It will have a maximum charging current listed in its datasheet.

It will also recommend the wire size. There is no need to calculate this size as long as the cable is
not very long.

Following the manufacturer’s recommended guideline is the best advice to follow. If you do
calculate this yourself, make sure the terminals of the charge controller are big enough to accept
your wire diameter.

Charge controller recommended battery and load

cables

Make sure you use the recommended THWN-2 cable.

 Battery – Inverter

To size the wires that go from your batteries to the inverter, you need to know the power rating
of the inverter that you are going to use. If you are using a 1,500 Watt inverter with a 12 Volt
battery bank, you apply the following formula:
48
You need a wire that can supply 125 Amps to your inverter.

Next, you need to use the temperature correction factor. Because we are using a different type
of wire (THHN), the temperature rating of the conductor will be higher at 194°F (90°C).

Selection of 2AWG wire

Next, decide the maximum ambient temperature in the battery compartment. In this example,
the maximum temperature in the battery compartment up to the inverter will be 105-113°F (41-
45°C).

49
 Temperature correction factor

We can see that by using the temperature correction factor, we do not get to the 125 Amps our
inverter can draw. Therefore, we need to increase the wire size. Instead of #2, we use #1AWG.

If we select a #1AWG wire, we are able to handle the maximum current the inverter can draw.
The voltage drop is not calculated here because the distance between these two will be almost
negligible.

One advantage of using a battery with a higher voltage is that you don’t need to use big wires. If
you have the same inverter with a battery bank of 24Volts, you only need a wire that is capable
of transporting 62.5 Amps, as can be seen in the following calculation:

50
 Interconnecting Batteries

51
Use the maximum charging or discharging current that will flow through the batteries. The
discharging current will most likely be the highest.

If you are interconnecting batteries, they should have the same diameter and the same length. If
not, more resistance is created in the wires, and the charge or discharge current won’t be the
same for individual batteries in the battery pack.

The thickness of the wire depends on the total current draw of the loads in your system. If the
total load current in your system is 200 Amps at 12 Volts, then size your cables on that number.

The wiring of the interconnecting wires is the same as the battery to inverter.

 Wiring for Electrical Loads

This section applies to DC and AC loads.

Typical DC loads will work with #14AWG or even #16AWG wire sizes.

Typical AC loads such as lighting, TVs, microwaves, fans, small motors, and others will generally
use #12AWG or #10AWG wire sizes. These are typically used for outlets.
A/C units, washing machines, and refrigerators may require #8AWG and up to #6AWG, depending
on the model.
You can find the electric current demand for your appliance on the product or in the datasheet of
the product. If you are only presented with the power rating, use the following formula to figure
out current:

For an AC appliance:

For a DC appliance:

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  Fuses and Circuit Breakers

Fuses or circuit breakers which are put inline in your solar system are not intended to protect the
device it is wired to.
Devices like the charge controller and the inverter have their own fuses. The reason why we put
fuses or circuit breakers inline is to protect the wiring of the system from getting hot, melting, or
even catching fire.

Therefore, the fuses or circuit breakers that are placed inline are calculated on the size of the
actual wiring. This is to protect your system from catching fire if there is a higher current flowing
through the wires at which they are rated for. This is how you determine fuse sizes:

1. Figure out the load.

2. Figure out the distance to the appliance (voltage drop).
3. Decide wiring thickness.
4. Decide fuse rating based on wire thickness.
There is an exception to wires that come directly from solar panels. The wiring coming from PV
panels is bigger than it needs to be to minimize the voltage drop. The back of the solar panel will
display the maximum allowed fuse size (more on this later).

An example of this is that you will be running wires that are rated for 30 Amps to minimize voltage
drop, but the maximum fuse for the solar panels is only 10 Amps.

53
Technical data of a solar panel

54
  Where to Place Fuses

Fuses should be placed as close as possible to the energy source. If current flows from your
battery to your inverter, place it as close to the battery as possible. If current flows from solar
panels to the charge controller, place it as close as possible to the solar panels. Only place fuses
on the positive (red) wire.
Fuses should be placed in the following locations:
On the positive wire from your solar panel(s) to your charge controller (as close as
possible to the panel itself). You can use an inline MC4 connector fuse for this. You can
put a fuse in a combiner box if you wire in parallel.

Inline MC4 connector with fuse

On the positive wire from the charge controller to the battery.

On the positive wire from the battery to the busbar.
One the positive wire from the busbar to the inverter.
On the positive wire from the busbar to the DC loads.

55
 Placement of fuses in your solar system

 Fuses vs. Circuit Breakers

DC protection devices are essential to guarantee the safe and effective functioning and operation
of any PV system. (Seghers, 2020)

For this purpose, there are two main types of DC protection devices: Fuses and circuit breakers.

Fuses are overcurrent protection devices that contain a filament inside that heats up as current
flows through it. When a specific current located above the permissible limit passes through the
filament, the filament heats up above its thermal capacity and melts. When the wire inside the
fuse melts, the circuit gets opened. An overcurrent can be produced by:

An overload caused by excessive current demand from the electrical loads,

56
above the design limit.

57
 A short-circuit caused by a fault that occurs in the circuit.

Fuse holder with removable fuses

On the other hand, the circuit breaker is another popular protection device intended for
overcurrent protection as well.

A thermal protection mechanism is based on a bimetallic contact that heats and expands when
an electric current located above the rated value is present. This protects the circuit against
overload. A magnetic protection mechanism instantly responds to high fault currents that protect
the electrical circuit against short-circuits or overcurrent.

Inside the DC breaker, two contacts split when an overcurrent passes through the protection
device, automatically switching it to the OFF position.
The DC breaker needs to be put back in the ON position to allow electric current flow again
through the circuit. There is no functional difference between fuses or circuit breakers. If a fault
occurs with a fuse, you need to replace it. With a breaker, you flip the switch back in the on
position. Fuses are cheaper than circuit breakers.
Keep in mind that for solar power applications, you must choose circuit breakers that work on
DC to protect solar panels and batteries. Circuit breakers that work on AC are used to protect the
AC loads.

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 DC breakers

Now, you may be asking yourself, which protective device should you use for each application?

I recommend using fuses for parts in your circuits that do not easily trip. This is the DC part of
your solar system.

Circuit breakers can be reused each time that they trip, and they are more intended to protect
multiple electrical circuits.
You will need to use fuses specifically for protecting the battery bank as higher currents flow
through this circuit, and the protection speed of these devices will guarantee that the batteries
will not suffer any damage.

Finally, for the main AC panel, it is more common to use circuit breakers to protect loads in
residential-sized or off-grid PV systems.

Because of the high current in DC systems, it can get very expensive to use DC circuit breakers.
Therefore, fuses are preferred.

 Slow or Rapid-acting?

Fuses and circuit breakers can also be classified according to their response speed.

The acting speed is the time it takes for the fuse to open once a fault current or overload passes
through the filament. This is dependent mainly on the material used for the fuse element.

