Adel A.

Elbaset
Saad Awad Mohamed Abdelwahab
Hamed Anwer Ibrahim
Mohammed Abdelmowgoud Elsayed Eid

Performance Analysis
of Photovoltaic
Systems with Energy
Storage Systems
Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems
with Energy Storage Systems
Adel A. Elbaset
Saad Awad Mohamed Abdelwahab
Hamed Anwer Ibrahim
Mohammed Abdelmowgoud Elsayed Eid

Performance Analysis
of Photovoltaic Systems
with Energy Storage Systems
Adel A. Elbaset Saad Awad Mohamed Abdelwahab
Minia University Suez University
El-Minia, Egypt Suez, Egypt

Hamed Anwer Ibrahim Mohammed Abdelmowgoud Elsayed Eid

Suez University Suez University
Suez, Egypt Suez, Egypt

ISBN 978-3-030-20895-0 ISBN 978-3-030-20896-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7

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Dedicated to
Our parents, brothers, sisters, teachers, and
friends for their love, encouragement, and
endless support.
We give all thanks and gratitude to our
beloved wife and to our daughters and sons
wishing from God to protect them.
‫بسم اهلل الرحمن الرحيم‬
‫ن خَبِيرٌ "‬ ‫اهلل الَّذينَ آمَنُوا مِن ُكمْ وَالَّذينَ أُوتُوا الْعِ ْلمَ َد َرجَاتٍ و َ‬
‫َاهللّ بِمَا تَعْمَلُو َ‬ ‫" َي ْرفَعِ َ ّ‬
‫صدق اهلل العظيم‬
‫المجادلة‪11 /‬‬

‫‪vii‬‬
Acknowledgment

In the name of Allah, most Gracious, most Merciful

Firstly, all gratitude to Allah who guides and aides us to attain the achievements
of this book.
We would like to express our greatest gratitude to the Faculty of Industrial
Education, Suez University, and Minia University for helping us to finish our book.
Our deepest gratitude goes to our mothers, to whom we are most indebted. We thank
them for their constant love and prayers; without their prayers, we could have never
been able to achieve this book. Special words to our wives for their unlimited help,
patience, care, endless support, and continuous encouragement throughout our life.

ix
Abstract

Recently, the permanent growth of the energy demand and the rapid depletion of the
conventional power sources have attracted the research interests of the authors
toward the renewable energy sources, especially the photovoltaic (PV) energy as
alternative sources of energy. The PV energy can be utilized only during the day-
light. Therefore, the integration of the PV energy and the energy storage system as
the battery supercapacitor can attenuate their individual fluctuations, increase the
overall output power, and generate more reliable power with higher quality to the
electrical loads in the rural areas. The aim of this book is to study and design the
performance analysis of the PV stand-alone systems with energy storage systems as
follows:
• This book investigates dynamic modeling, simulation, and control strategy of the
PV stand-alone system during variation of the environmental conditions.
Moreover, the effectiveness of the implemented maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) techniques and the employed control strategy will be evaluated during
variations of the solar irradiance and the cell temperature. The simulation results
are based on the reliability of the MPPT techniques applied in extracting the
maximum power from the PV system during the rapid variation of the environ-
mental conditions. Furthermore, it introduces a review of two MPPT techniques
that are implemented in the PV systems, namely, the perturb and observe (P&O)
MPPT technique and the incremental conductance (InCond) MPPT technique.
The two MPPT techniques were simulated by the MATLAB/Simulink, and the
results response of the PV array from voltage, current, and power are compared
to the effect of solar irradiation and temperature change.
• Then, the proposed PV stand-alone system is utilized to supply the demanded
power of variable loads. The PV array is connected to battery energy storage
(BES) through the DC bus in order to supply the demanded power of the variable
loads. Moreover, the power flow control strategy is proposed to feed the
demanded power of the variable loads. The BES can act as a buffer store to elimi-
nate the mismatch between PV power and load demand. Furthermore, the BES
helps to improve the performance of the system through the control used in the

xi
xii Abstract

process of charge and discharge to manage the sudden load changes and helps to
maintain a stable voltage level on the load and PV terminals.
• Improving the performance of the PV stand-alone system by leveraging the
properties of the battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system (BS-
HESS), this book proposes an efficient control strategy to enhance the BS-HESS
capable of the PV stand-alone system.
• The PV panels are not an ideal source for battery charging; the output is unreli-
able and heavily dependent on weather conditions. Therefore, an optimum
charge/discharge cycle cannot be guaranteed, resulting in a low battery state of
charge (SOC%). Low battery SOC leads to sulfation and stratification, both of
which shorten battery life. A control strategy is essential for the BS-HESS to
optimize the energy utilization and energy sustainability to a maximum extent as
it is the algorithm which manages the power flow of the battery supercapacitor.
• Performance analysis of the PV stand-alone system with BS-HESS during the
high fluctuation solar irradiation and variable load power for rural household
load profile.
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Photovoltaic Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Worldwide Annual Growth of PV Generation . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Photovoltaic Power Generation in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Basics of Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Types of PV with Storage Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Grid-Connected PV System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Grid-Tied System with Battery Backup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.3 Off-Grid System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.4 PV-Hybrid Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Energy Storage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Book Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Book Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Literature Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Why Use a Battery Energy Storage in PV Systems? . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 BES Types and Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Primary BES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 Secondary BES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Battery Energy Storage Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.1 Battery Energy Storage Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.2 Battery Energy Storage Discharging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.3 Compare the Characteristics of Some Types of BESs . . . . . 16
2.5 Lead-Acid Battery Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Calculating Battery Size for a PV System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.1 Select the Appropriate Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.2 Define Maximum Depths of Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6.3 Calculate the Battery Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7 The Supercapacitor Energy Storage System in PV System . . . . . . . 19

xiii
xiv Contents

2.8 Literature Survey of Previous Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.8.1 Review of Related Researches About PV Modeling . . . . . . 24
2.8.2 Review of Related Researches About MPPT of PV
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.8.3 Review of Related Researches About Half-Bridge
Bidirectional DC/DC Converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.8.4 Review of Related Researches About a Stand-Alone
PV System with HESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Principle of PV Conversion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 The Main Components of Stand-Alone PV Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.1 The Equivalent Circuit of the PV Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.2 Calculation the PV Boost DC/DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 MPPT Techniques of Stand-Alone PV System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4.1 Perturb and Observe MPPT Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.2 Incremental Conductance MPPT Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.3 The Comparison Between P&O and InCond MPPT
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 Structure and Modeling a PV Stand-Alone with Battery
Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.1 Mathematical Modeling of the PV Array Under Study . . . . 50
4.2.2 DC/DC Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2.3 Single-Phase DC/AC Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2.4 Filter Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2.5 Modeling of Battery Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.6 Half-Bridge Bidirectional DC/DC Buck/Boost
Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Simulation Results and Discussion of Stand-Alone PV
System with BES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.1 Comparison Between PV System with and Without
BES Under Constant Irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.2 Simulation Results PV System with BES at Variable
Irradiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3.3 Voltage and Current Harmonic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Contents xv

5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-

Supercapacitor Hybrid Energy Storage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2 Structure and Simulation of Stand-Alone PV Systems with
BS-HESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2.1 Supercapacitor Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2.2 Control Circuit of Bidirectional DC/DC Buck/Boost
Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3 Control Strategies of HESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3.1 Filtration-Based Controller Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3.2 Intelligent Control Strategy Based on LPF and FLC . . . . . . 83
5.4 Simulation Results for Stand-Alone PV Systems with
BS-HESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6 Experimental Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Experimental Setup of Off-Grid PV System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2.1 Elements of the Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.3 Experimental Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.3.1 Model 1: Experimental Results of the System
Without Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.3.2 Model2: Experimental Results of the System
with Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.3.3 Model 3: Experimental Results of the System
Connected to Battery and Changing Solar Irradiation . . . . . 113
7 Conclusions and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2 Suggestions for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Global PV generation capacity and annual additions,

2007–2017 [12] ....................................................................................... 3
Fig. 1.2 PV module constructions and its circuit [14]. (a) Construction
of PV module. (b) Circuit of PV module.............................................. 4
Fig. 1.3 Bock diagram of grid-connected PV system [14] ................................... 5
Fig. 1.4 Block diagram of grid-tied system with battery
backup [19] ........................................................................................... 6
Fig. 1.5 Block diagram of stand-alone PV system with battery
storage [14] ............................................................................................. 7
Fig. 1.6 Block diagram of photovoltaic hybrid system [14] .............................. 8
Fig. 2.1 Chemical reaction when a battery is being discharged [33] ............... 18
Fig. 2.2 Charge and discharge characteristic of lead-acid BES
voltage per cell [31] ............................................................................ 18
Fig. 2.3 The illustrative topology of a SC, depicting the electrical
double layers at each electrode/electrolyte interface [40]................... 20
Fig. 2.4 Supercapacitor modules from Maxwell Technologies,
Appendix A ......................................................................................... 21
Fig. 2.5 The capacitance and the ESR as temperature-dependent
characteristics. Appendix A ................................................................ 22
Fig. 2.6 Block diagram of stand-alone PV system with BS-HESS .................. 24

Fig. 3.1 Photocurrent generation principle of the PV cell [67] ........................ 28

Fig. 3.2 PV cell, PV module, and PV array [67] .............................................. 28
Fig. 3.3 Simulink block diagram of the stand-alone PV system
with DC/DC converter ........................................................................ 29
Fig. 3.4 Equivalent circuit of the PV cell ......................................................... 30
Fig. 3.5 Configuration of the PV array ............................................................. 31
Fig. 3.6 Characteristics of a typical PV array during variation of
solar irradiance and temperature. (a) Current-voltage (I-V)
and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of PV array
under variable solar irradiance. (b) Current-voltage (I-V)
xvii
xviii List of Figures

and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of PV array

under variable temperature.................................................................. 32
Fig. 3.7 Basic configuration of the DC/DC boost converter ............................ 33
Fig. 3.8 Switching modes of the DC/DC boost converter.
(a) Mode 1: when the switch (Q1) is turned on.
(b) Mode 2: when the switch (Q1) is turned off ........................... 33
Fig. 3.9 The basic principle of MPPT in PV conversion systems .................... 36
Fig. 3.10 Flow chart of the P&O MPPT technique ............................................ 37
Fig. 3.11 The solar irradiation and cell temperature profile ............................... 38
Fig. 3.12 MATLAB/Simulink model of the P&O MPPT technique .................. 38
Fig. 3.13 The output of PV voltage, current, and power versus time
curve without MPPT technique .......................................................... 39
Fig. 3.14 The output of PV voltage, current, and power versus
time curve with P&O MPPT technique .............................................. 40
Fig. 3.15 The output DC/DC boost converter – voltage, current,
and power with P&O MPPT technique............................................... 41
Fig. 3.16 The basic concept of InCond MPPT technique .................................. 42
Fig. 3.17 Flow chart of InCond MPPT technique .............................................. 43
Fig. 3.18 MATLAB/Simulink model of the InCond MPPT technique .............. 45
Fig. 3.19 Output of PV voltage, current, and power versus time
curve with InCond MPPT technique................................................... 45
Fig. 3.20 The output DC/DC boost converter – voltage, current,
and power with InCond MPPT technique ........................................... 46
Fig. 3.21 PV array voltage comparison between P&O and
InCond MPPT techniques ................................................................... 47
Fig. 3.22 PV array current comparison between P&O and
InCond MPPT techniques ................................................................... 47
Fig. 3.23 PV array power comparison between P&O and
InCond MPPT techniques ................................................................... 48

Fig. 4.1 Simplified diagram of the stand-alone photoelectric system

with energy storage ............................................................................. 50
Fig. 4.2 The electrical model of the PV array .................................................. 50
Fig. 4.3 MATLAB/Simulink model of the PV array ........................................ 51
Fig. 4.4 The PV array with the DC/DC boost converter .................................. 52
Fig. 4.5 (a) Full-bridge converter; (b) S1 and S2 closed; (c) S3
and S4 closed; (d) S1 and S3 closed; (e) S2 and S4 closed .............. 53
Fig. 4.6 The dynamic error-driven PI controller for the
DC-AC inverter ................................................................................... 55
Fig. 4.7 LCL filter and components ................................................................. 56
Fig. 4.8 LCL filter with passive damping resistance [79] ................................ 56
Fig. 4.9 The equivalent circuit of battery [81].................................................. 57
Fig. 4.10 Discharge characteristics of a lead-acid battery.
(a) Nominal current discharge characteristic at (2A).
(b) Discharge characteristic at diverse current values ........................ 59
Fig. 4.11 Circuit diagram of half-bridge bidirectional DC/DC converter .......... 60
List of Figures xix

Fig. 4.12 (a) Buck converter circuit and (b) boost converter circuit .................. 61
Fig. 4.13 Boost mode. (a) Interval 1, (b) Interval 2 ........................................... 62
Fig. 4.14 Buck mode. (a) Interval 1, (b) Interval 2 ............................................ 62
Fig. 4.15 Simulink model of a stand-alone PV system with a BES ................... 63
Fig. 4.16 Load profile ......................................................................................... 64
Fig. 4.17 The current response of PV system. (a) PV output current
and (b) AC RMS load current ............................................................. 65
Fig. 4.18 The voltage response of PV system. (a) PV output voltage,
(b) DC voltage, and (c) AC RMS load voltage ................................... 66
Fig. 4.19 The power response of PV system, (a) PV generated power,
and (b) load active power .................................................................... 67
Fig. 4.20 The BES response. (a) Battery state of charge (SOC %),
(b) battery current, and (c) battery voltage ..................................... 68
Fig. 4.21 Solar irradiation profile ....................................................................... 69
Fig. 4.22 Simulation results of the PV system with BES.
(a) PV output current and (b) AC load current ................................... 69
Fig. 4.23 Simulation results of the system with BES.
(a) The PV output voltage and boost output DC voltage,
(b) AC load voltage ............................................................................. 70
Fig. 4.24 Simulation results of the PV system without BES for
the PV generated power, load power, and battery power .................... 70
Fig. 4.25 BES response (a) SOC %, (b) battery current, and
(c) battery voltage .................................................................................. 71
Fig. 4.26 Harmonic analysis of AC load current and AC load voltage
before and after using LCL filter. (a) THD of the AC voltage
before using LCL filter. (b) THD of the AC current before using
LCL filter. (c) THD of the AC voltage after using LCL filter.
(d) THD of the AC current after using LCL filter.
(e) Harmonic spectrum of AC current after using LCL filter ............. 72

Fig. 5.1 Simplified diagram of the stand-alone PV system with

energy storage ........................................................................................... 77
Fig. 5.2 Ragone chart showing the power density and energy density
of different storages [89]. (Source: US Defence
Logistics Agency) ............................................................................... 77
Fig. 5.3 Two different models of proposed system. (a) Stand-alone
PV system with battery-only storage. (b) Stand-alone PV
system with BS-HESS system ............................................................ 78
Fig. 5.4 Supercapacitor equivalent circuit model [92] ..................................... 79
Fig. 5.5 Time intervals of charge and self-discharge
characteristic for SC............................................................................ 80
Fig. 5.6 Circuit diagram of half-bridge bidirectional
DC/DC converter ................................................................................ 81
Fig. 5.7 Control circuit of bidirectional DC/DC converter .............................. 82
Fig. 5.8 Structures of the filtration-based controller based on FBC ................. 83
xx List of Figures

Fig. 5.9 Structures of the intelligent control strategy based on LPF

and FLC .............................................................................................. 83
Fig. 5.10 Inputs and output membership functions for FLC.
(a) Input 1: PLF. (b) Input 2: SOCSC. (c) Output MFs ................... 85
Fig. 5.11 Solar irradiation profile ....................................................................... 86
Fig. 5.12 Profile of load demand ........................................................................ 86
Fig. 5.13 Output power from PV array .............................................................. 87
Fig. 5.14 Power mismatch between PV power generation and
load demand power (dP) ................................................................ 87
Fig. 5.15 Battery current, voltage, power, and SOC (%) for Model 1.
(a) Battery current (A) for Model 1. (b) Battery voltage
(V) for Model 1. (c) Battery power (W) For Model 1.
(d) Battery SOC (%) for Model 1 ....................................................... 88
Fig. 5.16 Battery current, voltage, power, and SOC (%) for Model 2.
(a) Battery current (A) for Model 2. (b) Battery voltage (V)
for Model 2. (c) Battery power (W) For Model 2.
(d) Battery SOC (%) for Model 2 ....................................................... 90
Fig. 5.17 Operating curves of the SC for Model 2. (a) SC current (A)
for Model 2. (b) SC voltage (V) for Model 2. (c) SC
power (W) For Model 2. (d) SC-SOC (%) for Model 2 ..................... 92
Fig. 5.18 Battery current, voltage, power, and SOC (%) for Model 3.
(a) Battery current (A) for Model 3. (b) Battery voltage (V)
for Model 3. (c) Battery power (W) For Model 3.
(d) Battery SOC (%) for Model 3 ....................................................... 94
Fig. 5.19 SC current, voltage, power, and SOC (%) for Model 3.
(a) SC current (A) for Model 3. (b) SC voltage (V) for
Model 3. (c) SC power (W) For Model 3. (d) SC- SOC (%)
for Model 3 ......................................................................................... 96
Fig. 5.20 Comparison of the battery current of all the models........................... 98
Fig. 5.21 Comparison of the battery voltage of all the models .......................... 98
Fig. 5.22 Comparison of the battery power of all the models ............................ 99

Fig. 6.1 Experimental setup for stand-alone PV system with

AC load ............................................................................................. 102
Fig. 6.2 Solar modules simulation.................................................................. 103
Fig. 6.3 Experimental work for characteristic of PV array (one
series and three parallel strings) ........................................................ 104
Fig. 6.4 I-V curves of PV array with different solar irradiations ................... 104
Fig. 6.5 P-V curves of PV array with different solar irradiations .................. 105
Fig. 6.6 Solar charge controller MPPT........................................................... 105
Fig. 6.7 Off-grid inverter ................................................................................ 106
Fig. 6.8 Lead-acid battery .............................................................................. 107
Fig. 6.9 Load unit – 500 W ............................................................................ 107
Fig. 6.10 Analog-digital multimeter................................................................. 108
Fig. 6.11 DC lamp board .................................................................................. 109
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 6.12 AC lamp board .................................................................................. 110

Fig. 6.13 Variable load profile for Model 1 ...................................................... 111
Fig. 6.14 PV output voltage, power, and current without battery .................... 112
Fig. 6.15 Solar charge controller output voltage, power, and
current without battery ...................................................................... 112
Fig. 6.16 Inverter output voltage, power, and current without battery ............. 113
Fig. 6.17 Variable load profile for Model 2 ..................................................... 113
Fig. 6.18 PV output voltage, power, and current with battery .......................... 114
Fig. 6.19 Solar charge controller output voltage, power, and
current with battery ............................................................. 114
Fig. 6.20 Inverter output voltage, power, and current with battery ................. 115
Fig. 6.21 Variable solar irradiation for Model 3 ............................................... 115
Fig. 6.22 Variable load profile for Model 3 ...................................................... 116
Fig. 6.23 PV output voltage, power, and current with battery and
changing solar irradiation ................................................................. 116
Fig. 6.24 Solar charge controller output voltage, power, and current
with battery and changing solar irradiation ...................................... 117
Fig. 6.25 Inverter output voltage, power, and current with battery
and changing solar irradiation........................................................... 117
Fig. 6.26 Oscilloscope measure of AC voltage and current at enter
and exit a sudden load. (a) AC voltage and current
at enter a sudden load. (b) AC voltage and current at
exit a sudden load.............................................................................. 118
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Compare the properties for some types of BESs [31]......................... 16

Table 3.1 Summary of the P&O MPPT technique.............................................. 37

Table 3.2 Major characteristics of the MPPT techniques ................................... 43
Table 3.3 PV array power under different solar irradiance and
temperature ......................................................................................... 48

Table 4.1 Design parameters of the PV array ..................................................... 51

Table 4.2 Design parameters of the DC/DC boost converter ................................ 52
Table 4.3 Switches cases of full-bridge inverter ................................................. 54

Table 5.1 Fuzzy logic rules ................................................................................. 85

Table 5.2 The configuration of the models in Simulink ..................................... 87
Table 5.3 The specification of the stand-alone PV system with
BS-HESS............................................................................................. 87
Table 5.4 Summary and comparison of the battery and SC performance
of all the models .................................................................................. 97

Table 6.1 The specification of the experimental stand-alone PV

system elements .................................................................................. 102
Table 6.2 Electrical specification of PV modules .............................................. 111

xxiii
List of Abbreviations

PV Photovoltaic energy
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
MPP Maximum Power Point
DC Direct Current
AC Alternating Current
InCond Incremental Conductance MPPT Technique
P&O Perturb and Observe MPPT Technique
DOD Depth of Discharge
BES Battery Energy Storage
BESS Battery Energy Storage Systems
SOC State of Charge
AGM Absorbent Glass Mat
SCs Supercapacitors
ESR Equivalent Series Resistance
HESS Hybrid Energy Storage System
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
IGBT Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
BS-HESS Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid Energy Storage System
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FBC Filtration-Based Controller
HPF High-Pass Filter
LPF Low-Pass Filter
SOCSC Supercapacitor State of Charge
MFs Membership Functions

xxv
List of Symbols

Symbol Meaning
ESC, C Energy stored in the SC, capacitance
Q, V The stored charge (in Coulombs) and voltage (in Volt)
ε, ε0 Dielectric constant and the permittivity of a vacuum
A, d The thickness and the area between double layers of the capacitor
C1, C2 The equivalent capacitances in each electrical double layer
τ, RESR Time constant and the equivalent series resistance of the SC
CdTe, a − Si Cadmium telluride and amorphous silicon
CuInSe2 Copper indium selenium
I, V Output current and output voltage of PV cell
Ipv, Vpv The terminal current and terminal voltage of PV array
Iph, Is Light-generated current and PV saturation current
Np, Ns Number of parallel and series modules
Rs, Rsh Series resistance and parallel resistance of PV cell
Isc Short-circuit current at STC (Standard Test Condition)
Ki, q Short-circuit temperature coefficient and charge of electron
A, K Ideality factor and Boltzmann’s constant
Eg Band-gap energy of semiconductor used in PV cell
Tref, T Reference temperature (25 °C) and actual temperature of PV cell
Irs, G Reverse saturation current at Tref and solar irradiance
Voc, Nser Open circuit voltage and number of series-connected PV cells
PPV, fS Nominal power of the PV and switching frequency
Ca, C1 PV array link capacitance and DC link capacitance
La, D Boost converter inductor and diode
Dy, K1 Duty cycle of the boost converter and constant of proportionality
Vdc, ∆V0 Output voltage from boost converter and ripple of output voltage
∆VPV, ∆ILa Change in PV voltage and ripple current of boost inductor
Vmpp, Ppv PV array voltage at the MPP and PV array output power
fres, Rd Cut-off frequency and damping resistor
Li, Lg Inverter side inductance and grid side inductance
Cf, Cb Filter capacity and system base capacitance
i, i∗ The battery current and the low-frequency current dynamics

xxvii
xxviii List of Symbols

it, Exp(s) The battery extracted current and the extracted capacity
E0, Qb The constant voltage and maximum battery capacity
Sel(s) Represents the battery mode
PBatt, PSC Battery power and SC power
PLoad Power demand of the load
iself _ dis Self-discharge current of SC
PLF, PHF Power low-frequency components and power high-frequency
components
dP Mismatch power between PV power and load demand
Ibatt _ peak Battery peak current
Pbatt _ peak Battery peak power
SOCbatt _ avarge Average battery SOC
SOCbatt _ final Final battery SOC
ISC _ peak SC peak current
PSC _ peak SC peak power
SOCSC _ final SC final SOC
Ai Interfacial area between electrodes and electrolyte
Cm Molar concentration
Rd, F Molecular radius and Faraday constant
iSC, VSC Supercapacitor current and voltage
CT, RSC Total capacitance of the SC and total resistance of SC
Ne, NA Number of layers of electrodes and Avogadro constant
Npc, Nsc Number of parallel SCs and number of series SCs
α1, α2, and α3 The rates of change of the SC voltage
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Background

Nowadays, the most critical issue in the entire world is to meet the permanent
growth of the energy demand. Some projections indicate that the global energy
demand will almost triple by 2050 as in [1]. Moreover, the rapid depletion of the
conventional power sources and their adverse impacts on the future of the planet has
necessitated imperative researches for the renewable energy sources as alternative
sources of energy. Also, the use of renewable energy sources is desired to improve
energy efficiency which is essential to sustainable economic development.
Furthermore, the use of renewable energy sources also reduces combustion of fossil
fuels and consequent CO2 emission which is the principal cause of greenhouse
effect/global warming [2]. Among the renewable sources of energy, the PV energy
and the wind energy have attracted great attention and can be considered as the most
promising power technologies to generate the electricity. The PV energy and the
wind energy are alternative to each other which will have the actual potential to be
integrated with the electrical grid and satisfy the load dilemma to some degree.
Also, the wind energy can be captured using large generators to generate great
power capacity. Hence, the increased penetration of the wind energy generation
systems is evident since it is clean, global, and having minimal operating cost
requirements. On the other hand, the PV energy has shown great potential as another
promising power technology to generate electricity since it is clean, global, and free
and can be harnessed without emission of pollutants. In addition, the distributed PV
systems, in contrast to the other renewable energy sources such as wind power gen-
erators, are more easily integrated into the electrical utility grids at any point.
Therefore, the installation of PV systems has been growing rapidly in the last
decades [3]. However, the PV energy and the wind energy are not entirely trustwor-
thy, and they have some demerits such as their unpredictable nature and dependence
on the environmental conditions such as the variations of the solar irradiance and
the wind speed. Furthermore, the PV energy can be utilized only during the daylight

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

A. A. Elbaset et al., Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems with Energy
Storage Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7_1
2 1 Introduction

[4]. Both (if used independently) would have to be oversized to make them com-
pletely reliable, resulting in a higher total cost. Therefore, a merging of PV energy
and wind energy into PV/wind hybrid generating system can attenuate their indi-
vidual fluctuations, increase overall energy output, and generate more reliable
power with higher quality to the electrical grid and the rural areas.

