CENTRAL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CENG 394: PRELIMINARY DESIGN REPORT FOR THE

PROPOSED COMMERCIAL AREA IN CENTRAL
UNIVERSITY

DIAMOND CONSULTANCY
NAMES INDEX NUMBERS
ELORM WILSON CIE/20/01/2433
ISAAC ABBREY CIE/20/01/2743
EWURAMA FREEMAN CIE/20/01/1715
PRINCE HOLOMAH CIE/20/01/2533

APRIL, 2024
Executive Summary

The preliminary executive report describes the methods used by DIAMOND CONSULTANCY in the
design of a proposed commercial area in Central University, Miotso in the Greater Accra- Ghana. The
Commercial building of two storeys is to undergo series of feasibility studies to determine the correct
geotechnical, structural, transportational and the supply of water throughout the building.

The building will serve as a mixed-use facility, accommodating retail spaces, offices, and recreational
areas, contributing to the economic and social vitality of the area.

Geotechnical analysis is going to be done by checking the various properties of the land and making the
right decisions through laboratory tests.

Furthermore, structural investigations would be made to determine the appropriate loads and
dimensions suitable for the commercial building.

Moreover, the transportation sector would highlight on the availability of a workable road from the
entrance oof the school to the site of the project.

Lastly, there would be a water supply analysis done on the correct circulation and distribution of water
throughout the building. All these investigation would see to the success of the project being fully
acknowledged.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary ...............................................................................................................ii

List of Tables ..........................................................................................................................xi

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND.............................................................................................................1
1.2 SITE DESCRIPTION......................................................................................................1

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING REPORT....................................................................2

CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................3
2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE INVESTIGATION ....................................................................3
2.2 SCOPE OF THE WORK ..................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 3: HYDROLOGY AND METEOROLOGY..................................................5
3.1 TEMPERATURE .............................................................................................................5
3.2 RAINFALL DATA ...........................................................................................................6
3.3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY ..................................................................................................6
3.4 WATER TEMPERATURE ...............................................................................................7
CHAPTER 4: FLOOD RECORDS THE PROJECT AREA ...........................................8
CHAPTER 5: SEISMICITY OF THE PROJECT AREA ................................................8
CHAPTER 6: GEOLOGY.................................................................................................10
..............................................................................................................................................12
CHAPTER 7: HYDROGEOLOGY..................................................................................13
CHAPTER 8: METHODOLOGY FOR THE ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATION ..............................................................................................................14
8.1 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................14
8.2 DESK STUDY ............................................................................................................14
8.3 RECONNAISSANCE STUDY ..................................................................................14
8.4 DRILLING OF BOREHOLES ...................................................................................15
8.5 TRIAL PIT ..................................................................................................................16
..........................................................................................................................................17
8.6 DYNAMIC CONE PENETRATION TEST (DCPT) .................................................17
8.7 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT) ..............................................................18
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 8.8 LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS ........................................................................18
8.9 PRELIMINARY COST ESTIMATE ..........................................................................19
CHAPTER 9 : ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT ....................................20
CHAPTER 10: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.........................................................22

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING REPORT........................................................................24

CHAPTER 11: INTRODUCTION...................................................................................25
11.1 BACKGROUND........................................................................................................25
11.2 OBJECTIVE...............................................................................................................26
11.3 SCOPE........................................................................................................................26
CHAPTER 12: DESK STUDY.........................................................................................27
12.1 DESIGN APPROACHES ……………………………………………......................27
12.2 DESIGN CODES ………………………………………………………...................28
12.3 DESIGN CRITERIA..................................................................................................30
12.4 LOAD REQUIREMENTS..........................................................................................31
CHAPTER 13: MATERIALS............................................................................................33
13.1 CONCRETE…………………………………………………………………….........33
13.2 CEMENT……………………………………………………………………….........33
13.3 CONCRETE GRADE…………………………………………………………..........36
CHAPTER 14: CONCRETE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS………………………….......37
14.1 SLABS…………………………………………………………………………..........38
14.2 BEAMS………………………………………………………………………….........44
14.3 COLUMNS……………………………………………………………………...........48
14.4 STAIRCASE…………………………………………………………………….........51
14.5 RAMP…………………………………………………………………………….......52
14.6 TRUSSES………………………………………………………………………..........53
CHAPTER 15: REINFORCEMENTS………………………………………………........55
15.1 LOADING AND LOAD COMBINATION……………………………………..........56
15.2 PRELIMINARY SIZING OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS……………………........61