Selecting the accurate fuse type also involves selecting the appropriate speed response for the

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particular application that you are using. Choosing a fuse that acts too fast may not allow normal
current operations to run, while choosing a fuse that is too slow may not interrupt faulty currents

60
Quickly enough.

There are 3 main types of fuse speeds:

 Ultra-rapid
 Fast-acting
 Slow-acting

Ultra-rapid fuses are mainly used for semi-conductors’ (electronics) protection.

Fast-acting fuses can be used to protect cabling and less sensitive components such as
batteries and PV modules.

Finally, slow-acting fuses feature a built-in delay that temporarily allows the flow of inrush
electrical currents in electrical motors.

When checking the datasheet of the fuse, you may find some of the following marks, as
described in the following table:

Marking Description
FF Very Fast Acting Fuse
F Fast Acting Fuse
M Medium Acting Fuse
T Slow Acting Fuse
TT Very Slow Acting Fuse

Generally, for battery and solar panel protection, you will need FF, F, or M type fuse
ratings. If you intend to protect a more specific load like a motor or pump, you might need
to select a slow- acting fuse in order to allow normal inrush (starting) current to flow.

Electrical engineers use a detailed analysis of this aspect considering time vs. current
graphs of the fuse to ensure that the protection device acts when it needs to.

Rated current for the DC fuse should be calculated as demonstrated in the following
expression.

Apply security factors to size the fuse. A 25% security factor should be applied due to
excess of irradiance, and another 25% due to 3 continuous hours of operation under these
conditions.

On the other hand, considering the open-voltage of the modules, string fuses should be rated
for
1.2 times the STC open-circuit voltage of the entire string. This voltage can be simply
calculated by verifying the open-circuit voltage of the module model and multiply it by
the number of solar panels (nsp) in every string. The result should be your minimum

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voltage to the DC fuse or breaker.

Example:
Three panels in series with the following specifications:

Minimum current for the fuse:

You can see on the specifications of the solar panel that the maximum fuse in series is
15A. Do not go higher than the recommended fuse by the manufacturer. You can either
use a 10 Amp fuse of a 15 Amp fuse.

Minimum voltage for the fuse:

DC fuses are also rated for a specific number of volts. Choose a DC fuse that can handle at
least 75.6 Volts.

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  Series Connection

For series connections, inline MC-4 connector fuses are used. You simply use these fuses on
the positive lead of every panel.

Using fuses in series connections

Example of an inline MC-4 connector fuse

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  Parallel Connection

You can use inline fuses for parallel connections too. However, most parallel
systems use a Combiner box because this is also the place where wires are being
combined into one wire to the charge controller.

Wiring fuses this way will be cheaper than buying inline MC-4 fuses because you will
need the combiner box anyway.

Wiring fuses in parallel connection

 Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers are mostly used in AC systems. Fuses are better suited for high current
DC systems.

There are mainly three types of circuit breakers.

 Single pole
 Double pole
 Triple pole

Single-pole models are suitable for most circuitry. Simple loads such as fans, TVs,
microwaves, coffee makers, home theater equipment, and any other load that works in
120VAC will need a single-pole one.

Other loads such as air conditioners, washing machines, dryers, and some motors work in
split- phase configuration requiring nearly 240VAC. Therefore they need double-pole

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circuit breakers. Finally, some loads will need to work on three-phase systems at 208VAC.
Therefore, they will need a triple pole circuit breakers.

Mainly large AC motors will be the ones using this type of breaker, which will not be
generally used for small off-grid applications. Below, we can see samples of each type.

Single pole breaker

Double pole breaker

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 Triple pole breake

 DC Isolator Switch

DC circuit or DC isolator switches are used to decouple parts of the solar system from
each other. They are used when maintenance needs to be done to the components in the
system.

DC isolator switches are placed in these locations:

Decoupling solar panels from the charge controller.

Decoupling batteries from the system.
Before you buy a DC isolator switch, make sure it complies with the system’s current and
voltage. For example, the DC isolator switch (solar disconnect switch) that is coming from
your solar panels has lower current but higher voltage while the isolator switch from the
battery requires higher current but lower voltage (depending on the voltage of your
battery bank).

48 Volts DC, 300 Amp battery isolator switch

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 800 Volts DC, 25 Amp solar disconnect switch

I do not recommend using regular circuit breakers as a disconnect switch because

they are not built for switching under load that often.

Always buy an isolator switch that has a higher voltage and current at a specific point
in your system. (Seghers, 2020)

Where to place isolator switches

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5.4 Installation Best Practices and Safety Protocols
5.4.1 PV System Safety
Finally, when working with PV systems, please be careful. Never work on a PV system alone.
Have proper knowledge of the PV system. Be careful accessing roofs and ladders. Be careful
with batteries and be sure to have bicarbonate, etc., to neutralize battery acid.

Dress appropriately. Have an alert mind, a skeptic instinct, and a slow hand. The goal is to
avoid accidents and injuries. This requires the following: (Robert Foster, 2009)

 Good work habits;

 Awareness of potential hazards;
 Proper tools and hardware;
 Safe PV systems; and
 Working in pairs (buddy system).

PV System Testing Rules

 Wear appropriate PPE (gloves, helmets, harnesses).

 Remove all jewellery.
 Visually inspect the system and take notes of risks and problems.
 Be aware of telephone and first-aid equipment locations.
 Be careful climbing up and down ladders and roofs.
 Identify and locate disconnects.
 Measure the open-circuit voltage.
 Measure the voltage of each conductor.
 Follow color coding for wires (typically red for positive, black for negative).

5.5 Grid-Tie and Hybrid Systems: Design Concepts

5.5.1 Manual Design and String Concepts:
Panels connected in series increase voltage.

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Panels connected in parallel increase current.

Balance voltage and current requirements based on inverter specs.

5.5.2 Inverter Topologies:

 Central Inverters: Suitable for large commercial systems.
 String Inverters: Panels are grouped into series-connected "strings."
 Microinverters: Installed on each panel, suitable for systems with shading issues.

5.6 Software for PV System Sizing

 PVSOL:

69
  PVSOL is a powerful simulation and design tool for grid-connected PV systems. It
allows you to design both small and large systems and analyze their performance,
including shading effects and energy yield.
 Features:
o 3D visualization of PV systems and shading analysis.
o Detailed energy production forecasts.
o Consideration of inverter performance and losses.
o Optimized for residential, commercial, and industrial systems.

 PVSyst:

 PVSyst is one of the most widely used software tools for the design and simulation of
PV systems. It provides detailed analysis and sizing of the system components,
including inverters and batteries, and helps with assessing performance.
 Features:
o Detailed meteorological data input for location-based simulations.
o Energy yield prediction and optimization.
o Shading analysis and 3D module arrangement.
o Battery and storage system modeling for off-grid systems.

 Helioscope:

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  Helioscope is a cloud-based tool known for its user-friendly interface, which
combines system design with performance modeling. It is particularly suitable for
large-scale commercial PV system designs.
 Features:
o Intuitive drag-and-drop interface for PV system layout.
o Accurate performance modeling with weather data.
o 3D design and shading analysis tools.
o Integration with other design tools and monitoring platforms.