1.2 Photovoltaic Power Generation

Nowadays, the PV energy source has been one of the fastest growing renewable
energy sources, which has annual growth rate around 55% over the last decade [2,
5]. The PV power generation utilizes the solar cells which convert the solar energy
directly into electricity. At the heart of the PV systems is the PV cell, a semiconduc-
tor device which produces an electrical voltage and/or current when exposed to the
sunlight [6]. Also, the PV cell generates a specified power according to its current-
voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics. Therefore, the PV cells must
be aggregated together to generate enough current and voltage for practical applica-
tions. In this regard, a PV module is formed by connecting several PV cells in series;
the PV modules are connected in series to form a PV string to provide a greater
output voltage. Then, the PV strings, in turn, are connected in parallel to form a PV
array to increase the output current and generate enough power to be synchronized
with the electrical grid. However, the incident solar irradiance on the PV array var-
ies due to various reasons such as the variation of time in a day, the atmospheric
effects such as clouds, and the latitude of the location. Therefore, the MPPT tech-
nique is implemented to regulate the output voltage and output current of PV array
for extraction of the maximum power from the PV system during variation of the
solar irradiance. Therefore, the PV system is equipped with a DC/DC boost con-
verter to implement the MPPT technique and a three-phase voltage source inverter
to be synchronized with the electrical grid [7].

1.2.1 Worldwide Annual Growth of PV Generation

The worldwide annual growth of the PV systems has the shape of an exponential
curve during the period from 2007 to 2017, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1. For several
years, the growth of PV systems was mainly driven by Japan and pioneering
European countries. As a consequence, the cost of PV system installation has
declined significantly due to the improvements in technology and design.
Historically, the United States was the leader of installed PV systems for many
years, and its total capacity amounted to 17 GW in 1996, more than any other coun-
try in the world at the time. Then, Japan was the world’s leader in producing solar
electricity until 2005, when Germany took the lead, and by 2016 it had a capacity of
over 40 GW. However, in 2015, China became the world’s largest producer of PV
1.2 Photovoltaic Power Generation 3

power. China is expected to continue its rapid growth and to triple its PV capacity
to 70 GW by 2018 [8, 9]. Figure 1.1 shows the cumulative PV generation capacity
in the world. By the end of 2016, the global cumulative PV generation capacity has
increased from 30.3 GW in 2007 to roughly 306 GW, sufficient to supply between
1.3% and 1.8% of the global electricity demand. Then, the global cumulative PV
generation capacity has reached about 401.5 GW in 2017 [10]. Moreover, the global
cumulative PV generation capacity is projected to be more than 500 GW during the
period from 2017 to 2020. By the end of 2050, solar power is anticipated to become
the world’s largest source of electricity, with concentrated solar power contributing
11%. Also, the global cumulative PV generation capacity is expected to grow to
4600 GW by the end of 2050 [11].

1.2.2 Photovoltaic Power Generation in Egypt

Egypt possesses an abundance of land, sunny weather, and high wind speeds, mak-
ing it a prime location for utilization of the renewable energy sources. Egypt intends
to supply 20% of the electricity demand from the renewable energy sources by
2022, with wind providing 12%, hydropower 5.8%, and solar 2.2%. Egypt’s Solar
Atlas states that Egypt is considered a “Sun Belt” country with 2000–3000 kWh/m2/
year of direct solar irradiation. In addition, the sun shines 9–11 hours a day from
north to south in Egypt with few cloudy days. Therefore, the solar energy plan aims
to install 3.5 GW by 2027, including 2.8 GW of PV and 700 MW of concentrated
solar power. Historically, the first solar thermal power plant was built at Kuraymat
in 2011; it has a total installed capacity of 140 MW. Also, a 10 MW power plant has
been operated in Siwa since March 2015, and the remaining plants are expected to
be implemented and operated in 2018. Recently, Egypt has embarked on an ambi-
tious project to build the biggest solar PV plant in the world at Benban, Aswan. The

Fig. 1.1 Global PV generation capacity and annual additions, 2007–2017 [12]
4 1 Introduction

PV station Benban project locates in the south of the Egyptian territory; the project
has an estimated total cost of up to US$ 4 billion and will produce 1.8 GW of power
when operational. The project site consists of a 37 km2 plot divided into 39 projects
of approximately 50 MW each [13].

1.3 Basics of Solar Cell

A PV system is made up of several PV solar cells, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2. An indi-

vidual small PV cell can generate about 1 or 2 W of power approximately, depend-
ing on the type of material used. For higher power output, PV cells can be connected
together to form higher power modules. In the market the maximum power capacity
of the module is 1 kW; even though higher capacity is possible to manufacture, it
will become cumbersome to handle more than 1 kW module. Depending upon the
power plant capacity or based on the power generation, group of modules can be
connected to form an array [14].
As per the statistics, the solar PV module world market is steadily growing at the
rate of 30% per year. The reasons behind this growth are that the reliable production
of electricity without fuel consumption anywhere there is light and the flexibility of
PV systems [15]. Also, the solar PV systems using modular technology and the
components of solar PV can be configured for varying capacity, ranging from watts
to megawatts. Earlier, large variety of solar PV applications is found to be in indus-
tries, but now it is being used for commercial as well as for domestic needs.
One of the hindrance factors is the efficiency of the solar PV cell; in the com-
mercial market, a cell efficiency of up to 18.3% is currently obtained, depending on
the technology that is used. When it is related to the module efficiency, it is slightly
lower than the cell efficiency. This is due to the blank spaces between the arrays of

Fig. 1.2 PV module constructions and its circuit [14]. (a) Construction of PV module. (b) Circuit
of PV module
1.4 Types of PV with Storage Installations 5

solar cells in the module. The overall system efficiency includes the efficiency and
the performance of the entire components in the system and also depends on the
solar installation. Here there is another numerical drop in value when compared to
the module efficiency, this being due to conductance losses, e.g., in cables. In the
case of an inverter, it converts the DC output from the solar PV module to the AC
grid voltage with a certain degree of efficiency. It depends upon conversion effi-
ciency and the precision and quickness of the MPP tracking called tracking effi-
ciency. The MPPT which is having an efficiency of 98–99% is available in the
market; each and every MPPT is based on a particular tracking algorithm [16].

1.4 Types of PV with Storage Installations

Based on the electric energy production, PV modules can be arranged into arrays to
increase electric output. Solar PV systems are generally classified based on their
functional and operational requirements and their component configurations. There
are three main types of solar PV and storage systems: grid-connected, PV-hybrid,
and stand-alone solar PV system. They all have their advantages and disadvantages,
and it really comes down to the customer’s current energy supply and what they
want to get out of the system. It can be classified into grid-connected and stand-
alone systems [17].

1.4.1 Grid-Connected PV System

Grid-connected PV systems are usually installed to enhance the performance of the

electric network by reducing the power losses and improving the voltage profile of
the network. However, this is not always the case as these systems might impose
several negative impacts on the network, especially if their penetration level is high
[18]. A grid-tied system is a basic solar installation that uses a standard grid-tied
inverter and does not have any battery storage, as illustrated in Fig. 1.3. This is per-
fect for customers who are already on the grid and want to add solar to their house.
These systems can qualify for state and federal incentives which help to pay for the

Fig. 1.3 Bock diagram of grid-connected PV system [14]

6 1 Introduction

system. Grid-tied systems are simple to design and are very cost effective because
they have relatively few components. The main objective of a grid-tied system is to
lower your energy bill and benefit from solar incentives.
One disadvantage of this type of system is that when the power goes out, so does
your system. This is for safety reasons because linemen working on the power lines
need to know there is no source feeding the grid. Grid-tied inverters have to auto-
matically disconnect when they don’t sense the grid. This means that you cannot
provide power during an outage or an emergency and you can’t store energy for
later use. You also can’t control when you use the power from your system, such as
during peak demand time.
But if a customer has a basic grid-tied system, they are not out of luck if they
want to add storage later. The solution is doing an AC-coupled system where the
original grid tied inverter is coupled with a battery back-up inverter. This is a great
solution for customers who want to install solar now to take advantage of incentives
but aren’t ready to invest in the batteries just yet.
A customer can benefit from net metering because when the solar is producing
more than they are using, they can send power back to the grid. But in times when
the loads are higher than what the solar is producing, they can buy power from the
utility. The customer is not reliant on the solar to power all his or her load. The main
takeaway is that when the grid goes down, the solar is down as well and there’s no
battery backup in the system.

1.4.2 Grid-Tied System with Battery Backup

The next type of system is a grid-tied system with battery backup, otherwise known
as a grid-hybrid system. As shown in Fig. 1.4, this type of system is ideal for cus-
tomers who are already on the grid who know that they want to have battery backup.
Good candidates for this type of system are customers who are prone to power out-
ages in their area or generally just want to be prepared for outages.

Fig. 1.4 Block diagram of grid-tied system with battery backup [19]
1.4 Types of PV with Storage Installations 7

With this type of system, you get the best of both worlds because you’re still
connected to the grid and can qualify for state and federal incentives while also
lowering your utility bill. At the same time, if there’s a power outage, you have
backup. Battery-based grid-tied systems provide power during an outage, and you
can store energy for use in an emergency. You are able to back up essential loads
such as lighting and appliances when the power is out. You can also use energy dur-
ing peak demand times because you can store the energy in your battery bank for
later use. Cons of this system are that they cost more than basic grid-tied systems
and are less efficient. There are also more components. The addition of the batteries
also requires a charge controller to protect them. There must also be a subpanel that
contains the important loads that you want to be backed up. Not all the loads that the
house uses on the grid are backed up with the system. Important loads that are
needed when the grid power is down are isolated into a back-up subpanel [19].

1.4.3 Off-Grid System

Off-grid systems are great for customers who can’t easily connect to the grid. This
may be because of geographical location or high cost of bringing in the power sup-
ply. In most cases, it doesn’t make much sense for a person connected to the grid to
completely disconnect and do an off-grid system. The block diagram of stand-alone
PV system with battery storage is shown in Fig. 1.5.
The benefits of an off-grid system are that a person can become energy self-
sufficient and can power remote places away from the grid. You also have fixed
energy costs and won’t be getting a bill from your energy use. Another neat aspect
of off grid system is that they are modular, and you can increase the capacity as your
energy needs grow. You can start out with a small, budget-conscious system and add
on over time.
Because the system is your only source of power, many off-grid systems contain
multiple charging sources such as solar, wind, and generator. You have to consider
weather and year-round conditions when designing the system. If your solar panels

Fig. 1.5 Block diagram of stand-alone PV system with battery storage [14]
8 1 Introduction

are covered in snow, you need to have another way to keep your batteries charged
up [20]. You also will most likely want to have a back-up generator just in case your
renewable sources are not enough at times to keep the batteries charged. One disad-
vantage is that off-grid systems may not qualify for some incentive programs. You
must also design your system to cover 100% of your energy loads and hopefully
even a little bit more. Off-grid systems have more components and are more expen-
sive than a standard grid-tied system as well.

1.4.4 PV-Hybrid Systems

Hybrid systems generally refer to the combination of any two input sources; here
solar PV can be integrated with diesel generator, wind turbines, biomass, or any
other renewable on nonrenewable energy sources as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. Solar PV
systems will generally use a battery bank to store energy output from the panels to
accommodate a pre-defined period of insufficient sunshine; there may still be
exceptional periods of poor weather when an alternative source is required to guar-
antee power production. PV-hybrid systems combine a PV module with another
power sources – typically a diesel generator but occasionally another renewable
supply such as a wind turbine. The PV generator would usually be sized to meet the
base load demand, with the alternate supply being called into action only when
essential. This arrangement offers all the benefits of PV in respect of low operation
and maintenance costs but additionally ensures a secure supply [21].

Fig. 1.6 Block diagram of photovoltaic hybrid system [14]

1.6 Book Objectives 9

1.5 Energy Storage System

A fundamental characteristic of a PV system is that power is produced only while

sunlight is available. For systems in which the PV is the sole generation source,
storage is typically needed since an exact match between available sunlight and the
load is limited to a few types of systems – for example, powering a cooling fan. In
hybrid or grid-connected systems, where batteries are not inherently required, they
may be beneficially included for load matching or power conditioning [22].
For off-grid and critical applications, storage systems are required; the most
common medium of storage is the lead-acid battery. Presently researches are going
on in the field of Li-ion batteries to implement the concept of fuel cells in solar PV
systems. One of the most expensive components in the PV system is the battery.
Under sizing the batteries will become more costly as the battery life cycle is sig-
nificantly reduced at higher depth of discharge (DOD%). At a higher DOD, expected
average number of charge-discharge cycles of a battery reduced. Further, a higher
current discharge than the rating will dramatically reduce the battery life. This can
be avoided by carefully sizing of the battery according to the “C-rating” during the
system design. It signifies the maximum amount of current that can be safely with-
drawn from the battery to provide adequate backup without causing any damage. A
discharge more than the C-ratings may cause irreversible capacity loss due to the
fact that the rate of chemical reactions taking place in the batteries cannot keep pace
with the current being drawn from them [23]. The de-rating factor of the balance of
system plays a significance role in boosting up the overall efficiency of the solar PV
system.

1.6 Book Objectives

The main objectives of this book are summarized as follows:

1. Apply the MPPT technique for the PV system in order to extract the maximum
power during variation of the environmental conditions.
2. Analyze the performance of the PV system with battery storage during variations
of the solar irradiance in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the implemented
MPPT techniques and the employed control strategy.
3. Addressing the performance analysis for the stand-alone PV system under the
effect of the entry and exit sudden electrical loads.
4. Structure and modeling of stand-alone PV system with BS-HESS to reduce the
dynamic stress and peak power demand of the battery by employing the appro-
priate control strategy.
5. Experimental work for performance analysis of stand-alone PV system with bat-
tery storage energy under variable solar irradiation and load profile.
10 1 Introduction

1.7 Book Organization

To achieve the above objectives, the present book is organized in seven chapters in
addition to a list of references. The chapters are organized as follows:
• Chapter 1: The main aim of this chapter is to present an introduction to the PV
power generation worldwide and in Egypt. Also it presents an introduction to the
principles for the solar cell. In addition, the types of photovoltaic power systems
and energy storage systems have been reviewed.
• Chapter 2: This chapter introduces the energy storage systems in PV systems
and discusses the classifications and types of batteries. Also, the focus was on
lead-acid battery, and some properties of supercapacitors were reviewed. Finally,
it gives an overview of previous works and methods based on the PV system and
energy storage systems.
• Chapter 3: This chapter discusses the modeling of the fundamental elements in
the off-grid PV systems. In addition, it introduces a simulation of two MPPT
techniques that is implemented in the PV systems.
• Chapter 4: This chapter investigates a dynamic modeling, simulation, and con-
trol strategy of the stand-alone PV system with BES under variable load profile.
Moreover, this chapter discusses the performance comparison of PV stand-alone
system with BES in two cases of operation. In the first case, the system operates
without and with BES under constant solar irradiation. In the second case, the
PV system is connected to a BES and operates under a variable in solar
irradiation.
• Chapter 5: This chapter proposes an optimal control strategy for a stand-alone
PV system with BS-HESS. The proposed control strategy comprises of a low
pass filter and fuzzy logic controller. The performance of the proposed system is
compared to the conventional systems by Simulink with the setup of rural house-
hold load profile and the actual solar irradiation profile of a rainy day.
• Chapter 6: In this chapter, the experimental setup along with its components is
implemented in renewable energy laboratory, faculty of industrial education,
Suez University. This chapter includes two parts: the first part presents the exper-
imental setup of an off-grid PV system, and the second part contains the experi-
mental results and discussion.
• Chapter 7: This chapter reports the main conclusions from the book and sum-
marizes the future research topics related to bookwork.
Chapter 2
Literature Survey

2.1 Introduction

A fundamental characteristic of a PV system is that power is produced only when

sunlight is available. For systems in which the PV is the only generation source,
storage is typically needed since an exact match between available sunlight and the
load is limited to a few types of systems – for example, powering a cooling fan. In
hybrid or grid-connected systems, where batteries energy storage (BESs) are not
inherently required, they may be beneficially included for load matching or power
conditioning. By far the most common type of storage is chemical storage, in the
form of a battery energy storage (BES), although in some cases other forms of stor-
age can be used [24]. For example, for small, short-term storage, a flywheel or
capacitor can be used for storage, or for specific, single-purpose PV systems, such
as water pumping or refrigeration, storage can be in the form of water or ice.
In any PV system that includes BESs, the BESs become a central component of
the overall system which significantly affects the cost, maintenance requirements,
reliability, and design of the PV system. Because of the large impact of BESs in a
stand-alone PV system, understanding the properties of BESs is critical in under-
standing the operation of PV systems. The important BES parameters that affect the
PV system operation and performance are the BES maintenance requirements, life-
time of the BES, available power, and efficiency. An ideal BES would be able to be
charged and discharged indefinitely under arbitrary charging/discharging regimes
and would have high efficiency, high energy density, low self-discharge, and below
cost. These are controlled not only by the initial choice of the BES but also by how
it is used in the system, particularly how it is charged and discharged and its tem-
perature. However, in practice, no BES can achieve the above set of requirements,
even if the normally dominant requirement for low cost is not considered. This
chapter provides an overview of BES operation and uses for PV systems. The aim

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 11

A. A. Elbaset et al., Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems with Energy
Storage Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7_2
12 2 Literature Survey

of this chapter is to present the reader with enough information to understand how
important it is to specify an appropriate type of BES and with sufficient capacity, for
satisfactory use in a PV system.

2.2 Why Use a Battery Energy Storage in PV Systems?

The energy output from the solar PV systems is generally stored in BES deepening
upon the requirements of the system. Mostly BESs are used in the stand-alone PV
system, and in the case of grid-connected system, BESs are used as a back-up sys-
tem [25]. The primary functions of the BES in a PV system are:
• It acts as a buffer store to eliminate the mismatch between power available from the
PV array and power demand from the load. The power that a PV module or array
produces at any time varies according to the amount of light falling on it (and is zero
at nighttime). Most electrical loads need a constant amount of power to be deliv-
ered. The BES provides power when the PV array produces nothing at night or less
than the electrical load requires during the daytime. It also absorbs excess power
from the PV array when it is producing more power than the load requires [26].
• The BES provides a reserve of energy (system autonomy) that can be used dur-
ing a few days of very cloudy weather or, in an emergency, if some part of the PV
system fails.
• The BES prevents large, possibly damaging, voltage fluctuations. A PV array can
deliver power at any point between a short circuit and an open circuit, depending
on the characteristics of the load it is connected to.
• Supply surge currents: to supply surge or high peak operating currents to electri-
cal loads or appliances [14].

2.3 BES Types and Classifications

Even BESs from the same manufacturers differ in their performance and its charac-
teristics. Different manufacturers have variations in the details of their BES con-
struction, but some common construction features can be described for almost all
BESs. BESs are generally mass produced; it consists of several sequential and par-
allel processes to construct a complete BES unit. Different types of BESs are manu-
factured today, each with specific design for particular applications. Each BES type
or design has its individual strengths and weaknesses. In solar PV system predomi-
nantly, lead-acid BESs are used due to their wide availability in many sizes, low
cost, and well-determined performance characteristics. For low-temperature appli-
cations, nickel-cadmium cells are used, but their high initial cost limits their use in
most PV systems. The selection of the suitable BES depends upon the application
and the designer. In general, BESs can be divided into two major categories, pri-
mary and secondary BESs [21].
2.4 Battery Energy Storage Characteristics 13

2.3.1 Primary BES

Primary BESs are non-rechargeable, but they can store and deliver electrical energy.
Typical carbon-zinc and lithium BESs commonly used primary BESs. Primary
BESs are not used in PV systems because they cannot be recharged.