 SMA Design:

 Overview: SMA Design (formerly Sunny Design) is a tool provided by SMA Solar
Technology for the design of PV systems. It supports system design for residential,
commercial, and industrial installations, with a focus on SMA’s inverters.
 Features:
o Tailored to SMA products, providing detailed compatibility checks.
o Energy yield prediction.
o Simulation of various system configurations.

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 o Simplified interface for easy design and simulation

 HOMER:

 HOMER (Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources) is a powerful

optimization tool for designing and analyzing hybrid energy systems. It is primarily
used for off-grid and remote PV systems combined with other generation sources like
wind and storage.
 Features:
o Optimization of hybrid energy systems with PV, batteries, and generators.
o Simulation of grid-connected, off-grid, and microgrid systems.
o Financial analysis and life-cycle cost optimization.
o Ability to model complex scenarios with multiple energy sources.

(https://spotio.com/blog/solar-design-software/, 2025)

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6. Economics of Solar Energy
6.1 Cost Analysis
The economics of solar energy involve various costs associated with installation, operation,
and long-term maintenance. A comprehensive understanding of these factors is essential
for evaluating the financial feasibility of solar projects.

Economıc Feasıbılıty

The most critical factors in determining the value of energy generated by renewable energy
systems are the (1) initial cost of the hardware and installation, and (2) amount of energy
produced annually

6.1.1 Capital Costs

 Installation Costs: These include the price of solar panels, inverters, mounting
systems, wiring, and other hardware components.
 Labor Costs: Expenses related to hiring professionals for installation and system
integration.
 Permitting and Inspection Fees: Required legal and safety compliance expenses.
 Energy Storage Costs: If integrated with batteries, additional costs for storage
solutions must be factored in.

6.1.2 Operational and Maintenance Costs

 Routine Maintenance: Regular cleaning of panels and periodic inspections to

maintain system efficiency.
 Component Replacement: Inverters typically need replacement every 5-10 years,
and batteries may require replacement within a specific lifespan.
 Monitoring System Costs: Optional systems to track energy production and detect
issues early.

6.1.3 Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)

LCOE measures the total cost of generating electricity over the system’s lifetime, accounting
for capital, operational, and maintenance costs. It is expressed as the cost per kilowatt-hour
(kWh) and helps compare solar energy’s competitiveness with other energy sources.

6.2 Financial Incentives, Subsidies, and Policies

Governments and local authorities offer various incentives to promote the adoption of solar
energy:

 Tax Credits: Programs like the Investment Tax Credit (ITC) allow homeowners and
businesses to deduct a percentage of solar installation costs from their federal taxes.

73
  Rebates and Grants: Offered by state governments and utilities to reduce upfront
installation costs.
 Net Metering: Enables solar system owners to sell excess power back to the grid,
receiving credits on their utility bills.
 Feed-in Tariffs: Fixed payments for each unit of electricity fed back into the grid from
renewable sources.
 Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs): Tradable certificates that represent proof of
generating renewable energy.

6.3 Payback Period and Return on Investment (ROI)

Evaluating the financial performance of a solar project involves calculating the payback
period and ROI: (Robert Foster, 2009)

 Payback Period: The time required for savings generated by the solar system to
cover the initial investment. Factors influencing the payback period include
installation cost, energy consumption patterns, local electricity rates, and incentives.
1𝐶
SP= $
𝐴𝐾𝑊𝐻∗
𝑘𝑊ℎ

Where

SP= the simple payback in years

IC= initial cost of installation ($)

AKWH= energy produced annually (kWh/year)

$/kWh= price of energy displaced

 Return on Investment (ROI): Measures the financial return on a solar installation

over its operational life. A higher ROI signifies better financial viability and potential
for long-term savings.

Where:

• Net Profit is the total savings or earnings generated from the solar project over its
lifetime, minus the initial investment and any operating costs.

74
 • Total Investment is the capital cost (CAPEX) for installing the solar system.

6.4 Comparative Analysis: Solar vs. Conventional Energy

Comparing solar power with conventional energy sources provides a clear perspective on its
financial and environmental benefits:

 Initial Costs: Solar energy often involves higher upfront costs than fossil fuel-based
systems, but incentives and declining panel prices are narrowing the gap.
 Long-Term Savings: Solar systems offer significant savings on electricity bills over
time, especially in regions with high utility rates.
 Environmental Impact: Solar energy produces zero emissions during operation,
reducing the carbon footprint compared to conventional energy sources.
 Price Stability: Unlike fossil fuels, solar energy costs are predictable, as sunlight is a
free resource, shielding consumers from market volatility.
 Energy Independence: Solar energy reduces dependence on grid electricity and
enhances energy security, especially for off-grid systems.

In conclusion, the economics of solar energy demonstrate its growing competitiveness with
conventional energy sources. While upfront costs can be high, long-term savings,
environmental benefits, and supportive financial incentives make solar power a smart
investment for the future

7. The environmental and social impacts of solar

energy systems
7.1 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Solar Energy Systems
LCA evaluates the environmental impacts of solar panels from production to disposal. It
includes raw material extraction, manufacturing, transportation, installation, operation, and
decommissioning. Solar energy systems have relatively low environmental impacts during
their operational phase but can have more significant environmental effects during
production and end-of-life disposal. The LCA helps identify where improvements can be
made to minimize these impacts. (ORRENIUS, 2021)

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Key elements include:

 Raw material extraction: Includes the mining of materials like silicon (for photovoltaic
solar panels), glass, aluminum, copper, and rare earth metals.
 Manufacturing: The energy and emissions involved in producing solar panels and
other components, such as inverters and mounting systems.
 Transportation and installation: The emissions and energy consumed during the
transportation of solar panels and their installation at the location.
 Operation: The energy generated during the operational phase, which usually lasts
for 25-30 years for solar systems. This phase has very few emissions since solar
power is clean energy.
 End-of-life: The decommissioning and recycling or disposal of the system at the end
of its useful life.

Recycling and Waste: At the end of their life, the recycling of solar panels remains a
challenge, though technologies are advancing to recover valuable materials such as silicon,
silver, and aluminum. However, efficient recycling is still an area of focus for improvement in
LCA studies.

7.2 Environmental Benefits: Reduction in GHG Emissions

Solar energy helps reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by displacing the need for fossil
fuels in electricity generation. Over their operational life, solar panels produce minimal
emissions, and their carbon footprint is significantly lower than conventional energy sources
like coal and natural gas. In fact, the energy payback time for solar panels (the time taken to
generate the amount of energy used in manufacturing) is typically between 1 to 4 years,
depending on the location.

7.3 Social and Economic Benefits

Job Creation: The solar industry creates a wide range of jobs, from manufacturing and
installation to research and development, contributing positively to local economies. This
industry has seen rapid growth, especially in regions transitioning to cleaner energy.

Energy Access: Solar energy provides access to electricity in areas that may not have a
reliable grid connection. This is particularly important in remote or rural communities,
where solar power can be a cost-effective and sustainable solution to energy poverty.

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Economic Growth: By investing in solar energy, regions can reduce energy costs, increase
energy independence, and foster economic resilience.