2.3.2 Secondary BES

Secondary BESs are rechargeable, and they can store and deliver electrical energy.
Common lead-acid BESs used in automobiles and PV systems are secondary
BESs. The BESs can be selected based on their design and performance character-
istics. The PV designer should consider the advantages and disadvantages of the
BESs based on its characteristics and with respect to the requirements of an appli-
cation. Some of the important parameters to be considered for the selection of BES
are lifetime, deep-cycle performance, tolerance to high temperatures and over-
charge, maintenance, and many others [27]. Examples of rechargeable BES sys-
tems are:
• Lead-acid
• Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd)
• Nickel-iron
• Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH)
• Rechargeable lithium of various types, especially lithium-ion
This book’s main focus is on the use of lead-acid BESs in stand-alone PV
systems.

2.4 Battery Energy Storage Characteristics

The use of BESs in PV systems differs from the use of BESs in other common BES
applications. For PV systems, the key technical considerations are that the BES
experiences a long lifetime under nearly full discharge conditions. Common
rechargeable BES applications do not experience both deep cycling and being left
at low states of charge for extended periods of time. For example, in BESs for start-
ing cars or other engines, the BES experiences a large, short current drain but is at
full charge for most of its life. Similarly, BESs in uninterruptible power supplies are
kept at full charge for most of their life. For BESs in consumer electronics, the
weight or size is often the most important consideration [28]. This section provides
an overview of the critical BES characteristics or specifications, including BES
voltage, capacity, charging/discharging regimes, efficiency, etc.
14 2 Literature Survey

2.4.1 Battery Energy Storage Charging

In a stand-alone PV system, the ways in which a BES is charged are generally much
different from the charging methods BES manufacturers use to rate BES perfor-
mance. The BES charging in PV systems consists of three modes of BES charging:
normal or bulk charge, finishing or float charge, and equalizing charge [29].
• Bulk or Normal Charge: It is the initial portion of a charging cycle performed at
any charge rate, and it occurs between 80% and 90% SOC. This will not allow
the cell voltage to exceed the gassing voltage.
• Float or Finishing Charge: It is usually conducted at low to medium charge
rates. When the BES is fully charged, most of the active material in the BES has
been converted to its original form, generally voltage/current regulation that is
required to limit the overcharge supplied to the BES.
• Equalizing Charge: It consists of a current-limited charge to higher voltage lim-
its than set for the finishing or float charge. It is done periodically to maintain
consistency among individual cells. An equalizing charge is typically maintained
until the cell voltages, and specific gravities remain consistent for a few hours.

2.4.2 Battery Energy Storage Discharging

• Depth of Discharge (DOD): The DOD of BES is defined as the percentage of

capacity that has been withdrawn from a BES compared to the total fully charged
capacity. The two common qualifiers for DOD in PV systems are the allowable
or maximum DOD and the average daily DOD.
• Allowable DOD: The maximum percentage of full-rated capacity that can be
withdrawn from a BES is known as its allowable DOD. In stand-alone PV sys-
tems, the low voltage load disconnect set point of the BES charge controller
dictates the allowable DOD limit at a given discharge rate. Depending on the
type of BES used in a PV system, the design allowable DOD may be as high as
80% for deep-cycle, motive power BESs, to as low as 15–25%. The allowable
DOD is related to the autonomy, in terms of the capacity required to operate the
system loads for a given number of days without energy from the PV array.
• Average Daily DOD: This is the percentage of the full-rated capacity that is with-
drawn from a BES with the average daily load profile. If the load varies season-
ally, the average daily DOD will be greater in the winter months due to the longer
nightly load operation period. For PV systems with a constant daily load, the
average daily DOD is generally greater in the winter due to lower BES
temperature and lower rated capacity. Depending on the rated capacity and the
average daily load energy, the average daily DOD may vary between only a few
percent in systems designed with a lot of autonomy or as high as 50% for mar-
ginally sized BES systems. The average daily DOD is inversely related to auton-
2.4 Battery Energy Storage Characteristics 15

omy; meaning that systems designed for longer autonomy periods (more
capacity) have a lower average daily DOD.
• State of Charge (SOC): This is defined as the amount of energy as a percentage
of the energy stored in a fully charged BES. Discharging a BES results in a
decrease in SOC, while charging results in an increase in SOC.
• Autonomy: Generally, autonomy refers to the time a fully charged BES can sup-
ply energy to the system loads when there is no energy supplied by the PV array.
Longer autonomy periods generally result in a lower average daily DOD and
lower the probability that the allowable (maximum) DOD or minimum load volt-
age is reached.
• Self-Discharge Rate: In open-circuit mode without any charge or discharge cur-
rent, a BES undergoes a reduction in SOC, due to internal mechanisms and
losses within the BES. Different BES types have different self-discharge rates,
the most significant factor being the active materials and grid alloying elements
used in the design.
• Battery Lifetime: Battery lifetime is dependent upon a number of design and
operational factors, including the components and materials of BES construc-
tion, temperature, frequency, DODs, and average SOC and charging methods.
• Temperature Effects: For an electrochemical cell such as a BES, temperature has
important effects on performance. As the temperature increases by 10° C, the
rate of an electrochemical reaction doubles, resulting in statements from BES
manufacturers that BES life decreases by a factor of two for every 10° C increase
in average operating temperature. Higher operating temperatures accelerate cor-
rosion of the positive plate grids, resulting in greater gassing and electrolyte loss.
Lower operating temperatures generally increase BES life. However, the capac-
ity is reduced significantly at lower temperatures, particularly for lead-acid
BESs. When severe temperature variations from room temperatures exist, BESs
are located in an insulated or other temperature-regulated enclosure to minimize
BES.
• Effects of Discharge Rates: The higher the discharge rate or current, the lower
the capacity that can be withdrawn from a BES to a specific allowable DOD or
cutoff voltage. Higher discharge rates also result in the voltage under load to be
lower than with lower discharge rates, sometimes affecting the selection of the
low voltage load disconnect set point. At the same BES voltage, the lower the
discharge rates, the lower the BES SOC compared to higher discharge rates.
• Corrosion: The electrochemical activity resulting from the immersion of two
dissimilar metals in an electrolyte or the direct contact of two dissimilar metals
causing one material to undergo oxidation or lose electrons and causing the other
material to undergo reduction or gain electrons. Corrosion of the grids support-
ing the active material in a BES is an ongoing process and may ultimately dictate
the BES’s useful lifetime. BES terminals may also experience corrosion due to
the action of electrolyte gassing from the BES and generally require periodic
cleaning and tightening in flooded lead-acid types [14, 30].
16 2 Literature Survey

Table 2.1 Compare the properties for some types of BESs [31]
Li-ion
Specifications Lead-acid Ni-Cd Ni-MH Cobalt Manganese Phosphate
Specific energy 30–50 45–80 60–120 150– 100–135 90–120
density (Wh/Kg) 190
Internal resistance <100 100–200 200–300 150– 25–75 25–50
(mΩ) 12 V peak 6 V peak 6V 300 per cell per cell
peak 7.2 V
Cycle life (80% 200–300 1000 300–500 500– 500–1000 1000–
discharge) 1000 2000
Fast-charge time 8–16 h 1 h typical 2–4 h 2–4 h 1 h or less 1 h or less
Overcharge High Moderate Low Low. Can’t tolerate trickle
tolerance charge
Self-discharge/ 5% 20% 30% <10%
month
Cell voltage 2V 1.2 V 1.2 V 3.6 V 3.8 V 3.3 V
Charge Cutoff 2.4 Full charge detection by 4.2 4.2 3.6
Voltage (V/cell) voltage signature
Discharge cutoff 1.75 1 1 2.5–3 2.5–3 2.8
voltage (V/cell)
Peak load current 5A 20A 5A >3A >30A >30A
Best result 0.2A 1A 0.5A <1A <10A <10A
Charge −20 to 50 °C 0 to 45 °C 0 to 45 °C
temperature
Discharge −20 to 50 °C −20 to 65 °C −20 to 60 °C
temperature
Maintenance 3–6 months 30–60 days 60– Not required
requirement 90 days
In use since Late 1800s 1950 1990 1991 1996 1999

2.4.3 Compare the Characteristics of Some Types of BESs

There are a large number of BES parameters. Depending on which application the
BES is used for, some parameters are more important than others. The following is
a list of parameters that may be specified by a manufacturer for a given type of BES
which is listed in Table 2.1. For example, in a typical BES for a general car, the
energy density is not relevant – a BES is a small fraction of the total BES weight,
and consequently, this parameter would typically not be listed for a conventional
car BES. However, in electric vehicle applications, the BES weight is a significant
fraction of the overall weight of the vehicle, and so the energy densities will be
given [26].
2.5 Lead-Acid Battery Energy Storage 17

2.5 Lead-Acid Battery Energy Storage

Lead-acid BESs are the most commonly used type of BES in PV systems. Although
lead-acid BESs have a low energy density, only moderate efficiency, and high main-
tenance requirements, they also have a long lifetime and low costs compared to
other BES types. One of the singular advantages of lead-acid BESs is that they are
the most commonly used form of BES for most rechargeable BES applications
(e.g., in starting car engines) and therefore have a well-established, mature technol-
ogy base [32].
A lead-acid BES or cell in the charged state has positive plates with lead dioxide
(PbO2) as an active material, negative plates with high surface area (spongy) lead as
an active material, and an electrolyte of the sulfuric acid solution in water (about
400–480 g/mL, density 1.241.28 kg/L). On discharge, the lead dioxide of the posi-
tive plate and the spongy lead of the negative plate are both converted to lead sulfate
in Fig. 2.1. Lead-acid BESs store energy by the reversible chemical reaction shown
below [33].
• Lead-acid overall reaction [32]:

Charged Discharged
(2.1)
PbO2 + Pb + 2H 2 SO 4 Û 2 PbSO4 + 2H 2 O

• Lead-acid positive terminal reaction:

Charged Discharged
(2.2)
PbO2 + 3H + + HSO 4- + 2e - Û PbSO 4 + 2H 2 O

• Lead-acid negative terminal reaction:

Charged Discharged
(2.3)
Pb + HSO -4 Û PbSO 4 + H + + 2e -

Note that the electrolyte (sulfuric acid) takes part in this basic charge and dis-
charge reactions, being consumed during discharge and regenerated during charge.
This means that the acid concentration (or density) will change between charge and
discharge. It also means that an adequate supply of acid is needed at both plates
when the BES is discharging in order to obtain the full capacity.
The lead-acid BES system has a nominal voltage of 2.0 V/cell as shown in
Fig. 2.2. The typical end voltage for discharge in PV systems is 1.8 V/cell, and the
typical end voltage for charging in PV systems varies between 2.3 and 2.5 V/cell,
depending on the BES, controller, and system type. The relation of open circuit volt-
age to SOC is variable but somewhat proportional. However, if charging or dis-
charging is interrupted to measure the open circuit voltage, it can take a long time
(many hours) for the BES voltage to stabilize enough to give a meaningful value.
18 2 Literature Survey

Fig. 2.1 Chemical reaction when a battery is being discharged [33]

Fig. 2.2 Charge and discharge characteristic of lead-acid BES voltage per cell [31]

2.6 Calculating Battery Size for a PV System

We now list the full process of correctly calculating the capacity required for a par-
ticular battery type in a specific PV system [34].

2.6.1 Select the Appropriate Voltage

This is defined by the load (and PV array) nominal voltage unless some DC/DC
converter is present in the system. This sets the number of cells or blocks that must
be connected in series.
2.7 The Supercapacitor Energy Storage System in PV System 19

2.6.2 Define Maximum Depths of Discharge

These must be defined for each battery type according to the mode of operation
[26].
• The maximum DOD for autonomy reserve is normally set at 80% for a lead-acid
battery.
• The maximum daily DOD may either be set arbitrarily (e.g., a figure of 20–30%
is common).
• For seasonal storage (if used), a maximum DOD needs to be set.
• For open batteries in most PV systems, a charge rate faster than the 10-hour rate
is not recommended.
• For sealed batteries, another consideration is the highest overcharge current that
can be sustained with efficient gas recombination, and this is
temperature-dependent.

2.6.3 Calculate the Battery Capacity

The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep-cycle battery.
Deep-cycle battery is specifically designed to be discharged to low energy level and
rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day for years. The battery
should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night
and cloudy days. To find out the size of the battery, calculate as follows [35]:
(a) Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by loads.
(b) Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
(c) Divide the answer obtained in item (b) by 0.8 for DOD.
(d) Divide the answer obtained in item (c) by the nominal battery voltage.
(e) Multiply the answer obtained in item (d) with days of autonomy (the number of
days that you need the system to operate when there is no power produced by
PV panels) to get the required Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.

Total Wh per day used by loads

Battery Capacity ( Ah ) = ´ day of autonomy (2.4)
0.85 ´ 0.8 ´ normal battery voltage

2.7 The Supercapacitor Energy Storage System in PV

System

Supercapacitors (SCs) are based on electrochemical cells that contain two conduc-
tor electrodes, an electrolyte and a porous membrane that permits the transit of ions
between the two electrodes. Thus, the presented layout is similar to the
20 2 Literature Survey

electrochemical cells of batteries. The main difference between SC (or ultracapaci-

tors or double-layer capacitors) and batteries lies in the fact that no chemical reac-
tions occur in the cells but the energy is stored electrostatically in the cell [36].
In SCs, the electrodes and the electrolyte are electrically charged (the cathode is
positively charged, the anode is negatively charged, and the electrolyte contains
both positive and negative ions) as shown in Fig. 2.3. At each of the electrode sur-
faces, there is an area that interfaces with the electrolyte, and it is in each of these
areas where the phenomenon of the “electrical double layer” occurs. By applying a
voltage between the electrodes, both the electrodes and the electrolyte become
polarized. This means that the positive charge of the cathode is transferred to the
area interfacing with the electrolyte, forming a layer of positive ions. In turn, the
negative ions of the electrolyte are transferred to the same electrolyte/cathode
interface, forming a negative charge balancing layer of ions. These two layers build
up an “electrical double layer.” The mechanism behind the operating principle of
such a double layer can be explained using the Helmholtz model [37].
The model establishes that the two layers are separated by a layer of solvent
molecules of the electrolyte, called the inner Helmholtz plane. This layer of solvent
molecules actually separates the positive and negative charges of the electrode and
electrolyte, thus acting as a dielectric. Ultimately, there is a potential difference
between the two layers of positive and negative ions derived from the electric field
within them, and the double layer can be taken to resemble a capacitor (the described
double layer concept can be observed in Fig. 2.3; see also Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.3 The illustrative topology of a SC, depicting the electrical double layers at each electrode/
electrolyte interface [40]
2.7 The Supercapacitor Energy Storage System in PV System 21

Fig. 2.4 Supercapacitor

modules from Maxwell
Technologies, Appendix A

Therefore, the magnitude of the electrical potential (in Volts) between the two
layers of positive and negative ions at each electrode/electrolyte interface, in con-
junction with the resultant capacitance (in Farads), determines the energy stored in
the SC. Thus [38],

1
ESC ( joules ) = C V 2 (2.5)
2

The voltage generated in the cell is dependent on the strength of the electric field
between the layers building up each of the “electrical double layers” described
above. This electric field is, in turn, proportional to the amounts of positive and
negative ions located at the electrode/electrolyte interface. So to avoid the transfer
of ions between the two layers of positive and negative ions, thus decreasing the
voltage within the double layers, the breakdown voltage of the dielectric should be
maximized. As noted before, this dielectric is provided by solvent molecules of the
electrolyte. In this way, the selection of the electrolyte is key to ensuring the maxi-
mum energy capacity. Usually, both aqueous and organic electrolytes are commonly
found, the latter being the most common type. With aqueous electrolytes, a cell
voltage of around 1 V can be obtained, while it can be increased up to 2.5 V by
using organic types.
As stated in Eq. (2.6), the second factor affecting the energy capacity of SCs is
the capacitance of the cell. The capacitance (in Farads) of a capacitor is given by the
quotient between the stored charge (in Coulombs) per unit of voltage (in Volts), so

C = Q /V (2.6)

In addition, the capacitance can be expressed as a function of the permeability of

the dielectric, its thickness, and the area holding each of the layers of the electrical
double layer. Then,
22 2 Literature Survey

A
C = e e0 (2.7)
d

where 𝜀 is the dielectric constant, ε0 is the permittivity of a vacuum, A is the effec-

tive area of the surface of the electrode, and d is the dielectric thickness.
In order to maximize the capacitance, different metal-oxide electrodes, electroni-
cally conducting polymer electrodes, and activated carbon electrodes are used in
industry. These materials are porous, so they can maximize the effective area of the
electrode in which ions can be allocated. The most common types are the ones
based on activated carbon since they can lead to SCs with a high energy density and
capacitances around 5000 F [36], that is, capacities up to 1000 times per unit vol-
ume more than those of conventional electrolytic capacitors.
About the distribution of capacitance between the two electrical double layers in
the cell, we can distinguish between symmetrical and unsymmetrical SCs.
Symmetrical ones are those with the same effective area in both electrodes. Since
the cell can be considered to resemble two capacitors in series (given by the two
double layers at each electrolyte/electrode interface), the total capacitance can be
formulated as

C1C2
Ceq = (2.8)
C1 + C2

where C1 and C2 are the equivalent capacitances in each electrical double layer. As
mentioned, the electrolyte and electrode materials have a fundamental influence on
the energy and power capacity of the SC and also on its dynamic behavior. To be
precise and with reference to the SC dynamics, one defining parameter is the

Fig. 2.5 The capacitance and the ESR as temperature-dependent characteristics. Appendix A
2.8 Literature Survey of Previous Works 23

so-called charge/discharge time constant, 𝜏. This is given by the product of the

equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the SC and its capacitance. Thus,

t = RESR C (2.9)

The time constant is the time needed to discharge 63.2% of full capacity with a
current limited only by the internal resistance – or the ESR as it is commonly
known – of the SC. The ESR weights the losses in the SC while charging and dis-
charging, that is, those associated with the movement of ions within the electrolyte
and across the separator. The ESR is normally in the range of milliohms and is a
temperature-dependent parameter, as presented in Fig. 2.5.
Apart from the ESR and the capacitance, the third characteristic parameter for
the SC is the leakage resistance, which weights the self-discharge of the cell. This
resistance is much higher than the ESR. All three parameters – the capacitance, the
ESR, and the leakage resistance – can be found in manufacturers’ datasheets, and
from them, averaged models for SCs can be built.
SCs are characterized by offering high ramp power rates, high cyclability, high
round-trip efficiency (of up to 80%), and a high specific power, in W/kg, and power
density, in W/m3 (10 times more than for conventional batteries). The latter charac-
teristic defines SCs as well suited for applications that impose major volumetric
restrictions. On the other hand, major drawbacks of the technology are related to its
high self-discharge rates (of up to 20% of the rated capacity in only 12 h) and its
limited applicability to situations where high power and energy are needed. In fact,
the development of SCs is mostly focused in fields such as automotive and portable
devices. Finally, it is worth noting that as a short timescale, SCs are unsuitable in
that they are expensive in comparison with other competitors such as flywheels.
Their cost is estimated at 10 times the cost per kWh of flywheels.
SCs are, in general, young technologies. The first prototypes were developed in
1957 by H.I. Becker (General Electric). However, the first related studies were car-
ried out in the nineteenth century by Helmholtz, who discussed the electrical behav-
ior of a metal surface while immersed in an electrolyte. Currently, intense research
activity is underway to scale up SC size and to improve their performance, so that
they will be suitable for both stationary and nonstationary applications – such as in
the fields of electromobility and PV system.

2.8 Literature Survey of Previous Works

This section provides literature survey of previous works and methods about a
stand-alone PV system with the battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage sys-
tem (HESS). The block diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 2.6. There are many
researches on the modeling of PV array, MPPT, and half-bridge bidirectional DC/
DC converter, and energy storage systems have been studied.
24 2 Literature Survey

Fig. 2.6 Block diagram of stand-alone PV system with BS-HESS

2.8.1 Review of Related Researches About PV Modeling

K. Ishaque, Z. Salam, and H. Taheri [39] presented an improved modeling approach

for the two-diode model of PV module based on four parameters. The proposed
model is tested on six PV modules of different types (multi-crystalline, monocrys-
talline, and thin film) from various manufacturers.
J. Maherchandani, Ch. Agarwal, and M. Sahi [40] presented an efficient and
accurate single-diode model for the estimation of the solar cell parameters using the
hybrid genetic algorithm and Nelder-Mead simplex search method from the given
voltage-current data.
Z. Ahmad and S. Singh [41] presented a method to extract the internal parame-
ters such as ideality factor, series, and shunt resistance of any solar PV cell using
block diagram modeling of PV cell/module using Matlab/Simulink model.
S. Lineykin, M. Averbukh, and A. Kuperman [42] implemented the single-diode
equivalent circuit to modeling amorphous silicon PV modules. This approach com-
bined numerical solution of two transcendental and two regular algebraic equation
systems with single parameter fitting procedure.
B. Chitti Babu and Suresh Gurjar [43] presented modeling approach of PV mod-
ules using an ideal two-diode model. This model was simplified by omitting series
and shunt resistances, only four unknown parameters from the datasheet were
required to analyze the proposed model.
2.8 Literature Survey of Previous Works 25

2.8.2 Review of Related Researches About MPPT of PV

System

MPPT is a power electronic device with computer that is connected between PV

power source and load to extract maximum power from a PV module and satisfy the
highest efficiency. Until now numerous of MPPT techniques have been developed
to increase the efficiency of the PV system and satisfy the optimal MPPT. These
techniques vary in various aspects such as tracking speed, oscillations around MPP,
cost, and hardware required for implementation. Most famous MPPT controllers
available are fractional open circuit voltage, fractional short circuit current [44], hill
climbing [45, 46], P&O [48, 49], InCond [50, 51], incremental resistance [50], rip-
ple correlation control [51], fuzzy logic [52], artificial neural networks [53], particle
swarm optimization [54], and sliding mode [55].
P. Francisco and M. Ordonez [56] presented the zero-oscillation, adaptive-step
P&O MPPT strategy for solar PV panels. This combined strategy reduced steady-
state losses and improved transient behavior during slope changes irradiance while
maintaining a similar implementation complexity.
M. Killi and S. Samanta [57] suggested the positive sign of current change to
avoid the problem, but this solution is only for increasing of irradiance and lacking
information about rapid decreasing of weather.