7.4 Challenges
Land Use: Large-scale solar farms require significant amounts of land, which can compete
with agricultural or natural land use. The location of these farms must be carefully selected
to minimize environmental disruption. Solar farms can also face opposition in areas where
land is scarce or in high demand for other purposes.

Resource Extraction: The production of solar panels relies on raw materials like silicon,
silver, and rare earth elements, the mining of which can cause environmental degradation if
not managed properly. Recycling and finding alternative materials is a growing focus in the
industry.

End-of-Life Disposal: Solar panels have a lifespan of around 25-30 years, and as they reach
the end of their life, proper disposal or recycling becomes crucial to avoid creating waste.
The development of efficient recycling processes is essential to minimize environmental
impacts associated with decommissioned panels.

Overall, while solar energy offers significant environmental and social benefits, careful
management of the entire life cycle, from production to disposal, is necessary to mitigate its
potential challenges.

8. Innovations and Future Trends in Solar Energy

8.1 Emerging Technologies
Bifacial Panels: Bifacial solar panels can capture sunlight from both sides of the panel,
significantly increasing energy output compared to traditional monofacial panels. This
technology is particularly beneficial in areas with reflective surfaces, like snow or desert
sand, which can reflect sunlight onto the back of the panel, boosting efficiency.
(https://tamesol.com/en/emerging-technologies-solar-power/, 2024)

Solar Skins: Solar skins are a design innovation that allows solar panels to blend into
rooftops and other surfaces. These are aesthetic covers that can be applied over traditional

77
solar panels, maintaining energy production while providing a more visually appealing
appearance. This trend could make solar energy more acceptable in residential areas or
historical buildings.

Solar Windows: Solar windows are transparent panels that act as both a window and a solar
energy collector. They can be installed in buildings to generate electricity while letting in
natural light, which makes them ideal for urban environments and commercial buildings.
This innovation could revolutionize how buildings use energy and interact with solar power.

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8.2 Advances in Solar Cell Efficiency and Materials
8.2.1 Perovskite Solar Cells:
Perovskite solar cells have shown promising potential for higher efficiency at a lower cost
than traditional silicon-based cells. They are also lighter and more flexible, allowing for new
applications like portable solar devices and flexible panels.

On November 3, 2023, the U.S.-China National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

certified that a perovskite-silicon tandem cell developed by Chinese photovoltaic company
Longi Green Energy achieved an efficiency of 33.9.

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8.2.2 Tandem Solar Cells:
Tandem solar cells stack multiple layers of photovoltaic materials to capture different parts
of the solar spectrum. This improves overall efficiency by absorbing more sunlight compared
to traditional single-layer cells.

When sunlight strikes a tandem solar cell, the different layers absorb light at different
wavelengths. Each layer generates its own current based on the light it absorbs. The key is to
design the layers in such a way that they don't absorb the same part of the spectrum,
ensuring that all light is efficiently captured.

A tandem solar cell is a subtype of multijunction solar cells. They are crucial in photovoltaics
(PV) research and industry. By stacking multiple layers with different bandgaps, tandem cells
capture more of the solar spectrum. This allows them to surpass the fundamental efficiency
limit (radiative efficiency limit) of single-junction cells and convert sunlight more efficiently.
The have achieved efficiencies of up to ~40%.

8.2.3 Copper-Indium-Gallium-Selenide (CIGS) Cells:

They are a type of thin-film photovoltaic (solar) cell. They belong to a category of thin-film
solar technologies. CIGS solar cells are an alternative to silicon-based cells and offer better
performance in low-light conditions. They are flexible, lightweight, and can be incorporated
into a wider range of surfaces, like rooftops or even clothing.

8.3 Integration with Smart Grids and IoT

8.3.1 Smart Grids:
The integration of solar power with smart grids enhances energy distribution, making it
more efficient and reliable. Smart grids can balance demand and supply, store excess energy,
and reduce transmission losses. Solar power systems equipped with smart technology can
send real-time data about energy production and consumption, optimizing overall grid
performance.

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8.3.2 Internet of Things (IoT):
IoT integration allows solar systems to be connected and monitored remotely, providing
detailed insights into system performance. Sensors can detect faults or inefficiencies in real-
time, which helps in predictive maintenance, ensuring higher efficiency and reducing
downtime. Additionally, IoT enables automation in solar energy management, adjusting
settings for peak performance.

8.4 Role of AI in Optimizing Solar Energy Systems

8.4.1 Predictive Analytics:

Artificial intelligence (AI) can analyze large datasets, predicting energy production and
consumption patterns. This allows solar energy systems to be optimized for various
conditions, such as weather forecasts, system degradation, and changing energy demands.

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8.4.2 Energy Storage Optimization:
AI can optimize energy storage systems by predicting when to store excess energy and when
to release it. This can significantly enhance the efficiency of solar energy systems,
particularly in areas with intermittent sunlight or during nighttime.

8.4.3 Maintenance and Fault Detection:

AI-driven algorithms can detect potential issues in solar panels or components before they
result in failure, leading to proactive maintenance. This reduces downtime, extends the
lifespan of the system, and ensures consistent energy production.

As these innovations evolve, they have the potential to make solar energy more efficient,
accessible, and integrated into modern infrastructure, paving the way for more sustainable
and cost-effective energy systems worldwide.

9. Policy and Regulatory Frameworks in Solar

Energy
9.1 National and International Policies Promoting Solar Energy
National Policies: Many countries have implemented policies to incentivize the adoption of
solar energy through subsidies, tax credits, and grants. For example:

Investment Tax Credits (ITC) in the United States allow solar system owners to deduct a
percentage of installation costs from their taxes.

India’s National Solar Mission focuses on increasing solar capacity and reducing reliance on
fossil fuels.

Germany’s Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) has supported rapid solar adoption through
incentives and subsidies.

International Policies: Global institutions like the International Renewable Energy Agency
(IRENA) and International Energy Agency (IEA) work to promote global cooperation on
renewable energy. Additionally, cross-border collaborations like the International Solar
Alliance (ISA) focus on promoting solar energy use in developing countries, particularly in
sun-rich regions.

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9.2 Renewable Energy Targets and Commitments (Paris
Agreement)

The Paris Agreement (2015) aims to limit global temperature increases to well below 2°C,
with efforts to keep it under 1.5°C.

There are over 100 cities that have pledged to a goal of 100 percent renewable energy by
2035 and over 300 cities that have publicly supported the Paris Agreement goals.

Countries have set Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)—commitments to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions and increase renewable energy capacity.

The European Union has pledged to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 with significant
investments in solar and other renewables.

China aims to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060, with major solar energy infrastructure
expansion planned.

Many developing countries are setting ambitious solar energy targets to reduce reliance on
fossil fuels and promote sustainable growth.

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9.3 Net Metering, Feed-in Tariffs, and Regulatory Mechanisms
9.3.1 Net Metering:
A system that allows solar energy users to sell excess energy back to the grid, receiving
credits that offset future energy consumption. This policy makes rooftop solar installations
financially attractive for homeowners and small businesses.

For example, in the U.S., states like California and New York have robust net metering
programs.