2.8.3 Review of Related Researches About Half-Bridge

Bidirectional DC/DC Converter

To appropriately interface the batteries and the SCs in the HESS (such as in hybrid
electric vehicle), a bidirectional DC/DC converter is required to control the power
flow in two directions. R M. Schupbach and J.C. Balda [58] presented analysis,
design, and comparative study of several bidirectional non-isolated DC-DC con-
verter topologies.
F. A. Himmelstoss and M. E. Ecker [59] who introduced a bidirectional DC/DC
half-bridge converter presented analyses with a view to obtaining maximum voltage
and current ratings for the elements, rms values for the semiconductor devices, and
a rough approximation of the losses.
J. Cao and A. Emadi [60] presented compared to the conventional HESS design,
which uses a larger DC/DC converter to interface between the ultracapacitor and the
battery/dc link to satisfy the real-time peak power demands and design a much
smaller DC/DC converter working as a controlled energy pump to maintain the volt-
age of the ultracapacitor at a value higher than the battery voltage for the most city
driving conditions.
26 2 Literature Survey

2.8.4 Review of Related Researches About a Stand-Alone PV

System with HESS

In this paragraph review of previous research on the PV stand-alone systems is

related with a BS-HESS. W. Jing, C. H. Lai, M. L. Dennis Wong, and W. S. H. Wong
[61] illustrate in islanded microgrid system the battery tenders to be the most vul-
nerable element in terms of durability. Poorly managed battery charge/discharge
process is one of the main life-limiting factors. To improve the battery life, a novel
energy storage system topology and a power allocation strategy are proposed.
I. Shchur and Y. Biletskyi [62] discussed the stand-alone PV system; under vari-
able of daily and weather solar irradiation, special devices are used for energy stor-
age. In order to remove stress from batteries during sudden load change, it is
advisable to use HESS by adding a SC module to battery.
J. Cao and A. Emadi [60] presented in their paper a battery/ultracapacitor hybrid
energy storage system for electric, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.
Compared to the conventional HESS design, which uses a larger DC/DC converter
to interface between the ultracapacitor and the battery/dc link to satisfy the real-time
peak power demands, the proposed design uses a much smaller DC/DC converter
working as a controlled energy pump to maintain the voltage of the ultracapacitor at
a value higher than the battery voltage for the most city driving conditions.
Lee Wai Chong, Yee Wan Wong, Rajprasad Kumar Rajkumar, and Dino Isa [63]
presented comparison between the stand-alone PV system with BS-HESS and the
conventional stand-alone PV system with battery-only storage system for a rural
household. Stand-alone PV system with passive BS-HESS and semi-active
BS-HESS is presented in this study.

2.9 Summary

This chapter presented and reviewed the importance of energy storage systems in
PV system. The energy from PV systems is generally stored in BES deepening upon
the requirements of the system. The main functions of the BES in a PV system are
used to store energy to eliminate the mismatch between PV power and power load
demand. Most electrical loads need a constant amount of power to be delivered. The
BES provides power when the PV array produces nothing at night or less than the
electrical load requires during the daytime. The BES provides a reserve of energy
that can be used during a few days of very cloudy weather or in an emergency. The
BES prevents large, possibly damaging, voltage fluctuations. The types of BES used
with PV systems were also clarified, and a comparison was made between these
types in terms of charging and discharging characteristics. This chapter also
explained the details of the most common type of batteries used in PV systems, the
lead-acid battery. The operation of lead-acid battery, internal structure, and common
types has been explained. In addition, this chapter presents a review of SC in terms
of working theory, internal components, and general properties.
Chapter 3
Modeling of Maximum Power Point
Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

3.1 Introduction

The PV systems utilize semiconductor materials and electronic technology to

convert the incident sunlight into electricity. At the heart of the PV system is the PV
cell, a semiconductor material which generates electrical voltage and/or current
when exposed to the solar irradiance. The PV cells generate electricity via the PV
effect, in which semiconductor holes and electrons freed by photons from the inci-
dent solar irradiance are dragged to opposite terminals of the PV cell by the result-
ing electric field [6]. The PV cell generates a specified power according to its
current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics. Thus, the PV cells
must be aggregated together to produce enough current and voltage for practical
applications. In this regard, a PV module is formed by connecting several PV cells
in series; the PV modules are connected in series to form a PV string. The PV
strings, in turn, are connected in parallel to form a PV array in order to generate
adequate voltage and power to be integrated with the electrical grid.
The incident solar irradiance on the PV array varies due to various reasons such
as the variation of time in a day, the atmospheric effects such as clouds, and the lati-
tude of the location. Therefore, the MPPT techniques are implemented to regulate
the output voltage and current of PV array for extraction of the maximum power
during variation of the solar irradiation. In addition, the PV systems are equipped
with a DC/DC converter to implement the MPPT technique [64]. This chapter dis-
cusses the fundamental components of the stand-alone PV systems. Moreover, this
chapter introduces the study and design of two techniques of MPPT that imple-
mented in the PV conversion systems, namely, the perturb and observe (P&O)
MPPT technique and the incremental conductance (InCond) MPPT technique.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 27

A. A. Elbaset et al., Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems with Energy
Storage Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7_3
28 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

3.2 Principle of PV Conversion Systems

Without pollution or greenhouse gas emission, a PV conversion system converts the

sunlight directly into electricity. The basic element of a PV conversion system is the
PV cell. The PV cell is basically made up of a semiconductor material (P-N junc-
tion) that able to generate the electric current when being exposed to the sunlight
irradiation. Figure 3.1 illustrates the photocurrent generation principle of the PV
cell. These PV modules can be grouped in series and/or parallel to form a PV array
as depicted in Fig. 3.2. The PV modules are connected in parallel to increase the
output current and connected in series to provide a greater output voltage.

Fig. 3.1 Photocurrent generation principle of the PV cell [67]

Fig. 3.2 PV cell, PV module, and PV array [67]

3.3 The Main Components of Stand-Alone PV Systems 29

The dynamic performance of the PV conversion systems depends on the design

quality of the PV cells and the operating conditions. The major families of PV cells
include monocrystalline technology, polycrystalline technology, and thin-film tech-
nology. The monocrystalline and polycrystalline technologies are based on micro-
electronic manufacturing technology and their efficiency generally between 9% and
12% for polycrystalline and between 10% and 15% for monocrystalline. For the
thin-film technology, the efficiency for CdTe is 9%, 10% for a − Si, and 12% for
CuInSe2 [65]. Therefore, the monocrystalline PV cells are the most employed in the
PV systems since they have the highest efficiency. Moreover, the electrical charac-
teristics of PV array such as the output voltage, current, and power vary according
to the changes of the environmental conditions such as the solar irradiance and the
temperature. Therefore, the effect of the environmental condition’s variations must
be considered in the design of PV array so that any change in the solar irradiance or
temperature should not adversely affect the output power of PV array [66].

3.3 The Main Components of Stand-Alone PV Systems

The Simulink block diagram of a stand-alone PV system is manifested in Fig. 3.3.

The fundamental element of a stand-alone PV system is the PV array, which con-
verts the solar energy directly into the electric energy. Then, the DC/DC boost con-
verter is employed to step up the output voltage from PV array to be compatible
with the electrical loads. Moreover, the MPPT technique is implemented on the
boost converter to extract the maximum power from the PV system during variation
of the solar irradiance. In the following, the basic elements that employed in stand-
alone PV systems are discussed in detail.

Fig. 3.3 Simulink block diagram of the stand-alone PV system with DC/DC converter
30 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

3.3.1 The Equivalent Circuit of the PV Model

The basic element of the PV conversion system is the PV cell, which is a just simple
P-N junction. The equivalent circuit of the PV cell based on the well-known single-
diode model is shown in Fig. 3.4. It includes the current source (photocurrent), a
diode (D), series resistance (Rs) that describes the internal resistance to flow of cur-
rent, and parallel resistance (Rsh) that represents the leakage current. The current-
voltage (I-V) characteristics of the PV cell can be expressed as follows [1, 66]:

  q ( V + IRs )    V + IRs 
I = I ph − I s exp   − 1 −   (3.1)
  A ⋅ K ⋅ T    Rsh 

The light-generated current (Iph) mainly depends on the solar irradiance and
working temperature of PV cell, which is expressed as follows:

 G 
I ph =  I sc + K i ( T − Tref )  .   (3.2)
 1000 

The PV saturation current (Is) varies as a cubic function of the PV cell tempera-
ture (T), and it can be described as follows:

3
 T   q ⋅ Eg  1 1 
I s = I rs   exp  . −  (3.3)
 Tref   K ⋅ A  Tref T  

The reverse saturation current (Irs) can be approximately obtained as follows:

I sc
I rs = (3.4)
  qVoc  
exp   − 1
  N ser ⋅ K ⋅ A ⋅ T  

Iph Rs I
Irradiation
ID Ish +
D Rsh V

Fig. 3.4 Equivalent circuit of the PV cell

3.3 The Main Components of Stand-Alone PV Systems 31

Fig. 3.5 Configuration of the PV array

The PV cell generates a specified power according to its current-voltage (I-V)

and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics. Therefore, the PV cells must be aggregated
together to generate sufficient current and voltage for practical applications. In this
regard, a PV module is formed by connecting several PV cells in series; the PV
modules are connected in series to form a PV string to provide a greater output volt-
age. Then, the PV strings, in turn, are connected in parallel to form a PV array to
increase the output current and generate sufficient power to be synchronized with
the electrical grid, as illustrated in Fig. 3.5. The electrical characteristics of PV array
such as output voltage, output current, and output power can be simulated with
regard to the variations of the environmental conditions such as the solar irradiance
and temperature. Figure 3.6 illustrates the current-voltage (I-V) and the power-
voltage (P-V) characteristics of a typical PV array during variation of the solar
irradiance and temperature. As illustrated in Fig. 3.6a, the solar irradiance has a
great effect on the short-circuit current (Isc), while in Fig. 3.6b the open-circuit volt-
age (Voc) is dominated by temperature.

3.3.2 Calculation the PV Boost DC/DC Converter

The output voltage from PV array has small value to be synchronized with the elec-
trical grid through the DC/AC inverter. Therefore, the DC/DC boost converter is
employed to step up the output voltage of PV array in order to achieve the required
voltage level, as shown in Fig. 3.7. The configuration of the DC/DC boost converter
32 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

Fig. 3.6 Characteristics of a typical PV array during variation of solar irradiance and temperature.
(a) Current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of PV array under variable solar
irradiance. (b) Current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of PV array under
variable temperature

includes two nearly ideal semiconductor switches such as diode and MOSFET and
energy storage elements such as inductor and capacitor. The storage elements in the
boost converter act as a low-pass filter to reduce the voltage ripple. An input capaci-
tor (Ca) is employed to stabilize the terminal voltage of PV array caused by varying
converter input current due to switching, while an output capacitor (C1) acts as a
low-pass filter to reduce the output voltage ripple [68].
The operation modes of the DC/DC boost converter are illustrated in Fig. 3.8.
When the switch (Q) is turned on, current flows through the inductor (La) and switch
(Q) in a clockwise direction, and the inductor stores some energy by generating a
magnetic field (VLa = Vpv). When the switch (Q) is turned off, the magnetic field
previously created will be obliterated to maintain the current flows toward the DC
link, and also the polarity of the induced voltage across the inductor is reversed.
Therefore, the inductor voltage (VLa) adds to the array voltage (Vpv),and the output
voltage (Vdc) will be greater than the input voltage (Vdc = Vpv + VLa). Furthermore, the
MPPT technique is implemented on the boost converter to capture the maximum
power from PV array during variation of the solar irradiance. Therefore, the switch-
ing duty cycle of the boost converter (Dy) is generated by the MPPT technique.
3.3 The Main Components of Stand-Alone PV Systems 33

As a PV cell is a current source, a capacitor (Ca) is estimated using Eq. (2.5) and
interconnected in parallel to the output terminal of PV array, so that it can work as
a voltage source to the DC/DC boost converter. The relations between input and
output variables of the DC/DC boost converter and the values of its elements are
expressed as follows [69]:

Dy ∗ VPV
Ca = (3.5)
4 ∗ ∆VPV ∗ fs2 ∗ I dc

VPV
Dy = 1 − (3.6)
Vdc

IPV La D Idc DC Link

+ + VLa(t) –
Ca + C1
VPV Q Vdc DC/AC
d – inverter
–

VPV
MPPT
IPV Technique

Fig. 3.7 Basic configuration of the DC/DC boost converter

Fig. 3.8 Switching modes of the DC/DC boost converter. (a) Mode 1: when the switch (Q1) is
turned on. (b) Mode 2: when the switch (Q1) is turned off
34 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

VPV ∗ (Vdc − VPV )

La = (3.7)
∆I La ∗ fS ∗ Vdc

Vdc
∆I La = 0.13 ∗ I PV ∗ (3.8)
VPV

PPV
C1 ≥ (3.9)
∆V0 ∗ fs ∗ Vdc

where:
VPV Is the input voltage to the converter from PV array (V)
IPV Is maximum current that the array can provide (A)
PPV Is nominal the power of the PV array (W)
fs Is the switching frequency (Hz)
Ca Is the PV array link capacitance (F)
C1 Is the DC link capacitance (F)
la Is the boost converter inductor (H)
Vdc Is the output voltage from the boost converter (V)
Dy Is the duty cycle of the boost converter
∆VPV That is the change in PV voltage (V)
∆ILa Is the ripple current of boost inductor (I)
∆V0 Is the ripple of output voltage (V)

3.4 MPPT Techniques of Stand-Alone PV System

The intensity of the incident solar irradiance on the PV array varies due to different
reasons such as the variation of time in a day, the atmospheric effects such as
clouds, and the latitude of the location. Therefore, the MPPT techniques are
employed to regulate the output voltage and output current from the PV array in
order to extract the maximum power during variation of the solar irradiance and
enhance the overall efficiency of the grid-connected PV systems. In this section, the
principle of the MPPT is a review, and simulation of two MPPT techniques imple-
mented in the PV systems is introduced. Over the past decades, many methods to
find the MPP have been developed. These techniques differ in many aspects such as
required sensors, complexity, cost, the range of effectiveness, convergence speed,
correct tracking when irradiation and/or temperature change, and hardware needed
for the implementation or popularity, among others. Some of the most popular
MPPT techniques are [14]:
1. Perturb and observe (hill climbing method)
2. Incremental conductance method
3.4 MPPT Techniques of Stand-Alone PV System 35

3. Fractional short circuit current

4. Fractional open circuit voltage
5. Fuzzy logic
6. Neural networks
7. Ripple correlation control
8. Current sweep
9. DC-link capacitor droop control
10. Load current or load voltage maximization
11. dP or dP feedback control
dV dI
Among several techniques mentioned, the P&O method and the InCond algo-
rithms are the most commonly applied algorithms. Other techniques based on dif-
ferent principles include fuzzy logic control, neural network, fractional open circuit
voltage or short circuit current, current sweep, etc. Most of these methods yield a
local maximum, and some, like the fractional open circuit voltage or short circuit
current, give an approximated MPP, rather than an exact output. In normal condi-
tions the V-P curve has only one maximum. However, if the PV array is partially
shaded, there are multiple maxima in these curves. Both P&O and InCond algo-
rithms are based on the “hill climbing” principle, which consists of moving the
operation point of the PV array in the direction in which the power increases. Hill
climbing techniques are the most popular MPPT methods due to their ease of imple-
mentation and good performance when the irradiation is constant. The advantages
of both methods are simplicity and requirement of low computational power. The
drawbacks are as follows: oscillations occur around the MPP, and they get lost and
track the MPP in the wrong direction during rapidly changing atmospheric condi-
tions. In the following, a review and simulation results of P&O and InCond MPPT
techniques that are implemented in the PV systems are introduced.

3.4.1 Perturb and Observe MPPT Technique

The generated power and the output current from PV array vary nonlinearly with the
array output voltage and the solar irradiance level. Therefore, it is essential to oper-
ate the PV array at the optimum voltage level (VMPP) to extract the maximum power
from it and increase the overall efficiency of the PV conversion systems. The maxi-
mum power point (MPP) is obtained when the gradient of power-voltage (P-V)
curve is equal to zero as illustrated in Fig. 3.9. Thus, in order to track the MPP, the
output voltage from PV array (VPV) is regulated so that it increases when the deriva-
dPpv
tive of power with respect to voltage is positive ( > 0 ), and it decreases when
dVpv dPpv
the derivative of power with respect to voltage is negative ( < 0 ). The control
dVpv
algorithm which provides continuous tracking of the MPP can be expressed as fol-
lows [70]:
36 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

dPpv
VMPP = K1 ∫ dt (3.10)
dVpv

The algorithm involves a perturbation on the duty cycle of the power converter
and a perturbation in the operating voltage of the DC link between the PV array and
the power converter. Perturbing the duty cycle of the power converter implies modi-
fying the voltage of the DC link between the PV array and the power converter. In
this method, the sign of the last perturbation and the sign of the last increment in the
power are used to decide the next perturbation. As can be seen in Fig. 3.9, on the left
of the MPP incrementing the voltage increases the power, whereas on the right dec-
rementing the voltage decreases the power. If there is an increment in the power, the
perturbation should be kept in the same direction, and if the power decreases, then
the next perturbation should be in the opposite direction. Based on these facts, the
algorithm is implemented as shown in the flowchart in Fig. 3.10, and the process is
repeated until the MPP is reached.
The P&O algorithm is one of the most popular MPPT techniques due to its sim-
plicity, ease of implementation, and requirement of low computational power. The
algorithm involves a perturbation on the duty cycle of the DC/DC converter that
implies modifying the operating voltage of the DC link between the PV array and
the DC/DC converter. In the P&O MPPT technique, the sign of last perturbation and
the sign of the last increment in the power are used to decide the next perturbation.
Therefore, if there is an increment in the power, the next perturbation should be kept
in the same direction, and if the power decreases, then the subsequent perturbation
should be in the opposite direction. Based on these facts, the P&O MPPT technique
can be summarized in Table 3.1 [47].
The main drawback of the P&O MPPT technique is the oscillation around the
MPP instead of directly tracking it. Since, when the operating point reaches very
close to the MPP, it does not stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing in both the
directions. The oscillation can be minimized by reducing the perturbation step size.
However, the smaller perturbation size slows down the response of the MPPT. The

Fig. 3.9 The basic principle of MPPT in PV conversion systems

solution to this conflicting situation is to have a variable perturbation step size that
3.4 MPPT Techniques of Stand-Alone PV System 37

Start

Measure Vpv(k),Ipv(k)

Ppv(K)=Vpv(K)*Ipv(K)

Yes
Ppv(K)-Ppv(K-1)=0

No
No Yes
Ppv(K)-Ppv(K-1)>0

Vpv(K)-Vpv(K-1)>0 Vpv(K)-Vpv(K-1)>0

Yes No Yes
No

Decrease Vref Increase Vref Decrease Vref Increase Vref

Return

Fig. 3.10 Flow chart of the P&O MPPT technique

Table 3.1 Summary of the Perturbation Change in power Next perturbation

P&O MPPT technique Positive Positive Positive
Positive Negative Negative
Negative Positive Negative
Negative Negative Positive

gets smaller toward the MPP [71]. Moreover, the P&O MPPT technique cannot
track the MPP during the lower solar irradiance levels and when the solar irradiance
changes rapidly. During the rapid variation of the solar irradiance, this MPPT
technique considers the change in the MPP is due to perturbation and ends up cal-
culating the MPP in the wrong direction.
38 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

3.4.1.1 Simulation Model and Results of P&O MPPT Technique

In order to verify the MPP tracker for the PV system simulation, the P&O MPPT
strategy is applied at different ambient conditions to show how the proposed MPPT
method can effectively and accurately track the maximum power under different.
The solar irradiation and cell temperature profile are illustrated in Fig. 3.11. The
detailed block diagram of the P&O algorithm mentioned above is constructed using
MATLAB/SIMULINK, and the model is shown in Fig. 3.12. Here the voltage and
current inputs are sensed to compute power as shown. A saturation limit is set to
monitor the increase or decrease in voltage in order to avoid oscillations in the MPP.
Figure 3.13 shows the PV voltage, current, and power versus time curve without
the MPPT technique at variable temperature and variable irradiation levels which
are shown in Fig. 3.11. It is inferred that the output voltage obtained without MPPT
technique changes its value with the change in solar irradiation and temperature.
Solar irradiation varies from 600 W/m2 to 1000 W/m2 and drops again to 800 W/m2
to be offset by the change in the value of the PV voltage 195 V and increase to 225 V
and decrease again to 205 V, respectively, and the output voltage did not start from
the desired value. For the current and the power did not reach its maximum value
with the change of solar irradiation to be the maximum power of the PV is 4000 W
instead of 5000 W at the sun irradiation value 1000 W/m2 and temperature of 25 °C.

Fig. 3.11 The solar irradiation and cell temperature profile

Fig. 3.12 MATLAB/Simulink model of the P&O MPPT technique

3.4 MPPT Techniques of Stand-Alone PV System 39

The P&O method was applied, and the output was observed as shown in Fig. 3.14
for the same profile of irradiation and temperature. As shown in Fig. 3.14, the output
voltage of PV array traces the desired value well in response to the variation of the
solar irradiance. When the solar irradiance is decreased from G = 600 W/m2 to
G = 1000 W/m2, the MPPT controller increases the array output voltage from 200 V
to 204 V and go back again to 200 V after irradiance constancy at 1000 W/m2 in
order to extract the maximum power from the PV array. Then, the MPPT controller
decreases the output voltage of PV array from 200 V to 188 V, in response to the
variation of temperature of PV array from 25 °C to 40 °C and change the solar irra-
diance from G = 1000 W/m2 to G = 800 W/m2. Therefore, the MPPT controller can
accurately track the PV array voltage at the maximum power point (Vmpp) to harness
the maximum power from the PV array during the rapid variation of solar irradiance
and cell temperature. Also, Fig. 3.14 illustrates that the output current of PV array
(Ipv) reflects the same scenario of the solar irradiance and cell temperature. When
the solar irradiance is changed from G = 600 W/m2 to G = 1000 W/m2, it leads to
increase the output current of PV array from 15 A to 25 A. Then, the PV array cur-
rent decreases from 25 A to 20 A, in response to the change of temperature of PV

Fig. 3.13 The output of PV voltage, current, and power versus time curve without MPPT
technique
40 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

Fig. 3.14 The output of PV voltage, current, and power versus time curve with P&O MPPT
technique

array from 25 °C to 40 °C and variation of the solar irradiance from G = 1000 W/m2
to G = 800 W/m2. In order to evaluate the validation of the MPPT technique,
Fig. 3.14 shows the output power of one PV array (Ppv). It can be seen that the P&O
MPPT technique can track accurately the MPP when the cell temperature and solar
irradiance change rapidly; also it generates more active power as compared with the
case that the MPPT technique is disabled. In all cases of change for both solar irra-
diation and temperature, the maximum value was obtained for both PV out current
and power. Figure 3.15 shows voltage, current, and power of DC/DC boost con-
verter which inferred that get the MPP for loads.
3.4 MPPT Techniques of Stand-Alone PV System 41

3.4.2 Incremental Conductance MPPT Technique

The InCond MPPT technique is widely implemented in the PV conversion systems

due to its simplicity and advantage of offering good performance during the lower
solar irradiance levels and when the solar irradiance changes rapidly. The InCond
MPPT technique utilizes the current and voltage sensors to sense the output current
and voltage of the PV array. In the InCond MPPT method, the array terminal

Fig. 3.15 The output DC/DC boost converter – voltage, current, and power with P&O MPPT
technique
42 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

voltage (VPV) is always adjusted according to the PV array voltage at MPP (VMPP); it
is based on the incremental and conductance of the PV array. The basic concept of
the InCond MPPT technique is illustrated in Fig. 3.16.
The flow chart of this MPPT technique is shown in Fig. 3.17. The operation of
InCond MPPT technique is based on the fact that the derivative of power with
dPpv
respect to voltage ( ) is equal to zero at the MPP. Moreover, this derivative is
dVpv dPpv
positive at the left of the MPP ( > 0) and is negative at the right of the MPP
dPpv dVpv
( < 0) [72]. The mathematical model of the InCond MPPT technique can be
dVpv
expressed as follows:
The output power from the PV array:

Ppv = Vpv ∗ I pv (3.11)

dPpv d dI
= Vpv ∗ I pv  = I pv + Vpv pv (3.12)
dVpv dVpv  dVpv

Then,

dPpv dI pv I pv
= 0, =− at the MPP, ∆Vn = 0 (3.13)
dVpv dVpv Vpv

dPpv dI pv I pv
> 0, >− left of the MPP, ∆Vn = +δ ( increment Vpv ) (3.14)
dVpv dVpv Vpv

dPpv dI pv I pv
< 0, <− Right of the MPP, ∆Vn = −δ ( decrement Vpv ) (3.15)
dVpv dVpv Vpv

Fig. 3.16 The basic concept of InCond MPPT technique

3.4 MPPT Techniques of Stand-Alone PV System 43

Begin

Measure : Vpv(k),Ipv(k)

Measure : Vpv(k-1),Ipv(k-1)

yes
dVpv=0

No
Yes At the MPP
dIpv=0
At the MPP Yes dIpv Ipv
dVpv= Vpv
No
No
dIpv Ipv Yes
Yes dIpv Ipv
> dVpv> Vpv
dVpv Vpv
Left of
the MPP Right of Right of Left of
No No
the MPP the MPP the MPP
Vpv(K+1)=Vpv(K)+∆Vn Vpv(K+1)=Vpv(K) -∆Vn Vpv(K+1)=Vpv(K) -∆Vn Vpv(K+1)=Vpv(K)+∆Vn

Return

Fig. 3.17 Flow chart of InCond MPPT technique

Table 3.2 Major characteristics of the MPPT techniques

MPPT PV array True Convergence Implementation Sensed
technique dependence MPP? speed complexity parameters
P&O No Yes Varies Low Voltage,
current
InCond No Yes Varies Medium Voltage,
current

 dI pv 
Thus, the MPP can be tracked by comparing the InCond 
 dV 
with the instan-
 I pv   pv 
taneous conductance 
 V 
as illustrated in the flowchart in Fig. 3.17. This algo-
 pv 
rithm increments or decrements the array terminal voltage (VPV) to track the MPP
during variation of the solar irradiance. The major characteristics of the presented
MPPT techniques can be summarized in Table 3.2 [73].
44 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

3.4.2.1 Simulation Model and Results of InCond MPPT Technique

The MATLAB/Simulink model of the InCond MPPT strategy method is shown in

Fig. 3.18. InCond is applied at the same conditions of solar irradiation and cell tem-
perature profile which are illustrated in Fig. 3.11. In this MPPT strategy, the track-
ing of the MPP is obtained by regulating the terminal voltage of PV array (VPV) in
fixed steps ( ± ∆Vn ) . If the operating point is the MPP, the error signal will be zero
(ΔVn = 0). While, at the left of the MPP, this error signal is applied to the discrete
time integrator to increase the output voltage of the PV array and track the MPP, on
the other hand, at the right of the MPP, the output voltage of the PV array is decreased
to follow the MPP. Therefore, it can be ensured that the output signal from the inte-
grator is equal to the duty cycle correction (Delta-D).
Figure 3.19 illustrates the PV array response to the change in the solar irradiance
and temperature. As shown in Fig. 3.19, the output voltage of PV array traces the
desired value well in response to the variation of the solar irradiance. When the solar
irradiance is decreased from G = 600 W/m2 to G = 1000 W/m2, the MPPT controller
increases the array output voltage from 201 V to 209 V and goes back again to
201 V after irradiance constancy at 1000 W/m2 in order to extract the maximum
power from the PV array. Then, the MPPT controller decreases the output voltage
of PV array from 201 V to 185 V, in response to the variation of temperature of PV
array from 25 °C to 40 °C and change the solar irradiance from G = 1000 W/m2 to
G = 800 W/m2. Therefore, the MPPT controller can accurately track the PV array
voltage at the maximum power point (Vmpp) to harness the maximum power from the
PV array during the rapid variation of solar irradiance and cell temperature.
Also, Fig. 3.19 illustrates that the output current of PV array (Ipv) reflects the
same scenario of the solar irradiance and cell temperature. When the solar irradi-
ance is changed from G = 600 W/m2 to G = 1000 W/m2, it leads to increase the
output current of PV array from 15 A to 25 A. Then, the PV array current decreases
from 25 A to 20 A, in response to the change of temperature of PV array from 25 °C
to 40 °C and variation of the solar irradiance from G = 1000 W/m2 to G = 800 W/
m2. In order to evaluate the validation of the MPPT technique, Fig. 3.19 shows the
output power of one PV array (Ppv). It can be seen that the InCond MPPT technique
can track accurately the MPP when the cell temperature and solar irradiance change
rapidly; also it generates more active power as compared with the case that the
MPPT technique is disabled. Figure 3.20 shows voltage, current, and power of DC/
DC boost converter which inferred that get the MPP for loads.
3.4 MPPT Techniques of Stand-Alone PV System 45

Fig. 3.18 MATLAB/Simulink model of the InCond MPPT technique

Fig. 3.19 Output of PV voltage, current, and power versus time curve with InCond MPPT
technique
46 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

Fig. 3.20 The output DC/DC boost converter – voltage, current, and power with InCond MPPT
technique

3.4.3 The Comparison Between P&O and InCond MPPT

Methods

In this subsection, the simulation results of P&O and InCond MPPT techniques are
compared using the same conditions. The performance of the system in terms of PV
array output response of voltage, current, and power under the influence of solar
irradiance change and cell temperature is compared in the cases of without using
MPPT technique, using P&O MPPT technique, and using InCond MPPT
technique.
Figure 3.21 illustrations of the output voltage of the PV array, with the beginning
of the system work, notice that the voltage of P&O technique is reached to study
state first at approximately 200 V and followed by InCond technique at the same
voltage value. In the case of nonuse of the MPPT method, the voltage starts from a
3.4 MPPT Techniques of Stand-Alone PV System 47

Fig. 3.21 PV array voltage comparison between P&O and InCond MPPT techniques

Fig. 3.22 PV array current comparison between P&O and InCond MPPT techniques

value less than the desired value (195 V). The difference between the results of the
three cases is significant when a change in the value of solar irradiance occurs from
G = 600 W/m2 to G = 1000 W/m2. We find that the PV output voltage of P&O tech-
nique is more stable, while the MPPT does not use the voltage to reach 225 V. The
PV voltage produced by P&O and InCond MPPT technique is almost identical in
the rest of the change to both solar irradiance and cell temperature.
The comparison of the PV output current in the three cases is shown in Fig. 3.22.
It is clear from the figure that the current in P&O technique has more constancy and
stability than the current in the InCond MPPT technique. The beginning of the sys-
tem works of the PV current of P&O technique is reached to study state first at
approximately 15A and followed by InCond technique at 15.1A. In the case of non-
use of the MPPT method, the PV current starts from a value higher than the desired
value (15.5 V). It also did not reach the maximum current when solar irradiance
increased to 1000 W/m2.
48 3 Modeling of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Stand-Alone PV Systems

Fig. 3.23 PV array power comparison between P&O and InCond MPPT techniques

Table 3.3 PV array power under different solar irradiance and temperature
PV array power
Solar irradiance With P&O Without
level Cell temperature MPPT With InCond MPPT MPPT
600 W/m2 25 °C 3040 W 3040 W 3010 W
1000 W/m2 25 °C 5000 W 5000 W 4000 W
1000 W/m2 40 °C 4690 W 4685 kW 3585 W
800 W/m2 40 °C 3785 W 3788 W 3355 W

The comparison of the PV output power in the two MPPT techniques is shown
in Fig. 3.23. Moreover, Table 3.3 demonstrates the supply power from PV array
with the P&O and InCond MPPT technique as compared with the case when the
MPPT technique is disabled under different solar irradiance levels and cell tempera-
ture. It can be noticed that the power improvement is significant using the P&O
InCond MPPT technique as compared with the case when the MPPT technique is
disabled (fixed duty cycle of 35%).

3.5 Summary

This chapter presented the operating principle of the PV conversion systems that
generate electricity via the PV effect, in which semiconductor holes and electrons
are freed by photons from the incident solar irradiance. The PV systems are equipped
with the DC/DC converter to implement the MPPT technique. Furthermore, this
chapter introduced a review of two MPPT techniques that are implemented in the
PV systems. The P&O MPPT technique and InCond MPPT technique are the most
commonly implemented PV conversion systems due to its simplicity and advantage
of offering good performance when the solar irradiance changes rapidly. The two
MPPT techniques were simulated by the MATLAB/Simulink, and the results
response of the PV array from voltage, current, and power are compared to the
effect of solar irradiation and temperature change.
Chapter 4
Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-
Alone with Energy Storage

4.1 Introduction

The stand-alone PV system is controlled using MPPT algorithm under the impact of
the fixed or changing solar irradiation, and the system is connected to BES to pro-
duce power for variable AC loads. The system comprises of PV array, BES, DC/DC
boost converter circuit, single-phase inverter with LCL filter, and bidirectional DC/
DC buck-boost converter performing as charging circuit. The MPP be able to obtain
by controlling the duty cycle fed to the gate of the IGBT transistor located within
the boost circuit. Moreover, the control method used with both the single-phase
inverter and the buck-boost converter circuit is a dynamic error driven PI
controller.
This chapter investigates a dynamic modeling, simulation, and control strategy
of the proposed PV stand-alone system with BES. Moreover, this chapter discusses
the performance comparison of PV stand-alone system with BES in two cases of
operation. In the first case, the system operates without and with BES under con-
stant solar irradiation. In the second case, the PV system is connected to a BES and
operates under a variable in solar irradiation. In addition to presenting the operating
results of the system for the two cases mentioned previously, harmonic analysis is
performed on these results using the fast Fourier transform (FFT) tools.

4.2 Structure and Modeling a PV Stand-Alone with Battery

Energy Storage

The objective of this section is to design an independent PV system containing a PV

panel, DC/DC boost converter, and half-bridge buck-boost bidirectional chopper
and focuses on increasing energy extraction by improving MPPT. The P&O MPPT
technique is implemented on the DC/DC boost converter to extract the maximum

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 49

A. A. Elbaset et al., Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems with Energy
Storage Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7_4
50 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

power from the PV station during variation of the solar irradiance. The system is
rated to 5 kW generated by PV array and Two loads; each of 3 kW can be connected
to the DC/AC inverter. This makes the overall electrical power consumed 6 kW
when both are connected. Figure 4.1 clarifies the simplified diagram of the stand-
alone PV system with BES. The mathematical model for each of the system compo-
nents is described in the following subsections.

4.2.1 Mathematical Modeling of the PV Array Under Study

The studied PV array is formed by connecting a number of 4 PV strings in parallel

in order to increase the output current and achieve the array rated power
(Parray = 5040 W). The PV string is composed by connecting number of 6 PV mod-
ules in series to increase the output voltage at the MPP (Vmpp = 202.8 V). Figure 4.2
shows the electrical modeling of the PV array based on the Shockley diode. Also,
the implementation of the PV array in MATLAB/Simulink model is depicted in

Inverter
MPPT Controller
P&O MPPT
Controller

D1
DC DC LCL AC
DC AC Filter LOADS

DC-DC Boost DC -AC Inverter Variable AC

Converter Loads
PV Array

DC
DC
Bidirectional DC-DC
Converter

Fig. 4.1 Simplified diagram of the stand-alone photoelectric system with energy storage

R sN s
Np Ipv

N p Id RshNs Vpv
Np
Np Iph

-
Fig. 4.2 The electrical model of the PV array
4.2 Structure and Modeling a PV Stand-Alone with Battery Energy Storage 51

Fig. 4.3. The electrical characteristics of the PV array can be simulated with regard
to the variations in the environmental conditions such as the solar irradiance inten-
sity and temperature.
The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics and the power-voltage (P-V) character-
istics of the employed PV array during variation of the solar irradiance and the cor-
responding current-voltage (I-V) relationship of the PV array have been introduced
and reviewed in Sect. 2.3.1. Furthermore, the detailed specifications of the studied
PV array are listed in Table 4.1.

Rs I_P V
i
+ -
Diode 1
+
+
I ph R sh
-
S

I_P V
I ph_array
2
-
+
V_PV 1
1e-3 -
Rs m

1 I_diode
Ir Irradiation (W/m2)

Fig. 4.3 MATLAB/Simulink model of the PV array

Table 4.1 Design parameters of the PV array

Design parameter Symbol Value
Module type Solaria Solaria 210
Rated power of PV module PPV − module 209.96 W
Number of cells per module Nser 70
Number of parallel strings NP 4
Number of series-connected modules NS 6
Light-generated current Ipv 7.1774 A
PV saturation current Is 0.27907 nA
Series resistance Rs 0.40587 Ω
Parallel resistance Rsh 55.9684 Ω
Maximum power per array parray 5040 W
Voltage at maximum power point of PV Vmpp 202.8 V
array
Current at maximum power point of PV Impp 24.852 A
array
Open-circuit voltage of PV module Voc 41.59 V
Short-circuit current of PV module Isc 7.13 A
52 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

4.2.2 DC/DC Boost Converter

Two-stage topology selected for the DC-DC chopper in PV system takes care of
MPPT. The employment of two-stage topology allows the system to be customiz-
able, i.e., it can be transformed to a multi-string system to increase the capacity of
the system in the future, with each series having its own MPPT and DC/DC boost
converter. This was about the significance of the DC/DC converter, but the configu-
ration is illustrated in Fig. 4.4.
As shown in Fig. 4.4, the MPPT technique is implemented on the DC/DC boost
converter to capture the maximum power from the PV array during variation of the
solar irradiance. Therefore, the switching duty cycle of the DC/DC boost converter
is generated by the P&O MPPT technique [71]. Also, the design parameters of the
DC/DC boost converter were calculated using the equations shown in Sect. 2.3.2,
which are listed in Table 4.2.

4.2.3 Single-Phase DC/AC Inverter

Inverters are circuits that convert DC to AC. More precisely, inverters transfer power
from a DC source to an AC load. The controlled full-wave bridge converters can
function as inverters in some instances, but an AC source must preexist in those
cases. In other applications, the objective is to create an AC voltage when only a DC

IPV La D Idc DC Link

+ + VLa(t) – +
Ca
Q Vdc C1 DC/AC
VPV d – inverter
–

VPV
MPPT
IPV
Technique

Fig. 4.4 The PV array with the DC/DC boost converter

Table 4.2 Design parameters Design parameter Symbol Value

of the DC/DC boost converter
Input capacitance Ca 1 mF
Inductance of boost converter La 240 μH
Output capacitance C1 5 mF
Switching frequency fs 10 kHz
Output voltage Vdc 280 V
4.2 Structure and Modeling a PV Stand-Alone with Battery Energy Storage 53

Fig. 4.5 (a) Full-bridge converter; (b) S1 and S2 closed; (c) S3 and S4 closed; (d) S1 and S3
closed; (e) S2 and S4 closed
54 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

voltage source is available. The focus of this section is on single-phase inverters that
produce an AC output from a DC input. Inverters are used in applications such as
adjustable-speed AC motor drives, uninterruptible power supplies, PV systems, and
running AC appliances from an automobile BES. Inverters are power electronic
devices used in various PV system configurations [24, 74]:
• Grid-connected systems
• Stand-alone systems with rechargeable batteries
• Pumping systems without storage batteries
The full-bridge converter of Fig. 4.5a is the basic circuit used to convert DC to
AC. In this circuit, an AC output is synthesized from a DC input by closing and
opening the switches in an appropriate sequence. The output voltage VO can be +Vdc,
−Vdc, or zero, depending on which switches are closed. Figure 4.5b–e shows the
equivalent circuits for switch combinations. Note that S1 and S4 should not be closed
at the same time nor should S2 and S3. Otherwise, a short circuit would exist across
the DC source. Real switches do not turn on or off instantaneously. Therefore,
switching transition times must be accommodated in the control of the switches.
Overlap of switch “on” times will result in a short circuit, sometimes called a shoot-
through fault, across the DC voltage source. The time allowed for switching is
called blanking time [69] (Table 4.3).
The power quality required for loads must match the quality of the power pro-
duced by the inverter. Therefore, there are different types of inverters. The function
of the inverter is to attach the systems to each other and supply the PV energy in the
network as efficiently as possible. For the required square wave voltage, a simple
control strategy is employed to obtain the inverter switch signals, which are turned
on and off at AC frequency and consist of high consistent currents and voltages. The
control method used is dynamic error-driven PI controller as shown in Fig. 4.6
where its input is the error signal resulting from the difference between the Vdc of the
boost converter and the reference voltage (Vref = 280V). The control signal generated
by the PI controller is adjusted to be a value in the range (−1 to 1) in order to match
with a sine wave generated by sine wave (Vref) generation. This gives a 60 Hz fre-
quency control signal then utilized as the modulation index for the pulse width
modulation generator to get the switching control signals.
The power that is used by converters is very significant in increasing the trans-
port of power from PV energy system to the grid or AC loads. The harmonic results
due to the operation of power electronic converters. The harmonic voltage and cur-
rent ought to be restricted to the acceptable level for the point of PV generator link

Table 4.3 Switches cases of Switches closed Output voltage VO

full-bridge inverter
S1 and S2 +VO
S3 and S4 −VO
S1 and S3 0
S2 and S4 0
4.2 Structure and Modeling a PV Stand-Alone with Battery Energy Storage 55

Vdc

Duty(-1 to 1) Four to Single

_ + error PI PWM Phase
Vref
Controller
+ × Generator
+ Inverter
Pulses

Uref
Cons. Generation

Fig. 4.6 The dynamic error-driven PI controller for the DC-AC inverter

to the networks and electrical loads. To ensure the harmonic voltage within the
limit, each method of obtaining harmonic current can allow only a limited
contribution, as per the international standard guideline. The filter must be used to
reduce the total harmonics in AC voltage and current.

4.2.4 Filter Design

Recently, the development of renewable energy technologies has been accelerating,

making the simultaneous development of power conversion devices for applica-
tions, such as wind and PV systems, extremely important; the development of these
technologies is actively underway. The harmonics caused by the switching of the
power conversion devices are the main factor-causing problems to sensitive equip-
ment or the connected loads, especially for applications above several kilowatts,
where the price of filters and total harmonics distortion (THD) is also an important
consideration in the systems design phase [75]. The inductance of the input or out-
put circuits of the power conversion devices has conventionally been used to reduce
these harmonics. However, as the capacity of the systems has been increasing, high
values of inductances are needed, so that realizing practical filters has been becom-
ing even more difficult due to the price rises and the poor dynamic responses.
An L filter or LCL filter is usually placed between the inverter and the grid to
attenuate the switching frequency harmonics produced by the grid-connected
inverter. Compared with L filter, LCL filter has better attenuation capacity of high-
order harmonics and better dynamic characteristic. However, an LCL filter can
cause stability problems due to the undesired resonance caused by zero impedance
at certain frequencies. To avoid this resonance from contaminating the system, sev-
eral damping techniques have been proposed. One way is to incorporate a physical
passive element, such as a resistor in series with the filter capacitor [76]. This pas-
sive damping solution is very simple and highly reliable. However, the additional
resistor results in power loss and weakens the attenuation ability of the LCL filter.
This drawback can be overcome by employing active damping (Figs. 4.7 and 4.8).
56 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

Fig. 4.7 LCL filter and Li Lg

components

Ii
Ic Cf Ig
Vi Vg
Inverter Rd Grid Load

Fig. 4.8 LCL filter with passive damping resistance [79]

The cutoff frequency (fres) must have a sufficient distance from the grid frequency
or the connected electrical AC loads. The cutoff frequency (fres) of the LCL filter can
be calculated as [77]

1 Li + Lg
fres = × (4.1)
2π L i × Lg × C f

The LCL filter will be vulnerable to oscillations and it will magnify frequencies
around its cutoff frequency (fres). Therefore, the filter is added with damping. The
simplest way is to add damping resistor (Rd). The variant with resistor connected in
series with the filter capacitor has been chosen. The passive damped LCL filter fre-
quency response is shown in Fig. 4.9. However, it is obvious that the damping
4.2 Structure and Modeling a PV Stand-Alone with Battery Energy Storage 57

Fig. 4.9 The equivalent circuit of battery [81]

resistor reduces the efficiency of the overall system. The value of the damping resis-
tor (Rd) can be calculated as [78]

1
Rd = (4.2)
3ωresC f

The following parameters are needed for the filter design:

Un, line-to-line RMS voltage (inverter output); Pn, rated active power; Vdc, DC
link voltage; fn, grid frequency; fs, switching frequency. Thus, the filter values will
be referred to in a percentage of the base values [79]:

U n2
Zb = (4.3)
Pn

1
Cb = (4.4)
ωn Z b

The first step in calculating the filter components is the design of the inverter side
inductance (Li), which can limit the output current ripple by up to 10% of the nomi-
nal amplitude. It can be calculated according to the equation derived in

Vdc
Li = (4.5)
16 fs ∆I L
58 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

where ∆IL is the 10% current ripple specified by

Pn 2
∆I L = 0.01 (4.6)
Un

The design of the filter capacity proceeds from the fact that the maximal power
factor variation acceptable by the grid is 5%. The filter capacity can be calculated as
a multiplication of system base capacitance (Cb):

Cf = 0.05 Cb (4.7)

The grid side inductance (Lg) can be calculated as

Lg = r ∗ L i (4.8)

where (r) is the factor between (Li) and (Lg). The M-file program in MATLAB cal-
culates the value of each component of the LCL filter found in Appendix B.