9.3.2 Feed-in Tariffs (FiTs):

A policy mechanism where energy producers are guaranteed a fixed payment for the
renewable energy they generate and feed into the grid. FiTs help stabilize investment returns
for solar projects and encourage the development of large-scale solar farms. Germany and
Japan have successfully used FiTs to accelerate solar adoption.

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9.3.3 Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS):
These are regulations requiring utilities to ensure a certain percentage of their electricity
comes from renewable sources like solar. Utilities that don’t meet these standards often face
penalties.

9.3.4 Carbon Pricing:

Some countries have introduced carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems to penalize high

10. Solar Energy in Developing Countries

10.1 Role of Solar Energy in Addressing Energy Poverty
Energy poverty affects millions in developing countries, limiting access to basic services such
as lighting, education, healthcare, and clean water.

 Solar energy provides a sustainable, affordable, and decentralized solution for areas
without access to national power grids.
 Reduces dependence on expensive and polluting fossil fuels (e.g., kerosene lamps
and diesel generators), lowering both household energy costs and carbon emissions.
 Access to electricity from solar power can improve education (by enabling lighting for
evening study), enhance healthcare (by powering clinics and refrigeration for
vaccines), and create opportunities for local businesses.

10.2 Off-Grid Solutions: Solar Home Systems and Mini-Grids

10.2.1 Solar Home Systems (SHS):
Standalone systems designed to power basic household needs like lighting, phone charging,
and small appliances. Normally, the SHS is low power, less than 100W

Cost-effective and easy to install, often combined with pay-as-you-go (PAYG) models to make
them affordable for low-income families.

Example: Small SHS packages typically include solar panels, battery storage, LED lights, and
mobile charging ports.

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10.2.2 Mini-Grids:
Community-scale energy systems that serve multiple homes, businesses, or facilities in off-
grid areas.

Powered primarily by solar energy, often integrated with battery storage and backed up by
other renewable sources (e.g., wind or micro-hydro).

Ideal for powering small businesses, schools, and health centers in remote areas with little
hope of national grid connection in the near future.

Challenges and Opportunities in Deployment

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10.3 Challenges:
10.3.1 High Initial Costs:
Despite decreasing prices, upfront costs for installation and equipment remain a barrier for
low-income households and communities.

10.3.2 Limited Financing:

Access to affordable credit and microfinancing is often scarce in rural areas.

10.3.3 Technical Expertise:

Shortage of trained technicians for installation, maintenance, and repair leads to system
failures and reduces long-term sustainability.

10.3.4 Policy Barriers:

Inconsistent government policies and lack of supportive regulatory frameworks can
discourage private investment.

10.4 Opportunities:
10.4.1 Falling Technology Costs:
The declining price of solar panels, batteries, and storage solutions makes solar more
affordable than ever.

10.4.2 Innovative Business Models:

PAYG systems and micro-financing are making solar energy more accessible in low-income
communities.

10.4.3 Job Creation:

The growth of the solar industry in developing countries can create jobs in sales, installation,
maintenance, and education.

10.4.4 International Support:

Organizations like the World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) are investing in solar infrastructure for
developing nations.

10.5 Case Studies from Africa, Asia, and Latin America

10.5.1 Africa (Kenya):
The PAYG solar model, pioneered by companies like M-KOPA and d.light, has provided
affordable solar energy to millions of off-grid households.

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Kenya also leads in mini-grid installations, particularly in remote areas like Turkana and
Garissa counties.

10.5.2 Asia (Bangladesh):

One of the largest solar home system programs globally, run by Infrastructure Development
Company Limited (IDCOL).

Over 4 million solar home systems have been installed, bringing power to remote rural areas
and significantly reducing energy poverty.
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10.5.3 Latin America (Peru):
The National Photovoltaic Household Electrification Program aims to provide solar power to
500,000 households in remote areas.

Solar initiatives have improved energy access in isolated Andean and Amazonian
communities, promoting economic development and improving living standards.

11. Electrical Connections & Grid Integration for

Solar PV Systems
11.1 DC Connections for Solar PV Generators
11.1.1 Combiner Boxes:
Central points where multiple solar panel strings are connected. They combine the direct
current (DC) output from different panels and provide protection through fuses or circuit
breakers.

Also serve as an access point for maintenance and troubleshooting.

11.1.2 DC Load Disconnects:

Safety switches that allow manual disconnection of the DC power from the solar panels
before reaching the inverter.

Essential for maintenance and emergency shutdowns, ensuring safe operation and
preventing electrical hazards.

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11.2 PV String Connections, Blocking Diodes, and Bypass
Diodes
11.2.1 PV String Connections:
Solar panels are connected in series (strings) to increase voltage or in parallel to increase
current, depending on the system's requirements.

Multiple strings can be combined in parallel to form arrays that meet specific voltage and
current needs.

11.2.2 Blocking Diodes:

Prevent reverse current flow from the battery or grid to the solar panels, particularly useful
in systems without charge controllers.

Protect the system from energy loss during the night or low sunlight conditions.

11.2.3 Bypass Diodes:

Protect the solar panels from overheating due to partial shading or panel damage.
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Allow current to "bypass" shaded or damaged cells, preventing a drop in energy output for
the whole string.

11.3 Grid-Tie Inverters:

Convert DC output from solar panels to alternating current (AC) compatible with the public
electricity grid.

Synchronize the solar system’s output with the grid’s voltage and frequency, allowing surplus
energy to be fed back into the grid.

Essential for grid-connected solar systems, enabling users to reduce their reliance on grid
power. (Mohile, 2020)

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11.4 Public Network Compliance:
Solar installations must adhere to national grid codes and safety regulations, which vary by
country.

Requirements include power quality, voltage levels, anti-islanding protection (automatic

disconnection when the grid goes down), and monitoring systems to ensure grid stability.

11.5 Efficiency Factors:

Inverter Efficiency: The percentage of DC power successfully converted to usable AC power
(typically 95%–98%).

Total System Efficiency: Accounts for losses due to wiring, temperature effects, inverter
conversion, and shading. Proper design can minimize these losses and maximize energy
output.

11.6 Metering: Induction Meters, Electronic Meters, and

Remuneration Tariffs
11.6.1 Induction Meters:
Older mechanical meters that measure energy consumption by rotating a disk based on
current flow.

Not suitable for grid-tied solar systems as they can't accurately record energy exported to
the grid.

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11.6.2 Electronic Meters (Smart Meters):
Digital devices capable of measuring both energy consumption and production.

Enable net metering by recording energy sent back to the grid, allowing consumers to
receive credits on their electricity bills.

Provide real-time data and remote monitoring features for better energy management.

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11.6.3 Remuneration Tariffs:
Policies that determine how solar energy producers are compensated for the electricity they
feed into the grid.

 Net Metering: Consumers are credited for excess electricity generated and sent back
to the grid, which offsets future electricity consumption.
 Feed-in Tariffs (FiTs): Producers receive a fixed payment for each unit of electricity
exported to the grid, typically at a rate higher than the market price for a long time
contract usually 20 years.

Time-of-Use (TOU) Tariffs: Adjust payments based on peak and off-peak hours, encouraging
energy generation and consumption during high-demand periods.

Proper electrical connections and efficient grid integration are critical for maximizing the
performance and safety of solar PV systems. With advancements in grid-tie inverters, smart
metering, and compliance with public grid standards, solar energy producers can contribute
to a more resilient and sustainable energy grid. Regulatory frameworks, efficient designs,
and appropriate compensation mechanisms further ensure that solar energy remains a
viable and attractive option for both residential and commercial users.

12. Mounting and Safety Considerations for Solar

PV Systems
12.1 Roof-Mounted Systems
12.1.1 Sloped Roofs:
 Solar panels are mounted using tilted racking systems that align with the roof’s pitch
for optimal sun exposure.
 Panels should be positioned to minimize shading and optimize orientation (typically
south-facing in the Northern Hemisphere, north-facing in the Southern Hemisphere).
 Special considerations are needed for wind loads, roof penetrations, and
waterproofing.

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12.1.2 Flat Roofs:
 Panels are mounted on tilted frames or ballast systems to achieve the best tilt angle
for solar generation.
 Ballast systems reduce the need for roof penetrations, preserving roof integrity.
 Allows for easier installation and maintenance access.

12.1.3 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV):

 Solar panels are integrated directly into the building structure, serving as both a
construction material and a power generator.
 Common applications include solar roof tiles, facades, and windows (transparent
solar glass).

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  BIPV offers aesthetic benefits but requires careful planning during the design and
construction phase.

12.2 Open-Field Systems and Tracking Systems

12.2.1 Open-Field Systems (Ground-Mounted):
 Panels are mounted on racks fixed directly into the ground using concrete
foundations or driven piles.
 Ideal for large-scale solar farms or installations where rooftop space is unavailable.
 Easier to maintain and clean, with flexible orientation and tilt options for maximum
sun exposure.

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Designing and Sizing of Steel Solar Ground Mounting Structure

This is a brief guideline that will help solar technicians and installers to properly
size for steel solar mounting structure. We will use steel type Square Hollow
Sections (SHS) in our design, particularly the following sizes:
1. SHS 75x75x3mm - Columns
2. SHS 50x50x3mm - Beams or rafters
3. SHS 40x40x3mm – Rails

We will assume that we will have 32pieces of solar panels that needs to be
mounted on ground. The figure1 below shows a typical ground mounting
structure with its parts properly named. This will help the installer to easily
understand the parts that makes a complete

Ground Mounting Structure

 Steps and assumptions to follow:

1. Know the number of solar panels you will be using in your project, let us
assume we will use 32 panels.
2. Know the size/dimension of the solar panel. Let us assume it is
JA325Wp which measures around 1000mm by 2000mm (1m by 2m),
for easy calculation in this guideline, but it actually measures 990mm
by 1960mm.
3. Know the height of the lower side of the mounting structure the
client needs. Let us say 1.7 meters on the lower side. It is always
advisable the height to be low for easy cleaning and wiring. If there is
theft issue or children throwing stones, raise the height.

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 4. Arrange the solar panels in equal numbers/lines. For example, if we have
32 panels, we will have to arrange in 2 strings of 16 panels. It can be
arranged in other ways depending on the availability of space. We
assume there is enough space in this guideline.
5. Always leave 0.5m (500mm) space on the edges of the starting and ending points of
the array.
6. Get the size or the length of steel hollow sections. It comes around 5.8m - 6m.
7. The maximum or allowable distance between 2 columns is around 3m
to 3.5m. if the distance increases, there is possibility of the structure to
sag or bulge downwards due to pressure.
8. To get the number of columns, always add 1 to number of spaces
calculated. For example, If you have 2 spaces, the number of columns will
be 2+1 which is 3 columns.
9. The depth or ground footing is advisable to be 0.5m deep, though this
will depend on the complexity of the soil. If it is loose soil, increase
the depth to even 1m. Generally, in Somalia, 0.5m depth is
acceptable.
10. The size of the concrete footing should be maximum 0.5m by 0.5m

Calculations:
Number of panels to be used: 32pcs

Type of panels: JA325Wp

Size or dimensions of the panel: 1m wide by 2m long.

Arrangement of the array: 2 strings of 16 panels each.

Distance between 2 columns: 3m (3000mm)

Size of the length of steel = 5.8m

Note: 1M = 1000MM = 100CM

Total length of the array = 1m x 16panels = 16m (16000mm)

Leaving 0.5m on both sides, total length remaining will be = 16m – (2x0.5m) = 15m.
Total spaces = total length / distance between 2 columns = 15m/3m = 5 spaces

each measuring 3m. Number of columns in 1 string = 5 + 1 = 6 columns. Check

step 8 above.

Total columns = number of strings x 2 = 6x2 = 12 columns.

 Now, we need to find the number of SHS75x75x3mm that will be needed: Columns

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Size of the column in front row: 1.7m height + 0.5m underground depth = 2.2m
Number of SHS75x75x3mm in front row (lower side) = (6pcs x 2.2m)/5.8m =

2.28pcs. check step6. Size of the column in rear row: 2.2m height + 0.5m

underground depth = 2.7m

Number SHS75x75x3mm in rear row (higher side) = (6pcs x 2.7m)/5.8m = 2.79pcs

Total number of SHS75x75x3mm = 2.28pcs + 2.79pcs = 5.07pcs

Since you cannot buy half or fractional columns, you will need a total of 6pcs, nearest whole
number.

 Now, we need to find the number of SHS50x50x3mm that will be needed: Beams
or Rafters

This is the steel that connects 2 columns. It is also used to hold the
SHS40x40x3mm that will be fixed to the solar panels.

Since we will have 2 strings, the side view length will be = 2panels x

1960mm = 3920mm The distance between the front row and the

rear row can be given as 3m.

The remaining 920mm will be divided by 2 to give equal spaces on the edges of
the side view (920/2 = 460mm)
Total length of SHS50x50x3mm needed will be = 6columns x 3920mm = 23,520mm = 23.52m
Total pieces of SHS50x50x3mm = 23.52m/5.8m = 4.05pcs = 4pcs. This is for connecting
columns only.

Note: The SHS50x50x3mm will also be used as support, so do not forget to add
the number of supports that will be needed.
In our example, we will need a support of at least 1m, since our height is low, 1.7m.

Total number of supports = total columns = 6pcs.

Total length = 6pcs x 1m = 6m

Number of SHS50x50x3mm needed for support = 6m/5.8m = 1pc.

 Now, we need to find the number of SHS40x40x3mm that will be needed: Rails.

Each panel will sit on 2 rails, as seen in

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figure.1 above. Total length of the

string = 1mx16panels = 16m

Total number of rails = 2strings x

2 rails = 4rails. Total length of

the rails = 4x16m = 64m

Total number of SHS40x40x3mm = 64m/5.8m = 11.03pcs, to be on the safer side, add 1 more = 12pcs.

12.2.2 Tracking Systems:

 Single axis trackers track in a singular way i.e. follows the Sun’s East-West, increasing
energy production by up to 25%.