4.2.5 Modeling of Battery Energy Storage

The BES is used to store solar energy whenever it is available in excess. Stored
energy is used when PV energy is not enough to afford load demand. In addition, a
complete review of the types of batteries used with PV systems was conducted in
the third chapter. The focus was also on the type of lead-acid batteries. In this book,
the BES is used from lead-acid type because it is more proper for renewable systems
because of its limited cost and availability in large volume. Today lead-acid batter-
ies are the best effectual solution for independent renewable energy systems because
of their low cost, deep cycling, high discharges, and recycling. The BES block
implements a generic dynamic model parameterized to represent most popular
types of rechargeable batteries. The Fig. 4.9 shows the BES equivalent circuit that
the block models [80].
In this section, lead-acid BES model is implemented using Simulink. The cor-
responding equations for charge and discharge model are represented according to
the following equations [14]:
Charge model (i∗ < 0)

Qb Qb  E xp ( s ) 1 
f2 ( it,i ∗ ,i,E xp ) = E0 − K ⋅ ⋅ i∗ − K ⋅ ⋅ it + Laplace −1  ⋅ (4.9)
it + 0.1 ⋅ Qb Qb − it  Sel ( s ) s 
 

Discharge model (i∗ > 0)

4.2 Structure and Modeling a PV Stand-Alone with Battery Energy Storage 59

Qb Qb  Exp ( s ) 
f1 ( it,i ∗ ,i,Exp ) = E0 − K ⋅ ⋅ i∗ − K ⋅ ⋅ it + Laplace −1  ⋅0 (4.10)
it + 0.1 ⋅ Qb Qb − it  Sel ( s ) 
 

where
i The battery current (A)
i∗ The low-frequency current dynamics (A)
it The extracted capacity (Ah)
Exp(s) Exponential zone dynamics (V)
E0 The constant voltage (V)
K The polarization constant (Ah−1) or polarization resistance (Ω)
Qb Maximum battery capacity (Ah)
Sel(s) Represents the battery mode. Sel(s) = 0 during battery discharge, Sel(s) = 1
during battery charging
The BES discharge characteristics typical curve is consisting of three sections as
shown in Fig. 4.10. The first section represents the exponential voltage drop when
the BES is charged. The width of the drop depends on the BES type. The second
section represents the charge that can be extracted from the BES until the voltage
drops below the battery nominal voltage. The third section represents the total dis-
charge of the BES, when the voltage drops rapidly.

Fig. 4.10 Discharge characteristics of a lead-acid battery. (a) Nominal current discharge charac-
teristic at (2A). (b) Discharge characteristic at diverse current values
60 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

4.2.6 Half-Bridge Bidirectional DC/DC Buck/Boost Converter

Bidirectional DC/DC converters serves the purpose of stepping up or stepping down

the voltage level between its input and output along with the capability of power
flow in both directions. Bidirectional DC/DC converters have attracted a great deal
of applications in the area of the energy storage systems for hybrid vehicles, renew-
able energy storage systems, uninterruptable power supplies, and fuel cell storage
systems. Bidirectional DC/DC converters are employed when the DC bus voltage
regulation must be achieved along with the power flow capability in both the direc-
tions. One such example is the power generation by wind or PV power systems,
where there is a large fluctuation in the generated power because of the large varia-
tion and uncertainty of the energy supply to the conversion unit (PV array) by the
primary source [82]. These systems cannot serve as a stand-alone system for power
supply because of these large fluctuations and therefore these systems are always
backed up and supported by the auxiliary sources which are rechargeable such as
BES units or SCs. These sources supplement the main system at the time of energy
deficit to provide the power at a regulated level and get recharged through the main
system at the time of surplus power generation or at their lower threshold level of
discharge. Bidirectional DC/DC converter is needed to be able to allow power flow
in both the directions at the regulated level.
Likewise, in PV systems, bidirectional DC/DC converters are employed to link
up the high-voltage DC bus to the hybrid energy storage system (usually a combina-
tion of the BES with the SC). Here they are needed to regulate the power supply for
electrical loads to help them provide their power demanded. The bidirectional DC/
DC converters can be classified into two categories depending on the galvanic isola-
tion between the input and output side [83]:
• Non-isolated bidirectional DC/DC converters.
• Isolated bidirectional DC/DC converters.

High Low
Voltage Side Voltage Side

Q1 D1
L iL
Vin(buck) VH
CH
Vo(boost) VL
Vo(buck)
Q2 D2 CL Vin(boost)

Buck Mode

Boost Mode

Fig. 4.11 Circuit diagram of half-bridge bidirectional DC/DC converter

4.2 Structure and Modeling a PV Stand-Alone with Battery Energy Storage 61

In this book, the non-isolated bidirectional half-bridge DC/DC converters are

used to connect the BES with the PV system, which illustrated its circuit diagram in
Fig. 4.11. Basically, a non-isolated bidirectional DC/DC converter can be derived
from the unidirectional DC/DC converters by enhancing the unidirectional conduc-
tion capability of the conventional converters by the bidirectional conducting
switches. Due to the presence of the diode in the basic buck and boost converter
circuits as shown in Fig. 4.12a, b, they do not have the inherent property of the bidi-
rectional power flow. This limitation in the conventional boost and buck converter
circuits can be removed by introducing a power MOSFET or an IGBT having an
antiparallel diode across them to form a bidirectional switch and hence allowing
current conduction in both directions for bidirectional power flow in accordance
with the controlled switching operation as clarified in Fig. 4.11. When the Buck and
the boost converters are connected in antiparallel across each other with the result-
ing circuit is basically having the same structure as the fundamental Boost and Buck
structure but with the added feature of bidirectional power flow [58, 60].
The above circuit can be made to work in buck or boost mode depending on the
switching of the switches Q1 and Q2. The switches Q1 and Q2 in combination with
the antiparallel diodes D1 and D2 (acting as a freewheeling diode), respectively,
make the circuit step up or step down the voltage applied across them. The bidirec-
tional operation of the above circuit can be explained in the below two modes as
follows:
Mode 1 (Boost Mode) In this mode, switch Q2 and diode D1 enter into conduction
depending on the duty cycle, whereas the switch S1 and diode D2 are off all the
time. This mode can further be divided into two intervals depending on the conduc-
tion on the switch 1 and diode D2 as shown in Fig. 4.12b.

Fig. 4.12 (a) Buck converter circuit and (b) boost converter circuit

Interval 1 (Q2-on, D2-off; Q1-off, D2-off) In this mode Fig. 4.13a, Q2 is on and
hence can be considered to be short-circuited; therefore, the lower-voltage battery
charges the inductor, and the inductor current goes on increasing till not the gate
pulse is removed from the Q2. Also, since the diode D1 is reversed biased in this
mode and the switch S1 is off, no current flows through the switch Q1.
62 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

Fig. 4.13 Boost mode. (a) Interval 1, (b) Interval 2

Fig. 4.14 Buck mode. (a) Interval 1, (b) Interval 2

Interval 2 (Q1-off, D1-on; Q2-off, D2-off) In this mode Fig. 4.13b, Q2 and Q1
both are off and hence can be considered to be open-circuited. Now since the current
flowing through the inductor cannot change instantaneously, the polarity of the volt-
age across it reverses, and hence it starts acting in series with the input voltage.
Therefore, the diode D1 is forward biased, and hence the inductor current charges
the output capacitor C1 to a higher voltage. Therefore, the output voltage boosts up.

Mode 2 (Buck Mode) In this mode switch Q1 and diode D2 enter into conduction
depending on the duty cycle, whereas the switch Q2 and diode D1 are off all the
time. This mode can further be divided into two intervals depending on the conduc-
tion on the switch Q2 and diode D1 as shown in Fig 4.13a.

Interval 1 (Q1-on, D1-off; Q2-off, D2-off) In this mode Fig. 4.14a, Q1 is on and
Q2 is off and hence the equivalent circuit is as shown in the figure below. The
higher-voltage battery will charge the inductor and the output capacitor will get
charged by it.

Interval 2 (Q1-off, D1-off; Q2-off, D2-on) In this mode Fig. 4.14b, Q2 and Q1
both are off. Again, since the inductor current cannot change instantaneously, it gets
discharged through the freewheeling diode D2. The voltage across the load is
stepped down as compared to the input voltage.
4.3 Simulation Results and Discussion of Stand-Alone PV System with BES 63

4.3 Simulation Results and Discussion of Stand-Alone PV

System with BES

In this section, the dynamic performance of the PV system with BES during con-
stant and variation of the solar irradiance is investigated. The temperature of PV
array surface is considered to be constant at 25 °C during the entire simulation
period. The PV array is rated 5 kW; MPPT control takes maximum power from PV
using unidirectional DC/DC converter which is performed. The model designed in
the previous parts is simulated in a Simulink environment which is illustrated in
Fig. 4.15. The constructions of the system model to study the two cases are under
constant and variable solar irradiation in different operating conditions. The chapter
concentrates on the study of the impact of constancy or change in solar irradiation
on the performance of BES. In the first case, the offered model works with constant
solar irradiation and compares the results to the system in a case with and without
BES. In the second case, the system works with variable solar irradiation. In both
cases, the system is running in the same sequence. Initially, Load1 (3 kW) is run
(on) and consumes more than half of the power generated by the PV system. After
1 second Load2 is running (on) making the total power consumed 6 kW. The PV
system does not provide sufficient power; thus, supplemental energy is supplied by
BES. This section also presents a consistent analysis of voltage and current after the
filter using FFT tool. The load profile is connected to the system which is applied in
all operating cases of the system as shown in Fig. 4.16. In the first operation case, a
constant solar irradiation value (1000 W/m2) is applied to the system. In the second
operation case, the system is employed into the variable value of solar irradiation
which appears in Fig. 4.21. The simulation is run for 4 sec. In the next section, the
operating results of the model on the MATLAB/Simulink program for both cases
and the effect on current, voltage, power, and harmonic analysis by FFT tools are
presented.

Fig. 4.15 Simulink model of a stand-alone PV system with a BES

64 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

7000
6000
Load Power (W) 5000
4000
3000
2000
1000

0 1 2 3 4
Time (sec)

Fig. 4.16 Load profile

4.3.1 Comparison Between PV System with and Without BES

Under Constant Irradiation

This subsection tackles the comparison of the operating results of the model in both
cases with and without BES connected to the model. Comparison of the results of
both cases is the focus of a set of important points: the amount of consumption when
the load 1 is only in on situation, the entry and exit of the load 2, and the status of
the system when there are loads that consume power more than what is generated
by PV.
The current response of the PV system to the change in the load profile and with
disconnecting and connecting the BES is illustrated in Fig. 4.17. As shown in
Fig. 4.17a, there is no significant distinction in the current values of the PV for both
cases. However, the output current of PV array (Ipv) is fairly constant at a value of
25 A if the BES is connected. At the start of operation, we notice that the current
took a long time to settle at 25 A if no BES is connected to the system. However, it
is observed that the current level is more stable when BES is used. Moreover, the
existence of BES overcomes the effect of overshoot transient moments which result
from the entry and exit of sudden loads. In Fig. 4.17b, when load 1 is only in on situ-
ation, it consumes a current of 19A in the case without BES. While the BES is con-
nected, it consumes 14.7 A. This gives a 29.25% progress in the current. Transient
moments resulting from the sudden entry of load 2 cause a current overshoot in the.
The current overshoot approximately reaches 30.5% of the steady-state value in the
first case. In the second case, the current overshoot approximately reaches 1% of the
steady state of stability of the current. This improvement in the current also appears
at the exit of load 2 and overcomes the undershoot.
Comparison of the voltage results for the two operating cases of the model is
shown in Fig. 4.18. The result concludes that there is no significant difference in the
PV voltage as illustrated in Fig. 4.18a but the overshoot at transient moments of the
entry, exit of the load 2, and the starting of the model have been reduced. Illustrations,
(b) and (c) of Fig. 4.18, show DC voltage and AC RMS load voltage which DC volt-
age (Vdc) stable at 280 V in the use of BES by suppressing or smoothing out tran-
sients that occur in PV systems.
4.3 Simulation Results and Discussion of Stand-Alone PV System with BES 65

Fig. 4.17 The current response of PV system. (a) PV output current and (b) AC RMS load
current

In the second case, when the load profile is changed from 3000 W to 6000 W, it
leads to decrease in the DC voltage from 360 V to 256 V. Then, the DC voltage
increases from 256 V to 360 V, in response to the change of the load profile from
6000 W to 3000 W, as illustrated in Fig. 4.18b. The AC voltage response at running
the PV system without connecting BES are presented in Fig. 4.18c. The AC load
voltage is decrease from 254.5 V to 181 V, when the load profile is changed from
3000 W to 6000 W. Then, the AC load voltage increases from 181 V to 254.5 V, in
response to the change of the load profile from 6000 W to 3000 W.
The differences in current and voltage in two operating cases also appear when
comparing the results of power as shown in Fig. 4.19. In order to evaluate the vali-
dation of the MPPT technique, Fig. 4.19a shows the output power of PV array (Ppv).
It can be seen that the P&O MPPT technique can track accurately the MPP at
1000 W/m2 of solar irradiance. Moreover, the impact of voltage and voltage stability
is noticed during the use of the BES in power and provides the power consumed by
each load according to need as much as possible. Relatively, the amount of power
consumed in the system approaches 6 KW which is greater than what is generated
by the PV array as shown in Fig. 4.19b.
The BES response for current, voltage, and SOC under the effect of the change
in the load profile is shown in Fig. 4.20. When the model starts, the initial value of
66 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

Fig. 4.18 The voltage response of PV system. (a) PV output voltage, (b) DC voltage, and (c) AC
RMS load voltage
4.3 Simulation Results and Discussion of Stand-Alone PV System with BES 67

the profile is 3000 W, which is more than half of the power produced by the PV
array, and thus the remaining power is about 2000 W. The remaining energy is
charged by the BES as shown in Fig. 4.20a. When the load profile is changed from
3000 W to 6000 W, and this power is greater than what the PV array produce, the
BES status switches from charge to discharge to compensate for the difference
between the power required for the load and the power generated from the PV array.
The change in BES status from charge to discharge shows an effect on SOC and
voltage as illustrated in Fig. 4.20a, c. The change in the BES status effects on the
battery current as its polarity changes from negative (charge) to positive (discharge)
as shown in Fig. 4.20b. Then, the SOC and voltage increase again in response to the

Fig. 4.19 The power response of PV system, (a) PV generated power, and (b) load active power
68 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

Fig. 4.20 The BES response. (a) Battery state of charge (SOC %), (b) battery current, and (c)
battery voltage

change of the load profile from 6000 W to 3000 W. The current polarity returns back
to a negative indication that the BES is charging.

4.3.2 Simulation Results PV System with BES at Variable

Irradiation

In this subsection, the dynamic performance of the PV system with BES during
variation of the solar irradiance is investigated. The temperature of PV array surface
is considered to be constant at 25 °C during the entire simulation period. The solar
irradiation profile appears in Fig. 4.21. This change represents a practical variation
of solar irradiance during a complete one day as proposed in. The same scenario of
load profile is applied in operating the system as shown in Fig. 4.16.
The simulation result for the current is represented in Fig. 4.22. Figure 4.22a
illustrates that the output current of PV array (Ipv) reflects the variation in solar irra-
diance. When the solar irradiance is changed from 700 W/m2 to 1000 W/m2, it leads
to increase in the output current of PV array from 17.5 A to 25 A. Then, the PV array
current decreases from 25 A to 17.5 A, in response to the change of the solar irradi-
ance from 1000 W/m2 to 700 W/m2. Variations in the AC curve Fig. 4.22b due to the
4.3 Simulation Results and Discussion of Stand-Alone PV System with BES 69

Fig. 4.21 Solar irradiation profile

Fig. 4.22 Simulation results of the PV system with BES. (a) PV output current and (b) AC load
current

sudden input of load 2 related to the model. When the load profile is changed from
3000 W to 6000 W, it leads to increase in the peak of AC current from 21.3 A to
41.85 A. Then, the AC load current peak decreases from 41.85 A to 21.3, in response
to the change of the load profile from 6000 W to 3000 W, as illustrated in Fig. 4.22b.
Also, the effect of change solar irradiance did not appear on the AC current due to
the existence of a BES connected to the system, where the BES compensated the
difference in the current to the load.
70 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

The output voltage of the PV array (Vpv) is maintained at 200 V as shown in

Fig. 4.23a, despite the variation of solar irradiation. Therefore, the MPPT controller
can accurately track the PV array voltage at the maximum power point (Vmpp) to
harness the maximum power from the PV array during the rapid variation of solar
irradiance. The proposed control on BES overcomes the transient moments result-
ing from the sudden switching of the load 2 and keeps up the value of the DC
voltage level (output of the boost converter) at 280 V. Also, in Fig. 4.23b shows the
stability of the AC voltage value. The BES compensated the voltage difference to
stabilize the AC voltage on the load terminals.

Fig. 4.23 Simulation results of the system with BES. (a) The PV output voltage and boost output
DC voltage, (b) AC load voltage

Fig. 4.24 Simulation results of the PV system without BES for the PV generated power, load
power, and battery power
4.3 Simulation Results and Discussion of Stand-Alone PV System with BES 71

Fig. 4.25 BES response (a) SOC %, (b) battery current, and (c) battery voltage

In order to evaluate the validation of the MPPT technique, Fig. 4.24 shows the
output power of one PV array (Ppv). It can be seen that the P&O MPPT technique
can track accurately the MPP when the solar irradiance changes rapidly. Also, the
figure shows the power of the BES and the power consumed by both loads during
the system operation at the same scenario of load profile.
Figure 4.25 shows the operating curves of the battery (SOC, voltage, and cur-
rent) under the effect of changing solar irradiation. In Fig 4.25a, the battery SOC
varies depending on both solar radiation and load profile. In the case of an excess of
power in the production of PV array, it is charged by BES. Conversely, in case of
low power output from PV array, the BES will compensate for the difference in
power to the load as show in Fig. 4.25b, c.

4.3.3 Voltage and Current Harmonic Analysis

The PV inverter should satisfy high power quality to meet standard recommenda-
tions of harmonics as dictated by national standards such as IEEE 519 and IEC
61727. The IEEE and IEC standards recommended that THD should be less than
5%, and the higher harmonic content of each individual harmonic is not more than
3% for PV system [84, 85]. The harmonic spectrum of both inverter voltage and
72 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

Fig. 4.26 Harmonic analysis of AC load current and AC load voltage before and after using LCL
filter. (a) THD of the AC voltage before using LCL filter. (b) THD of the AC current before using
LCL filter. (c) THD of the AC voltage after using LCL filter. (d) THD of the AC current after using
LCL filter. (e) Harmonic spectrum of AC current after using LCL filter
4.3 Simulation Results and Discussion of Stand-Alone PV System with BES 73

Fig. 4.26 (continued)

current of them after using LCL filter is shown in Fig. 4.26a, b. It shows the THD
for both inverter voltage and current are 52.24%. The LCL filters are designed from
a rating of the inverter and used to remove the harmonics which are generated from
the inverter. Under steady-state operation, the voltage and current waveforms are
taken to evaluate the harmonics control of the designed PV system. The standard
tool in MATLAB for FFT tools is used to decide the harmonic magnitude of the AC
voltage and AC current. Figure 4.26c, d shows the THD for both inverter voltage
and current are 52.24% that after using LCL filter. The harmonic spectrum of AC
load current after using LCL filter is shown in Fig. 4.26c.
74 4 Improving the Resiliency of a PV Stand-Alone with Energy Storage

4.4 Summary

This chapter investigated the dynamic performance of the studied PV system with
BES during variation of the solar irradiance. Moreover, the effectiveness of the
implemented MPPT techniques and the employed control strategy is evaluated dur-
ing variations of the solar irradiance. This chapter is primarily intended to enhance
the dynamic performance of the proposed PV system with BES under constant and
variable solar irradiation. Furthermore, an optimal control strategy is presented. The
proposed system targets in reducing the impact of transient moments resulting from
the sudden entry and exit loads connected to the system. It also explains the role of
the BES in how to manage system loads and demonstrates the improvement in the
performance of PV systems. The system presented in the chapter is evaluated and
compared to the traditional system without BES. The simulation results show that
the capacity of the BES helps to improve the performance of the system through the
control used in the process of loading and unloading to manage the sudden load
changes and helps to maintain a stable voltage level on the load and PV terminals.
It is worth to mention that the control scheme with BES ensures stable voltage and
current levels and overcomes the transient spikes that appears on the AC load
current.
Chapter 5
The Performance Analysis of a PV System
with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid
Energy Storage System

5.1 Introduction

In remote areas, stand-alone PV systems are most common. A typical stand-alone

system incorporates a PV panel, regulator, energy storage system, and load.
Generally, the most common storage technology employed is the lead-acid bat-
tery because of its low cost and wide availability. PV panels are not an ideal
source for battery charging; the output is unreliable and heavily dependent on
weather conditions. Therefore, an optimum charge/discharge cycle cannot be
guaranteed, resulting in a low battery SOC. Low battery SOC leads to sulfation
and stratification, both of which shorten battery life. Batteries are commonly
implemented in stand-alone PV power systems to fulfill the power mismatch
between the PV power generation and the load demand. Generally, a battery
would encounter frequent deep cycles and irregular charging pattern due to the
varying output of PV and the intermittent high-power demand of the load. These
operations would shorten the battery life span and increase the replacement cost
of the battery [86, 87].
BS-HESS is thus a practical solution to minimize the battery stress, battery
size, and the total capital cost of the system. The technical characteristics of bat-
tery and SC, such as specific power, specific energy, response time, and durability,
are complementary. A control strategy is essential for the BS-HESS to optimize
the energy utilization and energy sustainability to a maximum extent as it is the
algorithm which manages the power flow of the battery and SC. One of the com-
mon aims of BS-HESS implementation is to prolong the battery life span by
reducing the peak current demand and the dynamic stress of the battery. Battery
peak current reduction would reduce the internal voltage drop in the battery and
improve the battery efficiency [88]. Reduction in battery dynamic stress mini-
mizes the heating and the internal losses of the battery.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 75

A. A. Elbaset et al., Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems with Energy
Storage Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7_5
76 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

This chapter proposes an optimal control strategy for a stand-alone PV system

with BS-HESS. The objectives of the proposed control strategy are to reduce the
dynamic stress and the peak current demand of the battery while constantly
considering the SOC level of the SC. The proposed control strategy comprises of a
low-pass filter (LPF) and fuzzy logic controller (FLC). As the fluctuations of PV
output has been taken into account in this study, the LPF filtration process is exe-
cuted to allocate the high dynamic component of the power demand to the SC and
refer the low dynamic component of the power demand to the FLC. The FLC is
computationally efficient and it works well with optimization and adaptive tech-
niques. Therefore, it is utilized to reduce the peak current demand of the battery by
manipulating the amount of power to be charged/discharged by the SC based on the
real-time power demand and the SOC level of the SC. The performance of the pro-
posed system is compared to the conventional systems (stand-alone PV system with
battery storage only, stand-alone PV system with BS-HESS with FBC) by Simulink
with the setup of rural household load profile and the actual solar irradiation profile
of a rainy day. The system description, modeling, and control strategy obtained
results, and concluding remarks are given in the next sections.