 Single-axis trackers usually move from the east to the west and follow the Sun’s
direction.
 Single axis trackers are cheap, very simple in set up and run at low cost.
 They are more reliable than dual-axis trackers.
 Single axis has higher lifespan than dual-axis trackers.
 Single-axis trackers suit companies that want a low cost option.
 Single axis trackers also fit for areas with less sun.

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  Dual-Axis Trackers: Adjust for both seasonal and daily sun angles, maximizing
efficiency but increasing installation and maintenance costs.

 Dual axis tracking has two degrees of freedom. This means that they have both a
horizontal and a vertical axis i.e. both the east/west axis and the north/south axis
and thus they can track the sun’s entire motion in the sky.
 A dual axis solar panel generates up to 40% more electricity than a static type, but
costs 100% more and has larger maintenance costs.
 Higher degree of flexibility, allowing for a higher energy output on sunny days

 Lots of moving parts makes it more likely for components to fail

 Lower lifespan and lower reliability
 Unreliable performance in cloudy or overcast weather
 More common in utility-scale projects due to higher costs and complexity.
 Electric motors or hydraulic cylinders are used to adjust the position of the tracker.
(https://sinovoltaics.com/learning-center/csp/single-axis-trackers/, 2025)

12.2.3 Electrical Wiring and Power Transfer Considerations

Wiring Types:

 Use of UV-resistant and weatherproof cables for outdoor applications.

 Proper cable sizing to minimize voltage drops and ensure efficient energy transfer.
 Segregation of DC and AC wiring to reduce electromagnetic interference and ensure
safety

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Power Transfer:

 Use of conduits and cable trays for protection and organization of wiring.
 Proper grounding and bonding to prevent electrical shocks and enhance system
reliability.
 Ensuring connectors (like MC4) are compatible and weather-sealed for outdoor
conditions.

12.3 Installation Testing

12.3.1 Visual Inspection:
Check for physical defects, loose connections, shading issues, and proper mechanical
mounting.

Inspect for correct cable management and ensure all components meet installation
standards.

12.3.2 Residual Current Device (RCD) Testing:

Ensures that RCDs (also known as Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters or GFCIs) function
properly to disconnect the system in case of leakage currents.

Protects users from electrical shocks and prevents fire hazards caused by ground faults.

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12.3.3 Loop Impedance Testing:
Measures the total impedance (resistance) of the electrical loop, ensuring that fault currents
will trip protective devices within safe limits.

Helps verify grounding effectiveness and system safety compliance.

Proper mounting and safety considerations are critical for the efficiency, longevity, and
safety of solar PV systems. Whether it's rooftop or ground-mounted installations, ensuring

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secure panel attachment, appropriate wiring, and thorough testing minimizes hazards and
maximizes energy output. Following best practices for mounting, electrical wiring, and safety
testing ensures that solar systems meet industry standards and perform reliably throughout
their lifespan.

13. Lightning Protection & Risk Assessment for

Solar PV Systems
13.1 Lightning Risk Assessment for PV Installations
A lightning risk assessment determines the likelihood and potential impact of a lightning
strike on a solar PV installation. This evaluation considers factors such as:

 Geographic location: Areas with high lightning activity are at greater risk (measured
using lightning density data).
 System size and exposure: Larger systems or those installed on open fields and tall
buildings are more vulnerable.
 Structural material: Metal frames and conductive materials increase the likelihood of
lightning strikes.

Proximity to existing lightning protection systems (LPS): Buildings or structures with

dedicated LPS may offer some indirect protection.

13.2 Surge Protection for PV Systems

Surge Protective Devices (SPDs) are critical for protecting solar PV systems from transient
overvoltages caused by lightning strikes (direct or indirect).

Types of surge protection:

 DC Side Protection: Installed between the solar panels and the inverter to protect
against surges entering from the PV array.
 AC Side Protection: Installed between the inverter and the grid connection to guard
against surges coming from the utility grid.
 Data Line Protection: Protects monitoring systems and communication interfaces
from surge damage.

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 

13.3 Photovoltaics on Buildings with and Without Lightning

Protection
13.3.1 Buildings with Lightning Protection Systems (LPS):
Solar PV systems must be integrated into the existing LPS, ensuring that metal frames,
mounts, and other conductive parts are bonded to the LPS.

Use surge protection devices at connection points between the PV system and building
infrastructure.

13.3.2 Buildings without Lightning Protection Systems:

Installation of a dedicated LPS for the solar PV array is recommended in high-risk areas.

Grounding systems should be established for metal components of the PV system to reduce
the chance of electrical faults.

Additional surge protection devices should be installed to protect both the PV system and
the building’s electrical infrastructure.

Conducting a thorough risk assessment helps determine whether a dedicated lightning

protection system is necessary. Installing proper surge protection devices (SPDs) on both the
AC and DC sides ensures system resilience against voltage spikes, safeguarding both the solar
installation and connected appliances.

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14. Hybrid Solar PV Systems
14.1 Types of Hybrid Systems and Configurations
Hybrid solar PV systems combine solar power with other energy sources (like the grid,
batteries, or diesel generators) to ensure continuous energy availability. (Bhatia)

The main types include:

14.1.1 Solar + Battery Hybrid:

Stores excess solar energy in batteries for use during cloudy periods or at night.

Prioritizes solar energy usage while using battery storage as backup.

14.1.2 Solar + Grid Hybrid:

Utilizes solar power when available and switches to the grid when solar output is
insufficient.

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Allows net metering and feeding excess energy back to the grid.

14.1.3 Solar + Diesel Generator Hybrid:

Incorporates a diesel generator that kicks in when solar power and battery storage are
inadequate.

Ideal for remote locations or areas with unreliable grid connections.

14.1.4 Solar + Wind Hybrid:

Combines solar PV with wind turbines to complement energy production during varying
weather conditions.

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14.2 Grid-Tied vs. Off-Grid Hybrid Systems
14.2.1 Grid-Tied Hybrid Systems:
 Connected to the main utility grid while using batteries as backup power.
 Automatically switches between solar, battery, and grid power depending on
availability and energy demand.
 Benefits from net metering and lower reliance on grid electricity, reducing electricity
costs.
 Common in urban and suburban areas where grid access is reliable.

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14.2.2 Off-Grid Hybrid Systems:
 Operates independently without a connection to the grid.
 Combines solar panels, battery storage, and a backup generator (usually diesel) to
ensure a continuous power supply.
 Requires careful system sizing to meet energy needs during low-sunlight periods or
prolonged outages.
 Suitable for remote locations or areas without grid access.

14.3 Inverter Charger Topologies

14.3.1 Multimode (Hybrid) Inverters:
 Can manage solar input, battery storage, and grid connection simultaneously.
 Switches automatically between power sources (solar, battery, grid) based on
availability and demand.
 Examples: SMA Sunny Island, Schneider Conext, and Victron MultiPlus.

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14.3.2 DC-Coupled Systems:
 Solar panels and batteries share the same DC bus before converting to AC.
 Higher efficiency since energy only undergoes one DC-AC conversion.
 Ideal for maximizing energy storage performance.