5.2 Structure and Simulation of Stand-Alone PV Systems

with BS-HESS

Figure 5.1 illustrates the simplified diagram of the stand-alone PV system with
BS-HESS where the BS-HESS of the proposed system is equipped with battery
unit, SC, bidirectional DC/DC converter and control circuitry. The structure and
detail of PV array, battery, and SC model are available in the Simulink library.
Typically, the BS-HESS takes the advantages of high-energy density storage and
high-power density storage to achieve the desirable performance in which the
BS-HESS is proposed in this work as shown in Fig. 5.1 [89]. However, a complex
conditioning circuitry is required to combine the battery and SC as a single power
source. As the SC voltage highly fluctuates due to its low-energy density, the
BS-HESS of the proposed system is implemented in a semi-active topology where
a bidirectional DC/DC converter is placed next to the SC to decouple the battery and
SC with system. Figure 5.1 depicts the structure of semi-active BS- HESS where a
power electronic unit is employed to control the power flow of the battery and SC
based on the control strategy. The power electronic unit consists of a bidirectional
DC/DC converter and a control circuitry. This topology allows for a sufficient
degree of freedom to implement different control strategies. In addition, this topol-
ogy provides a good trade-off between the performance (Fig. 5.2).
Two different models of the stand-alone PV system are constructed in MATLAB/
Simulink which are the system with battery-only system and the system with
BS-HESS as illustrated in Fig. 5.3a, b. The general power equation of the system
can be expressed as (5.1)
5.2 Structure and Simulation of Stand-Alone PV Systems with BS-HESS 77

Fig. 5.1 Simplified diagram of the stand-alone PV system with energy storage

1000 10 Hrs 1 Hr
Fuel Cells
0.1 Hr

100 Lithium Hybrid 36 sec

NICd Battery Storage
Energy Density (Wh/kg)

Lead-Acid Battery
Battery 3.6 sec
10

Ultra-
1 Double-Layer Capacitors 0.36 sec
Capacitors

36 msec
0.1
Aluminum-
Electrolytic
Capacitors
0.01
10 100 1000 10,000
Power Density (W/Kg)

Fig. 5.2 Ragone chart showing the power density and energy density of different storages [89].
(Source: US Defence Logistics Agency)
78 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

PPV

Ipv La D Idc DC Link PLoad

Ir
+
–
+ Ca + VLa(t) +
Vpv Q 1 Vdc C1
d –
–
T –
Vpv
MPPT Load
Ipv Technique

PBatt

+ +Batt DC+

–Batt DC–
–
Battery
Battery Bidirectional
DC/DC Converter
(a)
PPV
Ipv La D Idc DC Link PLoad
Ir +
+ C +VLa(t) – +
a
Vpv Q1 Vdc C1
– d –
T –
Vpv
MPPT Load
Ipv Technique
PBatt PSC

+ +Batt DC+ +DC SC+ +

– –Batt DC– –DC SC– –

Battery Supercapacitor Supercapacitor
Battery Bidirectional
DC/DC Converter Bidirectional
DC/DC Converter
(b)

Fig. 5.3 Two different models of proposed system. (a) Stand-alone PV system with battery-only
storage. (b) Stand-alone PV system with BS-HESS system

PPV  PBatt  PSC = PLoad (5.1)

where PPV is the power generation of PV array, PBatt is the power flow of BES sys-
tem, PSC is the power flow of SC storage system, and PLoad is the power demand of
the load.
5.2 Structure and Simulation of Stand-Alone PV Systems with BS-HESS 79

Fig. 5.4 Supercapacitor equivalent circuit model [92]

5.2.1 Supercapacitor Model

The SC block implements a generic model parameterized to represent the most

popular types of SC. Figure 5.4 shows the equivalent circuit model for the SC. The
model consists of two components, the controlled voltage source, and the equivalent
internal series resistance. The internal series resistance is a loss term that models the
internal heating in the capacitor and is most important during charging and dis-
charging. Also, it models the current leakage effect and will impact the long-term
energy storage performance of the SC [90]. Equation (5.2) describes the SC output
voltage (VSC) using a Stern equation [91].

N sc QT d 2 N e N sc Rd T æ QT ö
VSC = + sinh -1 ç ÷ - RSC × iSC (5.2)
N pc N e e e 0 Ai ç ÷
è N pc N e Ai 8 Rd T e e 0Cm
2
F ø

With : QT = ò iSC dt (5.3)

To represent the self-discharge phenomenon, the SC electric charge is modified

as follows (when iSC = 0):

QT = ò iself _ dis dt (5.4)

where

ì C T a1
ï if t - toc £ t3
ï 1 + s RSC CT
ïï CT a 2
iself _ dis =í if t3 < t - tOC £ t 4 (5.5)
ï1 + s RSC CT
ï C a
ï T 3
if t - toc ³ t 4
ïî 1+ s RSC CT
80 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

The constants α1, α2, and α3 are the rates of change of the SC voltage during time
intervals (toc, t3), (t3, t4), and (t4, t5), respectively, as shown in the Fig. 5.5:
The variable descriptions are as follows:

Ai Interfacial area between

electrodes and electrolyte (m2)
Cm Molar concentration (mol/m3)
equal to c = 1/(8 NA r3)
Rd Molecular radius (m)
F Faraday constant
iSC Supercapacitor current (A)
VSC Supercapacitor voltage (V)
CT Total capacitance (F)
RSC Total resistance (ohms)
Ne Number of layers of electrodes
NA Avogadro constant
Npc Number of parallel SCs
Nsc Number of series SCs
QT Electric charge (C)
R Ideal gas constant
D Molecular radius
T Operating temperature (K)
ε Permittivity of material
ε0 Permittivity of free space

Fig. 5.5 Time intervals of charge and self-discharge characteristic for SC

5.3 Control Strategies of HESS 81

5.2.2 Control Circuit of Bidirectional DC/DC Buck/Boost

Converter

In PV systems, bidirectional DC/DC converters are employed to link up the high-

voltage DC bus to the BS-HESS. Here they are needed to regulate the power supply
for electrical loads to help them provide their power demanded. The bidirectional
DC/DC converters can be classified into two categories depending on the galvanic
isolation between the input and output side. In this book, the non-isolated bidirec-
tional half-bridge DC/DC converters is used to connect the battery and SC with the
PV system, which illustrated its circuit diagram in Fig. 5.6. The circuit was explained
in Chap. 4.
Figure 5.7 shows the control circuit for controlling the work of the bidirectional
DC/DC converter. The control circuit generates the control signal to the gate of
switches Q1 and Q2. The gate signal switches on the function of the bidirectional
DC/DC converter between the boost and the buck depending on the power control
signal.

5.3 Control Strategies of HESS

The control strategy manages the power flow of the HESS based on the real-time
system conditions. It is usually complex and required to operate continuously in
order to fulfill the multiple objectives. Optimal control of the HESS is crucial to
optimize the energy utilization and sustainability to a maximum extent. The com-
mon aims of the control strategies are listed as follows:

High Low
Voltage Side Voltage Side

Q1 D1
L iL
Vin(buck) VH
C1
Vo(boost) VL
Vo(buck)
Q2 D2 C2 Vin(boost)

Buck Mode

Boost Mode

Fig. 5.6 Circuit diagram of half-bridge bidirectional DC/DC converter

82 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

Fig. 5.7 Control circuit of bidirectional DC/DC converter

• To reduce the peak power demand, charge/discharging cycle, and dynamic stress
level of the battery
• To prevent the deep discharge of the battery
• To maintain a stable DC voltage
• To reduce the loss of power supply possibility and operational and maintenance
cost
• To improve the overall efficiency of the system
Generally, the control strategies can be characterized as classical control strate-
gies and intelligent control strategies. The classical control strategies such as FBC
are simple and easy to be implemented as they do not require complicated pro-
cessing. However, they are normally sensitive to the parameter variation and rigid.
Intelligent control strategy such as fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is more robust and
efficient compared to classical control strategies as it enhances the dynamic
behavior of the system without requiring an exact model of the system. However,
the MFs of FLC are usually determined by using the trial-and-error method which
is time-consuming and lacking optimization [93]. In this chapter, the classical
control strategies based on FBC is compared with the intelligent control strategy
based on FLC.

5.3.1 Filtration-Based Controller Strategy

The FBC uses a filter to decompose the dynamic components of the power demand
into high-frequency components and low-frequency components. This technique is
simple and has less computational burden. Figure 5.8 illustrates the structure of
high-pass filter (HPF)-based FBC which is extracted from Ref. [94]. The HPF char-
acterizes the power demand in to high-frequency components (PHF) and low-
frequency components (PLF) in which the PHF and PLF will be catered by SC and
battery, respectively [63].
5.3 Control Strategies of HESS 83

Fig. 5.8 Structures of the filtration-based controller based on FBC

Fig. 5.9 Structures of the intelligent control strategy based on LPF and FLC

5.3.2 Intelligent Control Strategy Based on LPF and FLC

The structure of the intelligent control strategy is illustrated in Fig. 5.9, which aims
to minimize the dynamic stress and the peak current demand of the battery. The
control strategy comprises of two parts that are the LPF and FLC. The structure of
the proposed control strategy is explained in the following sections.

5.3.2.1 Low-Pass Filter (LPF)

The generation power from PV and the demand power for load are highly fluctuat-
ing. In the conventional system, the battery is stressed to satisfy the highly fluctuat-
ing (dP). The highly fluctuating battery current would produce an extensive heat
inside the battery which leads to an increased battery internal resistance and lower
efficiency.
Therefore, LPF is implemented to reduce the dynamic stress of the battery by
decomposing the dP into PHF and PLF. The PLF is the output of LPF, while the PHF is
the difference between dP and PLF [95].

PLF = Lowpass filter ( dP ) (5.6)

PHF = dP - PLF (5.7)

84 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

The highly fluctuating power demand is PHF which is ideal to be absorbed by the
SC, while the PLF is preferable to be met by the battery. This process would prevent
the battery from supplying the high-frequency components of dP and reduces the
dynamic stress of the battery. After the LPF filtration, the PLF is referred to the FLC
for battery peak current reduction.

5.3.2.2 Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC)

The purpose of FLC is to reduce the battery peak current while constantly consid-
ering the SOC level of the SC (SOCSC). The fuzzy system is a computationally
efficient system which works well with the optimization and adaptive techniques.
As shown in Fig. 5.9, the FLC has two inputs which are the PLF and the SOCSC.
The operating range of SOCSC of the two models with SC is limited within the
range of 50–100% in order to allow the utilization of 75% of the overall SC energy.
The output of the FLC is the power-sharing ratio, which is computed based on the
real-time input variables. The input variable PLF has five membership functions
(MFs) including positive high (“PH”), positive medium (“PM”), low (“L”), nega-
tive low (“NL”), and negative high (“NH”) as shown in Fig. 5.10a. The positive
PLF is the power demand to be supplied by the HESS, and the negative PLF is the
excessive power to be absorbed by the HESS. On the other hand, the input variable
SOCSC has only three MFs, namely, high (“H”), medium (“M”), and low (“Low”),
as shown in Fig. 5.10b. Meanwhile, the output variable a has five MFs that are PH,
PL, zero (“Z”), NL, and NH as shown in Fig. 5.10c. The positive and negative of
MFs indicate the power ratio to be supplied and absorbed by the SC,
respectively.
The rules of the FLC are listed in Table 5.1. When the power demand of the
PLF is “L,” the power-sharing ratio would be “Z” regardless of the SOCSC condi-
tion as the low power demand imposes little stress to the battery. When the PLF
is positive, a is set according to the level of the power demand and the SOCSC in
order to reduce the peak current demand of the battery. When the PLF is nega-
tive, a is set based on the excessive power and the SOCSC level to recover the
charge of the SC.
The total power to be shared by the SC (PSC) can be calculated by using Eq. (5.8):

PSC = b + PHF (5.8)

where β is the output signal from FLC and the battery is expected to supply the
power mismatch between PSC and dP as defined in Eq. (5.9).

PBatt = dP - PSC (5.9)

5.3 Control Strategies of HESS 85

Fig. 5.10 Inputs and output membership functions for FLC. (a) Input 1: PLF. (b) Input 2: SOCSC.
(c) Output MFs

Table 5.1 Fuzzy logic rules

Rules of FLC Input 1: dP
PH PL L NL NH
Input 2: SOCSC H PH PL Z Z Z
M PL PL Z NL NL
L Z Z Z NL NL
86 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

5.4 Simulation Results for Stand-Alone PV Systems

with BS-HESS

In order to evaluate the system performance, the actual solar irradiation profile of a
rainy day depending on the set of references [63, 95, 96] is applied in all models.
The time period was changed from 24 hours to 24 seconds so that 1 hour is actually
represented to 1 second on the simulation program to reduce the simulation running
time as shown in Fig. 5.11.
Besides, Fig. 5.12 illustrates the rural household load profile which is extracted
from set of references [95, 97] and modified to impose more stress on the
BS-HESS. The high-power demand of the load occurred during the time from 12 to
18 seconds with the maximum power demand of 403.5 W.

Fig. 5.11 Solar irradiation profile

Fig. 5.12 Profile of load demand

Fig. 5.13 Output power from PV array

Fig. 5.14 Power mismatch between PV power generation and load demand power (dP)

Table 5.2 The configuration Model No. Energy storage system Control strategy
of the models in Simulink
Model 1 Battery –
Model 2 Battery + SC FBC
Model 3 Battery + SC LPF with FLC

Table 5.3 The specification Component Rating

of the stand-alone PV system
PV array Power 1200 W
with BS-HESS
Battery Type Lead-acid
Voltage 12 V
Capacity 7 Ah
SC Voltage 16 V
Capacitance 58 F
88 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

Fig. 5.15 Battery current, voltage, power, and SOC (%) for Model 1. (a) Battery current (A) for
Model 1. (b) Battery voltage (V) for Model 1. (c) Battery power (W) For Model 1. (d) Battery SOC
(%) for Model 1
5.4 Simulation Results for Stand-Alone PV Systems with BS-HESS 89

Fig. 5.15 (continued)

Figure 5.13 demonstrates the power generation of PV based on the solar irradia-
tion profile in Fig. 5.11. By referring to Eq. (5.10), the power demand of the
BS-HESS, which is the power deficit between PV output power and the load
demand, is illustrated in Fig. 5.14.

dP = PPV - PLoad = PBatt + PSC (5.10)

The three different models of the stand-alone PV system were constructed in

MATLAB/Simulink as listed in Table 5.2. Model 1 is the conventional stand-alone
PV system with a battery-only system. Model 2 is the stand-alone PV system with
BS-HESS using classical control strategies based on HPF. Model 3 is the stand-
alone PV system with BS-HESS using intelligent control strategies based on LPF
and FLC. The specification of the system main component (PV array, battery, and
SC) is listed in Table 5.3.
Several battery parameters particularly battery peak current (Ibatt _ peak), battery
peak power (Pbatt _ peak), average battery SOC (SOCbatt _ avarge), and final battery SOC
(SOCbatt _ final) are evaluated. The reduction of Ibatt _ peak and Pbatt _ peak would lead to
lower battery stress, higher battery efficiency, and reduction of internal voltage in
the battery. The SOCbatt _ avarge and SOCbatt _ final are evaluated in this study in which
higher SOCbatt _ avarge and SOCbatt _ final would extend the battery lifetime and reduce
the loss of power supply possibility of the system.
For Model 1, the battery is the only energy storage system to satisfy the power
mismatch between the PV output power and the load demand. Figure 5.15 shows
the operating curves of battery for Model 1 in the simulation. In Fig. 5.15a, it is
illustrated that the battery current has high fluctuation. Hence, the battery voltage as
shown in Fig. 5.15b is still highly fluctuating. As a result, the battery power profile
Fig. 5.16 Battery current, voltage, power, and SOC (%) for Model 2. (a) Battery current (A) for
Model 2. (b) Battery voltage (V) for Model 2. (c) Battery power (W) For Model 2. (d) Battery SOC
(%) for Model 2
5.4 Simulation Results for Stand-Alone PV Systems with BS-HESS

Fig. 5.16 (continued)

is identical to the profile of dP as shown in Fig. 5.14 where the battery always expe-
riences highly fluctuating discharging current.
For Model 2, Fig. 5.16 shows the operating curves of the battery from which we
observe that the dynamic stress level of the battery has a considerable reduction, but
the Ibatt _ peak Figure 5.16a and Pbatt _ peak Figure 5.16c are not improved significantly.
This is because of the FBC that is designed to reduce the dynamic stress of the bat-
tery without considering the peak demand. The dynamic stress of the battery is
slightly improved as compared to the battery-only system. The dynamic stress level
of battery voltage has reduction as shown in Fig. 5.16b.
On the other hand, the SOCbatt _ avarge and SOCbatt _ final are not improved substan-
tially (~0%) as shown in Fig. 5.15d; only the highly fluctuating low power compo-
nents are absorbed by the SC in Fig. 5.17. Figure 5.17c illustrates that the SC
absorbs/supplies only a small portion of dynamic components of the power demand.
The SC current, voltage, and the SOCSC of Models 2 throughout the simulation are
illustrated in Fig. 5.17a–c, respectively.
For Model 3, a system with intelligent control (LPF with FLC), Figs. 5.18a, b
illustrate that the battery current and voltage according to the predefined rules and
battery peak current are reduced. The system has improved final SOC and average
SOC of the battery as illustrated in Fig. 5.18d. It is evident that the battery power
profile is smoother than Model 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 5.18c.
The mismatch between dP and battery power is compensated by SC as shown in
Fig. 5.18. The SC is charging and discharging at a high frequency as it absorbs the
fast-transient component of the power demand. The PHF is a highly fluctuating
power demand which is desirable to be supplied by the SC for reduce the battery
peak demand (Fig. 5.19).
92 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

Fig. 5.17 Operating curves of the SC for Model 2. (a) SC current (A) for Model 2. (b) SC voltage
(V) for Model 2. (c) SC power (W) For Model 2. (d) SC-SOC (%) for Model 2
5.4 Simulation Results for Stand-Alone PV Systems with BS-HESS 93

Fig. 5.17 (continued)

Table 5.4 summarizes and compares the battery and SC performance of all the
models. Model 3 has improved final SOC and average SOC of the battery by
(0.1133%) and (0.226%), respectively. Table 5.4 shows that it has the best perfor-
mance in terms of peak current reduction (18.031%) and the reduction of battery
deep discharge as the strategy is designed to minimize the peak power demand of
the battery. Meanwhile the SC discharges appropriately to meet the peak demand by
constantly considering the SOC level of SC. Hence, the Ibatt _ peak and Pbatt _ peak are
reduced by 18.031% and 18.098%, respectively, in comparison to Model 1.
Figure 5.20 shows a comparison of the battery current in all models with a focus
on the difference between them at some operating times.
In addition, a comparison of the battery voltage in all models is performed and
presented in Fig. 5.21, in order to show the differences between the control methods
used with each model.
The most important parameters on the efficiency of the system is to control the
battery power and reduce its peak and reduce the fluctuations; Fig. 5.22 shows the
comparison of battery power in all models.
94 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

Fig. 5.18 Battery current, voltage, power, and SOC (%) for Model 3. (a) Battery current (A) for
Model 3. (b) Battery voltage (V) for Model 3. (c) Battery power (W) For Model 3. (d) Battery SOC
(%) for Model 3
5.4 Simulation Results for Stand-Alone PV Systems with BS-HESS 95

Fig. 5.18 (continued)

96 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

Fig. 5.19 SC current, voltage, power, and SOC (%) for Model 3. (a) SC current (A) for Model 3.
(b) SC voltage (V) for Model 3. (c) SC power (W) For Model 3. (d) SC- SOC (%) for Model 3
5.4 Simulation Results for Stand-Alone PV Systems with BS-HESS 97

Fig. 5.19 (continued)

Table 5.4 Summary and comparison of the battery and SC performance of all the models
Parameters unit Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Ibatt _ peak Current (A) 24.68 22.09 20.23
Reduction (%) – 10.494 18.031
Pbatt _ peak Power (W) 302.8 271.8 248
Reduction (%) – 10.24 18.098
SOCbatt _ final SOC (%) 48.5519 48.5521 48.6617
Increment (%) – 0.0004 0.226
SOCbatt _ avarge SOC (%) 49.275 49.2761 49.3309
Increment (%) – 0.0022 0.1133
ISC _ peak Current (A) – 7.78 9.547
Increment (%) – – 18.508
PSC _ peak Power (W) – 91.32 110.6
Increment (%) – – 17.432
SOCSC _ final SOC (%) – 67.2218 64.7838
Reduction (%) – – 3.626
98 5 The Performance Analysis of a PV System with Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid…

Fig. 5.20 Comparison of the battery current of all the models

Fig. 5.21 Comparison of the battery voltage of all the models

5.5 Summary 99

Fig. 5.22 Comparison of the battery power of all the models

5.5 Summary

In this chapter, the Simulink model of the proposed stand-alone PV system with
BS-HESS (Model 3) and an optimal control strategy are presented. The objectives
of the system are to reduce the dynamic stress and peak power demand of the bat-
tery by employing LPF and FLC. The FLC is used order to optimize the battery
peak current reduction. The proposed system is evaluated and compared to the con-
ventional system with battery-only systems and the systems with classic control
strategies (FBC). The BS-HESS shows the positive impact to the battery and the
overall system. The simulation results show that the dynamic stress and peak cur-
rent demand of the battery in the proposed system are greatly improved, which will
eventually extend the battery life span. The proposed system is able to operate the
SC within the recommended SOC range and utilize the limited energy of SC effec-
tively to perform better than the conventional systems.
Chapter 6
Experimental Work

6.1 Introduction

Energy storage systems used in renewable energy system for storing the energy
when renewable power is generated and releasing power when renewable power is
not sufficient. BESs provide immediate energy storage in a rechargeable battery.
High-performance batteries and battery chargers are necessary for high-efficiency,
fast-response, high-power, and high-energy density. In this chapter, the experimen-
tal setup along with its components is implemented in renewable energy laboratory,
Faculty of Industrial Education, Suez University, Suez, Egypt. This chapter includes
two parts; the first part presents the experimental setup of an off-grid PV system,
and the second part contains the experimental results and discussion. The experi-
mental study focuses on the effects of using BES with variable irradiation and load
profile on the off-grid PV system.

6.2 Experimental Setup of Off-Grid PV System

The main purpose of this research is to develop and investigate the performance of
the PV stand-alone systems with energy storage systems. Figure 6.1 illustrates an
experimental setup of stand-alone PV system with BES and different loads. In this
figure, the PV array is consisting of three modules which are connected to solar
charge controller MPPT; the DC/DC converter is controlled with MPPT to maxi-
mize the output power with the appropriate output voltage and current of the PV. The
battery charger is responsible for charging the battery when the PV is providing
power. When the renewable power is not sufficient, the battery releases power to the
DC/DC converter for providing a DC link voltage of the DC/AC off-grid inverter.
The inverter converter injects the AC power to the AC loads. The components speci-
fications of the experimental setup are listed in Table 6.1.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 101

A. A. Elbaset et al., Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems with Energy
Storage Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7_6
102 6 Experimental Work

Fig. 6.1 Experimental setup for stand-alone PV system with AC load

Table 6.1 The specification Component Rating

of the experimental stand- PV modules Power 3 × 38 W
alone PV system elements
Solar battery Type Lead acid
Voltage 12 V
Capacity 12 Ah
Off-grid inverter Voltage 12 V/230 V
Frequency 50 Hz
Load unit Power 500 W
Solar charge controller-MPPT Voltage 12–24 V
Current 10 A
DC Lamp board Voltage 12 V
AC Lamp board Voltage 230 V

6.2.1 Elements of the Experimental Setup

6.2.1.1 Solar Modules Simulation

Training panel CO3208-1A titled “Solar modules simulation” comprises three inde-
pendent solar modules as shown in Fig. 6.2. The electrical specifications are as
follows:
• Three separate solar modules.
• Each solar module has an adjustable irradiance.
6.2 Experimental Setup of Off-Grid PV System 103

Fig. 6.2 Solar modules simulation

• Each solar module’s outputs are protected against short circuit.