14.3.3 AC-Coupled Systems:

 Solar inverters and battery inverters operate separately but are connected via the AC
side.
 Provides flexibility for retrofitting existing grid-tied systems with batteries.
 Slightly lower efficiency due to multiple conversions but easier to scale.

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14.4 Integration with Batteries and Diesel Gensets
14.4.1 Battery Integration:
 Stores excess solar energy for later use, improving self-consumption and energy
independence.
 Common battery types include lithium-ion, lead-acid, and emerging flow batteries for
longer life cycles.
 A charge controller regulates the charging and discharging process to prevent battery
damage.

14.4.2 Diesel Genset Integration:

 Acts as a backup energy source for times when solar power and battery storage are
insufficient.
 Integrated through an Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) or hybrid controller, which
prioritizes solar energy first, then battery storage, and finally the generator.
 Helps reduce fuel consumption and emissions by minimizing the generator’s runtime.

Hybrid solar PV systems offer flexible, reliable, and efficient energy solutions by integrating
solar power with batteries, the grid, or diesel generators. Choosing between grid-tied and
off-grid setups depends on energy needs, location, and grid reliability. The use of inverter
charger topologies and proper integration with batteries and gensets enhances energy
independence, reduces reliance on fossil fuels, and ensures consistent power supply even
during outages or adverse weather conditions.

15. Practical Training & Hands-on Exercises for

Solar PV Installation
15.1 Identifying, Listing, and Using Solar PV Installation
Equipment
Core Components:

15.1.1 Solar Panels:

Photovoltaic (PV) modules for capturing solar energy.

15.1.2 Inverters:
Converts DC power from panels to AC for home or grid use.

15.1.3 Charge Controllers:

Regulates voltage and current from solar panels to batteries.

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15.1.4 Batteries:
Stores excess energy for later use (for hybrid/off-grid systems).

15.1.5 Mounting Structures:

Frames and brackets for securing panels to rooftops or the ground.

15.1.6 Tools and Accessories:

 MC4 connectors and crimping tools for wiring connections.
 Multimeter for voltage, current, and continuity testing.
 Cable cutters, torque wrenches, and screwdrivers for mechanical assembly.
 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Gloves, safety glasses, helmets, and harnesses.

15.2 Site Assessment for Rooftop and Ground-Mounted PV

Systems
Steps to perform a solar site survey

 What to do before a site survey, during a site survey and after a site survey
 Draw the dimension of the site using Google earth and draw any obstacles like Vents,
skylight, TV dish, HAV system
 Organize an appointment to do the site survey
 Check the roof condition especially exterior walls, rafters, beams and columns from
inside and from the top to hold the weight of the panels
 Go to the top of the roof to check the condition and take actual measurements to
see how many panels can fit on the roof
 Measure the height of obstructions on the roof that might cause shading
 Identify potential shading issues from nearby trees, chimneys, or buildings.
 Take photos of the roof and look around for nearby trees or buildings that might
cause shading and sketch on a paper
 Go look inside the electrical room, take general photo of the room, the panel, meter
and main disconnect remember the photos need to tell a story

15.2.1 Rooftop System Assessment:

 Check roof orientation, tilt angle, and available space for panel placement.
 Evaluate the structural integrity of the roof for additional weight.
 Identify potential shading issues from nearby trees, chimneys, or buildings.

15.2.2 Ground-Mounted System Assessment:

 Conduct a soil test to determine if the ground can support mounting structures.
 Evaluate proximity to the utility grid for grid-tied systems.
 Plan cable routing and trenching for power transmission from the panels to the
inverter.

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15.3 DC and AC Connections for Grid-Tied and Hybrid Systems
15.3.1 DC Connections:
 Connect panels in series for higher voltage or parallel for higher current, depending
on system design.
 Ensure correct polarity and secure connections using MC4 connectors.
 Use proper fusing for each PV string to protect against overcurrent.

15.3.2 AC Connections:
 Connect the inverter output to the main electrical panel for grid-tied systems.
 In hybrid systems, route AC output to both the grid and a battery inverter or charger.
 Comply with local electrical codes and ensure proper grounding for safety.

15.4 Installation Checks: Visual Inspection, Electrical Testing,

and Commissioning
15.4.1 Visual Inspection:
 Check for physical damage to panels, loose bolts, and proper cable management.
 Ensure that mounting structures are securely fastened and aligned correctly.

15.4.2 Electrical Testing:

 Use a multimeter to verify open-circuit voltage (Voc) and short-circuit current (Isc).
 Perform insulation resistance tests to detect potential leakage issues.
 Measure voltage drop across long cable runs to ensure efficiency.

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15.4.3 Commissioning:
 Confirm proper inverter configuration and settings.
 Verify the connection to the grid or battery backup system.
 Monitor system output during the initial test run to ensure optimal performance.


15.5 Safety Procedures for Working at Heights

15.5.1 Fall Protection Equipment:
 Use safety harnesses attached to secure anchor points.
 Set up guardrails and warning lines on flat roofs.
 Implement fall arrest systems where necessary.

15.5.2 Safe Work Practices:

 Never work alone—always have a spotter or partner.
 Use non-slip footwear and ensure stable ladder placement.
 Avoid working during adverse weather (high winds, rain).

15.6 Changing Solar PV Configurations for Different System

Topologies
15.6.1 Grid-Tied to Hybrid Conversion:
 Add a compatible battery inverter and storage system.
 Reconfigure the inverter to manage both solar energy and grid power.

15.6.2 Off-Grid System Setup:

 Remove the grid connection and integrate a larger battery bank.
 Add a diesel generator for backup power if necessary.

15.6.3 Expanding PV Arrays:

 Add additional panels in series or parallel depending on voltage/current
requirements.
 Upgrade the inverter and charge controller if needed to handle increased capacity.

Practical training in solar PV installation requires hands-on experience with equipment,

wiring, and safety procedures. From site assessment to system commissioning,
understanding each step ensures efficient installation and long-term performance. Regular
testing, proper safety measures (especially when working at heights), and the ability to
reconfigure systems for different needs are critical skills for any solar installer or technician.

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16. References
Bhatia, A. (n.d.). Design and Sizing of Solar Photovoltaic Systems. CED
Engineering, 125.

https://sinovoltaics.com/learning-center/csp/single-axis-trackers/. (2025).
https://spotio.com/blog/solar-design-software/. (2025).

https://tamesol.com/en/emerging-technologies-solar-power/. (2024).

https://www.leonics.com/support/article2. (2025).

Mayfield, R. ( 2019). Photovoltaic Design & Installation For Dummies. Wiley

Publishing.

Mohile, P. H. (2020). How to Design and Install th eBest Solar Power System for
Your Home. Monkey Publishing.

ORRENIUS, A. N. (2021). How to reduce the total environmental, economic and

social impact of Solar Cell Panels. EXAMENSARBETE INOM TEKNIK,
GRUNDNIVÅ, 15 HP, 44.

Robert Foster, M. G. (2009). Solar Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment.
CRC Press.
Seghers, N. (2020). Off-grid Solar Power Simplified: RVs, Vans, Cabins, Boats and
Tiny Homes. Independently published.

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