• Open-circuit voltage: approximately 23 V
• Short-circuit current: Up to 2A
• Integrated displays of voltage and current
• Operating voltage: 100–240 V and 50/60 Hz
The PV array is composed of three modules that are connected in parallel as
shown in Fig. 6.3. For a constant temperature and different solar irradiations
(200:1000 W/m2), the I-V and P-V characteristics of the three PV modules are
shown in Figs. 6.4 and 6.5. From Fig. 6.5, it can be easily realized that as the solar
irradiation increases, the maximum power generation increases. Similarly, in
Fig. 6.4, it is observed that as the solar irradiation increases, the PV module output
current increases.

6.2.1.2 Solar Charge Controller-MPPT

Training panel CO3208-1 M titled “Solar charge controller” can be used to charge
lead-acid batteries using solar power as illustrated in Fig. 6.6. The electrical speci-
fications are as follows:
• Colored LEDs for indicating operating states.
• Integrated displays for the load connection’s voltage and current.
• Deep-discharge protection for the connected battery.
104 6 Experimental Work

Fig. 6.3 Experimental work for characteristic of PV array (one series and three parallel strings)

Fig. 6.4 I-V curves of PV array with different solar irradiations

6.2 Experimental Setup of Off-Grid PV System 105

Fig. 6.5 P-V curves of PV array with different solar irradiations

Fig. 6.6 Solar charge

controller MPPT

• Overload protection for the connected battery.

• Connect the battery to the charge controller. During start-up, always connect the
battery before the solar generator.
• Connect the PV generator to the charge controller. The generator’s voltage must
not exceed 75 V.
• Connect the load to the charge controller.
106 6 Experimental Work

6.2.1.3 Off-Grid Inverter

Training panel CO3208-1F titled “Off-grid inverter” contains an inverter for operat-
ing a PV system in stand-alone mode as illustrated in Fig. 6.7. The electrical speci-
fications are as follows:
• Inverter (12 V/230 V, 50 Hz)
• Sinusoidal output voltage
• Reverse polarity protection on the DC side
• Deep-discharge protection for batteries

6.2.1.4 Solar Battery

Training panel CO3208-1E titled “Solar battery” contains a lead-acid battery as

shown in Fig. 6.8. The electrical specifications are as follows:
• Maintenance-free lead-acid battery (12 V/12 Ah)
• Integrated displays for voltage and current
• Resettable fuse

Fig. 6.7 Off-grid inverter

6.2 Experimental Setup of Off-Grid PV System 107

Fig. 6.8 Lead-acid battery

Fig. 6.9 Load

unit – 500 W

6.2.1.5 Load Unit: 500 W

Figure 6.9 shows Training panel CO3208-1 J titled “Load unit – 500 W” is used to
set various operating points and record characteristics. The electrical specifications
are as follows:
108 6 Experimental Work

• Potentiometer’s current-carrying capacity

• 0 Ω–30 Ω: 6A
• 30 Ω–200 Ω: 2A
• 200 Ω–1kΩ: 0.6A
• Duty cycle 40%

6.2.1.6 Analog-Digital Multimeter

Figure 6.10 shows the analog-digital multimeter possesses USB interfaces for con-
necting to a PC. The technical data are as follows:
• Supply voltage: 230 V/50 Hz
• Measurement variables: voltage, current, active power, apparent power, reactive
power, and cosine φ
• Interfaces: USB

6.2.1.7 DC Lamp Board

Figure 6.11 shows training panel CO3208-1 K titled “Lamp board – 12V” incorporates
two 12 V consumers comprising lamps. The electrical specifications are follows:
• Halogen lamp 12 V and Max. 25 W
• LED spotlight 12 V

Fig. 6.10 Analog-digital

multimeter
6.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 109

Fig. 6.11 DC lamp board

6.2.1.8 AC Lamp Board

Figure 6.12 illustrated training panel CO3208-1 L that provides three 230 V con-
sumers in the form of lamps. The electrical specifications are as follows:
• LED lamp 230 V and 9 W
• LED lamp 230 V and 6 W
• Energy-saving lamp 230 V and 10 W

6.3 Experimental Results and Discussion

In this section, the experimental results are presented, where the results are divided
into three parts as follows: Model 1(without battery)results of the operation of the
system without a battery connected with it; Model 2(with battery) results of the
operation of the system with a battery connected with it and clarification of the dif-
ference between the operating results of the system with and without battery. In the
two previous operating cases, the results are obtained with the installation of solar
irradiation at 1000 W/m2; in Model 3 (with battery and changing solar irradiation),
the operating results of the system connected to the battery are explained with the
change of the solar irradiation and the electrical loads.
110 6 Experimental Work

Fig. 6.12 AC lamp board

6.3.1 Model 1: Experimental Results of the System

Without Battery

The PV array is composed of three modules that are connected in parallel as shown
in Fig. 6.3. The following Table 6.2 presents the electrical specification of each
module. The operation of Model 1 is based on the three electrical loads (10 W, 6 W,
and 9 W) that are connected to the PV system in an increasing manner as shown in
Fig. 6.13. In this subsection, the operating results of experimental work for the PV
system without a connected battery are reviewed. The solar irradiation value applied
to the three models is fixed at (1000 W/m2). The three PV modules are connected
together in parallel to have a maximum output power of 106 W.
The operating results of experimental work for Model 1 are shown in the follow-
ing figures where the current, voltage, and power values are displayed for the output
of the PV modules, solar charge controller, and off-grid inverter. These results were
recorded using a single measuring device with a change in its terminals to the places
to be measured, so there are some slight differences in the entry and exit of loads
due to repeated experiment three times in the same scenario.
Figure 6.14 illustrates the results of Model 1. The PV output of voltage (VPV),
current (IPV), and power (PPV) are shown in Fig. 6.14, where the change of loads
6.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 111

Table 6.2 Electrical Parameters Symbol Value

specification of PV modules
Rated power for one module PPV − module 35.2 W
Short-circuit current IOC 2A
Open-circuit voltage VSC 23 V
Maximum power for array Pmax 106 W
Voltage at maximum power point Vmpp 19.6 V
Current at maximum power point Impp 1.8 A

Fig. 6.13 Variable load profile for Model 1

profile is an effect on PV voltage and its value decreases as the load increases.
Changes in the PV output voltage did not appear on the output voltage of the charger
controller (Vdc), to remain stable at 14 V as shown in Fig. 6.15, thus maximizing the
required load power (PLoad), of only 25 W. Figure 6.16 shows the voltage(Vac − rms),
current (Iac − rms), and output power (S – P – Q) of the off-grid inverter or the termi-
nals of the electric AC loads. The DC voltage from charge controller was converted
from 14 Vdc to 225 Vac − rms using the inverter to suit the electrical AC loads.

6.3.2 Model2: Experimental Results of the System with Battery

The operation of Model 2 is based on three electrical AC loads (10 W, 6 W, and

9 W) and one electrical DC load (25 W) that are connected to the PV system in an
increasing manner as shown in Fig. 6.17. The difference is that in Model 2 the bat-
tery is connected to the system for study its effect on the whole system and to
explain differences from Model 1. Figure 6.18 illustrates the results of Model 1. The
PV output of voltage (VPV), current (IPV), and power (PPV) is shown in Fig. 6.18. The
power generated from the PV modules is greater than the power of the loads demand
112 6 Experimental Work

Fig. 6.14 PV output voltage, power, and current without battery

Fig. 6.15 Solar charge controller output voltage, power, and current without battery

because there is a battery connected to the system and is in charge. In Fig. 6.19,
changes in DC current (Idc) and DC power (Pdc) are consistent with loads changes.
Figure 6.20 shows the voltage (Vac − rms), current (Iac − rms), and output power (S – P –
Q) of the off-grid inverter. When using a battery, it has improved the active power of
load as well as reduced the fluctuations in the voltage and current.
6.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 113

Fig. 6.16 Inverter output voltage, power, and current without battery

Fig. 6.17 Variable load profile for Model 2

6.3.3 Model 3: Experimental Results of the System Connected

to Battery and Changing Solar Irradiation

Model 3 studies the effect of batteries on PV systems in the case of changes in loads
profile and solar irradiation that applied to PV modules. Figure 6.21 shows the
change in solar irradiation (from 200 to 1000 W/m2) where it increases by 200 W/
m2 every 15 seconds, until the irradiation reaches 1000 W/m2 and drops back to
200 W/m2 in the same time periods. The operation of Model 3 is based on the three
electrical AC loads (10 W, 6 W, and 9 W) that are connected to the PV system in an
increasing manner as shown in Fig. 6.22.
114 6 Experimental Work

Fig. 6.18 PV output voltage, power, and current with battery

Fig. 6.19 Solar charge controller output voltage, power, and current with battery

Figure 6.23 shows the experimental results of Model 3, which consists of a PV

system with a battery connected to it. The results of the experiment are obtained
when the solar irradiation was changed and showed an effect on output voltage from
PV as shown in Fig. 6.23. The PV output current (IPV), and power (PPV) are changed
according to the change of the load profile from entry and exit loads. Figure 6.24
illustrates the output signal from solar charge controller; note that the voltage signal
value is stable at 14 V due to battery and charge controller. The current starts at 1.5
A and the power value of 10 W at the start of operation of the experiment, and at the
largest electric load, the current increases to 2.5 A and power 25 W. Figure 6.25
shows the signals on the terminals of the electric loads, voltage (Vac − rms), current
6.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 115

Fig. 6.20 Inverter output voltage, power, and current with battery

Fig. 6.21 Variable solar irradiation for Model 3

(Iac − rms), apparent power (S), active power (P), and reactive power (Q). Changes in
AC current and powers are shown as a result of the enter and exit of electrical loads
to adjust the output of the off-grid inverter according to the required load power and
to maintain the constant voltage value at 225 Vrms.
Figure 6.26 presents the AC voltage and current waveform at enter and exit load.
Figure 6.26a shows that when the load power increases, the current increases and
the voltage decreases, and voltage then returns to settle again. The reverse occurs in
Fig. 6.26b when an electric current is switched off, the current value decreases, and
the voltage increases instantaneous value and then returns to settle again.
116 6 Experimental Work

Fig. 6.22 Variable load profile for Model 3

Fig. 6.23 PV output voltage, power, and current with battery and changing solar irradiation
6.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 117

Fig. 6.24 Solar charge controller output voltage, power, and current with battery and changing
solar irradiation

Fig. 6.25 Inverter output voltage, power, and current with battery and changing solar irradiation
118 6 Experimental Work

Fig. 6.26 Oscilloscope measure of AC voltage and current at enter and exit a sudden load. (a) AC
voltage and current at enter a sudden load. (b) AC voltage and current at exit a sudden load
Chapter 7
Conclusions and Future Work

7.1 Conclusions

This book shed the light on the dynamic modeling, simulation, and control strategy
of a stand-alone PV system with the energy storage system. The BS-HESS is con-
sidered a buffer store to eliminate the mismatch between power available from the
PV array and power demand from the load. The BS-HESS is thus a practical solu-
tion to minimize the battery stress, battery size, and the total capital cost of the
system. The main conclusions and recommendations drawn from this work are
summarized next.
The first part of this work investigated the dynamic performance of the PV stand-
alone system during variation of the environmental conditions. The effectiveness of
the implemented MPPT techniques and the employed control strategy is evaluated
during variations of the solar irradiance and the cell temperature.
1. The simulation results have verified the credibility of the implemented MPPT
techniques in extraction the maximum power from the PV system during the
rapid variation of the environmental conditions.
2. The introduced a review of two MPPT techniques that implemented in the PV
systems, the perturb and observe MPPT Technique and Incremental Conductance
MPPT technique.
3. The two MPPT techniques were simulated by the MATLAB/Simulink, and the
results response of the PV array from voltage, current, and power are compared
to the effect of solar radiation and temperature change.
4. The control strategy successfully keeps the load voltage constant regardless of
the variations of the solar irradiance and temperature.
Then, the proposed PV stand-alone system is utilized to supply the demanded
power of variable loads. This proposed PV stand-alone system consists of a PV
array with a rated power capacity of 5 kW. The power flow control strategy is

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 119

A. A. Elbaset et al., Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems with Energy
Storage Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7_7
120 7 Conclusions and Future Work

proposed to feed the demanded power of the variable loads. From the simulation
results of the studied cases, the following points may be concluded:
1. When the generated power from the PV system is greater than the demanded
power of the variable loads, the surplus power will be injected into the BES
through controlled bidirectional DC/DC converter act as a charge controller.
2. Otherwise, when the generated power from the PV stand-alone system is lower
than the demanded power of the variable loads, the PV power system in coopera-
tion with the BES will supply the variable loads.
3. Furthermore, the BES helps to improve the performance of the system through
the control used in the process of charge/discharge to manage the sudden load
changes and helps to maintain a stable voltage level on the load and PV
terminals.
The third topic in this work was to improve the performance of the PV stand-
alone system by leveraging the properties of the BS-HESS. This book proposed an
efficient control strategy to enhance BS-HESS capable of the PV stand-alone sys-
tem. A control strategy is essential for the BS-HESS to optimize the energy utiliza-
tion and energy sustainability to a maximum extent as it is the algorithm which
manages the power flow of the battery and SC. From the dynamic performance
analysis of the PV stand-alone system with BS-HESS during the high fluctuation
solar irradiation and variable load power for rural household load profile, the fol-
lowing points may be concluded:
1. Presented Simulink model of the proposed PV stand-alone system with BS-
HESS and an optimal intelligent control strategy consist of the FLC and LPF and
compare the intelligent strategy with the classic strategy which is based on the
high pass filter.
2. The intelligent control strategy helps to reduce the dynamic stress and peak
power demand of the battery by employing LPF and FLC, and the MFs of the
FLC are implemented to optimize the battery peak current reduction.
3. The proposed system is evaluated and compared to the conventional system with
battery-only systems and the systems with classic control strategies.
4. The simulation results show that the dynamic stress and peak current demand of
the battery in the proposed system are greatly improved, which will eventually
extend the battery life span.
5. The proposed system is able to operate the SC within the recommended SOC
range and utilize the limited energy of SC effectively to perform better than the
classic systems.
The main contributions of this work may be concluded in the following points:
• This book investigates the dynamic modeling, simulation, and control strategy of
a PV stand-alone system.
• The performance of the PV stand-alone system is analyzed during variations of
the solar irradiance and the cell temperature in order to evaluate the effectiveness
of the implemented MPPT techniques by comparing the results of two tech-
niques of MPPT (P&O and InCond).
7.2 Suggestions for Future Work 121

• Also, in this work, the proposed PV stand-alone system with BES is utilized to
supply the demanded power of variable loads at fluctuation solar irradiation.
• Moreover, the proposed PV stand-alone system with BS-HESS and its control
strategy is proposed to feed the demanded power of the variable loads at high
fluctuation solar irradiation.
• Furthermore, proposed intelligent control strategy to reduced battery dynamic
stress and peak current demand of the battery, which will eventually extend the
battery life span.
• Performance analysis of PV module with battery and variable AC loads which
simulation at the experimental using MPPT have shown an accurate and the abil-
ity of the system to approach for MPP.
• Experimental results using a stand-alone PV system with different loads are
more stable when using battery connected to system.

7.2 Suggestions for Future Work

Recently, the permanent growth of the energy demand and the rapid depletion of the
conventional power sources have attracted the research interests toward the renew-
able energy sources especially the PV energy and wind energy as alternative sources
of energy. The future researches in the renewable PV system and energy storage
systems are suggested to be concentrated in the following research points:
• Integrate the PV system with wind power system and fuel cell to operate as PV/
wind/fuel cell distributed generation system connected to the electrical grid.
• Optimal allocation of energy storage system for improving the performance of
microgrid.
• Develop a manual guide for the type of batteries in PV stand-alone systems
based on the nature of the electrical loads.
Appendices

Appendix A: Datasheet of 16 V Small Cell Module

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 123

A. A. Elbaset et al., Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems with Energy
Storage Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7
124 Appendices
Appendices 125
126 Appendices

Appendix B: The M-File Program in MATLAB for Calculates

the Values of LCL Filter Components

% System parameters
Pn = 5000 % Inverter power: 5000 W
En = 250 % Grid voltage: 250 V
Vdc = 280 % DC link voltage: 280 V
fn = 60 % Grid frequency: 60 Hz
wn = 2∗pi∗fn
fsw = 10,000 % Switching frequency: 10000 Hz
wsw = 2∗pi∗fsw % Base values
Zb = (En^2)/Pn
Cb = 1/(wn∗Zb) % Filter parameters
delta_Ilmax = 0.1∗((Pn∗sqrt(2))/En)
Li = Vdc/(16∗fsw∗delta_Ilmax) % Inverter side inductance
x = 0.05
Cf = x∗Cb %Filter capacitor
r = 0.6 % Calculation of the factor, r, between Linv and Lg
Lg = r∗Li % Grid side inductance (including transformer inductance)
wres = sqrt((Li + Lg)/(Li∗Lg∗Cf)) % Calculation of wres, resonance frequency of the filter
fres = wres/(2∗pi)
Rd = 1/(3∗wres∗Cf) % Damping resistance
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Index

A BES, 12
AC lamp board, 109, 110 discharge, 19
Allowable DOD, 14 nominal voltage, 18
Analog-digital multimeter, 108 Battery-supercapacitor, 23
Autonomy, 15 Battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage
Average daily DOD, 14 system (BS-HESS)
bidirectional DC/DC buck/boost converter,
81, 82
B control strategies, 81–83
Battery energy storage (BES) conventional systems, 76
bidirectional DC/DC converters, 60–62 FBC, 82, 83
characteristics, 13 FLC, 76, 84, 85
charging, 14 LPF, 83, 84
classifications, 12, 13 PV panels, 75
constant irradiation, 64–68 Simulink model, 99
control scheme, 74 stand-alone PV systems, 9, 10, 24, 26, 76,
DC/DC boost converter, 52 86, 87, 89, 91, 93
DC/DC converter, 52 structure and stand-alone PV systems,
discharging, 14, 15 76–78
filter design, 55, 56, 58 supercapacitor model, 79, 80
lead-acid, 17 technical characteristics, 75
modeling, 57–59 Bulk/normal charge, 14
off-grid PV system, 101
PV array, 49–51
in PV systems, 12 C
SC storage system, 78 Control circuit of bidirectional DC/DC buck
Simulink environment, 63 boost converter, 81, 82
single phase DC/AC inverter, 52–55 Corrosion, 15
supplemental energy, 63
types, 16
variable irradiation, 68–71 D
voltage and current harmonics analysis, 71–73 DC lamp board, 108, 109
Battery lifetime, 15 DC/DC converter, 23, 25, 31–33
Battery size, a PV system Depth of discharge (DOD), 9, 14
battery capacity, 19 Double-layer capacitors, 20

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 133

A. A. Elbaset et al., Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems with Energy
Storage Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20896-7
134 Index

E Hill climbing techniques, 35

Effects of discharge rates, 15 Hybrid energy storage system (HESS), 23,
Energy storage system 25, 26
battery/ultracapacitor hybrid, 26
C-ratings, 9
DOD, 9 I
HESS, 23 Incremental conductance MPPT (InCond
hybrid/grid connect systems, 9 MPPT) technique, 41–48
off-grid and critical applications, 9
photovoltaic power systems, 10
PV system, 9, 19–23, 26 L
renewable PV system, 121 Low-pass filter (LPF), 76, 83, 84, 89, 91,
Energy storage systems, 10, 23, 26, 60, 101, 121 99, 120
Equalizing charge, 14
Equivalent circuit of the PV model, 30–32
Experimental setup of off-grid PV system, M
101, 102 Maximum power point tracking
Experimental work (MPPT)
AC lamp board, 109, 110 boost converter, 32
analog-digital multimeter, 108 DC link, 36
DC lamp board, 108, 109 DC/DC boost converter, 2
energy storage systems, 101 DC/DC converter, 27, 52
load unit-500W, 107 incremental conductance, 41–48
Model 1(without battery), 109–113 P&O algorithm, 36–39, 41
Model 2(with battery), 109, 111, 113–115 power-voltage (P-V) curve, 35
Model 3 (with battery and changing solar PV system, 9, 25, 34, 35, 52
irradiation), 109, 113–118 solar charge controller, 103, 105
off-grid inverter, 106 solar irradiance level, 35
off-grid PV system, 101, 102 validation of, 71
renewable energy laboratory, 101 M-File Program, 126
solar battery, 106, 107 Modeling a PV stand-alone with battery
solar charge controller-MPPT, 103, 105 energy storage, 49, 50
solar modules simulation, 102–105
stand-alone PV system with battery storage
energy, 9 O
Off-grid inverter, 106
Off-grid PV system, 101, 102
F Off-grid systems, 7, 8
Fast Fourier transform (FFT) tools, 49
Filter design, 55, 56, 58
Float/finishing charge, 14 P
Fuzzy logic controller (FLC), 76, 82–85, 89, Performance analysis of a PV
91, 99, 120 system, 9
See also Battery-supercapacitor hybrid
energy storage system (BS-HESS)
G Photovoltaic power generation
Grid-connected PV systems, 5, 6 in Egypt, 3, 4
Grid-tied system with battery back-up, 6, 7 MPPT technique, 2
solar cells, 2, 4, 5
worldwide annual growth, 2, 3
H Primary BESs, 13
Helmholtz model, 20 PV-hybrid systems, 8
High pass filter (HPF), 82, 89 PV system, battery-supercapacitor, 23
Index 135

S Supercapacitor energy storage system, 19–23

Secondary BESs, 13 Supercapacitors (SCs), 19–23
Self-discharge rate, 15
Simulation model and results
InCond MPPT technique, T
44–46 Temperature effects, 15
P&O MPPT technique, 38–41 Total harmonics distortion (THD), 55, 71–73
Simulation results Types of PV, 5–8
stand-alone PV systems with BS-HESS,
76–82, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93, 97, 99
Simulink model, 24, 50, 51, 120 U
16V small cell module, 123 Ultracapacitors, 20
Solar battery, 106, 107
Solar cells, 4, 5
Solar charge controller-MPPT, 103 W
Solar modules simulation, 102–105 Worldwide annual growth of the PV systems,
State of Charge (SOC), 15 2–4