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 CHAPTER 16: BILL OF QUANTITIES……………………………………………64
CHAPTER 17: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT………………… ..67
CONCLUSION...........................................................................................................70

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING REPORT………………………..................71

CHAPTER 18: INTRODUCTION……………………………................................72

18.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………........................................72

18.2 OBJECTIVE, PURPOSE AND GOALS………..................................................72

18.3 METHODOLOGY/APPROACH…………………….........................................73

18.4 SITE VISIT/FIELD STUDY……………………................................................73

CHAPTER 19: EXISTING CONDITIONS………………….................................75

19.1 SITE LAYOUT AND LOCATION……………………......................................75

19.2 ROAD NETWORK……………………..............................................................76

CHAPTER 20: ROAD DESIGN CRITERIA/PARAMETERS…..........................77

20.1 DESIGN STANDARDS………………...............................................................77

20.2 DESIGN SPEED………………….......................................................................77

20.3 DESIGN VEHICLE……......................................................................................78

20.4 DESIGN LIFE………..........................................................................................79

CHAPTER 21: GEOMETRIC DESIGN………......................................................80

21.1 SIGHT DISTANCE…………………..................................................................80

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21.2 SUPER-ELEVATION……………............. .........................................................80

21.3 CROSS-ELEVATION….................................................... .. ..............................81

21.4 ALIGNMENT……..............................................................................................82

21.5 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT……...................................................................83

21.6 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT…….........................................................................86

CHAPTER 22: PAVEMENT DESIGN………........................................................89

22.1 OBJECTIVES OF PAVEMENT DESIGN………..............................................89

22.2 FUNCTIONS OF PAVEMENT DESIGN……...................................................89

22.3 PAVEMENT DESIGN PHASES………….........................................................89

22.4 REQUIREMENTS OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURE……..................................90

22.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PAVEMENTS…………………...................................90

22.6 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE…………................................................................91

22.7 PAVEMENT LAYER………...............................................................................91

22.8 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS…...............................................................................91

22.9 TYPES OF PAVEMENT FAILURE…………....................................................94

CHAPTER 23: PARKING LOT DESIGN…………………..................................95

23.1 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DESIGNING PARKING LOT..........................95

23.2 HANDICAP PARKING……………...................................................................95

23.3 PARKING SIGNS AND MARKINGS……........................................................95

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 CHAPTER 24: INTERSECTION DESIGN……......................................................96

24.1 TYPES OF INTERSECTION………....................................................................96

CHAPTER 25: ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT……..........................99

25.1 NOISE AND VIBRATION………………............................................................99

25.2 AIR………………….............................................................................................100

25.3 RISK MANAGEMENT.........................................................................................100

25.4 SOIL AND LAND.................................................................................................100

CHAPTER 26: BILL OF QUANTITIES...................................................................100

WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING REPORT……………..........................................103

CHAPTER 27: WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM……………..........................................105

27.1 SOURCES OF WATER..........................................................................................105

27.2 TREATMENT OF WATER SOURCE...................................................................108

CHAPTER 28: WATER DEMAND............................................................................109

28.1 DESIGN PERIOD.................................................................................................110

28.2 POPULATION PROJECTION..............................................................................110

CHAPTER 29: WATER SOURCE: GHANA WATER COMPANY LIMITED....112

29.1 STORAGE.............................................................................................................112

29.2 DISTRIBUTION………………...........................................................................113

CHAPTER 30: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT…........................114

vi
CHAPTER 31: BILL OF QUANTITIES…………………………..........................115

MINUTES OF CONSULTANTS..................................................................................116

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................125

APPENDICES..............................................................................................................126

vii
List of Tables

Table 1: Features around site........................................................................................................4

Table 2: Environmental impact assessment.................................................................................20

Table 3: Imposed loads.................................................................................................................31

Table 4: Bill of Quantities.............................................................................................................66

viii
List of Figures

Figure 1: Layout of the site ............................................................................................1

Figure 2: Graph showing the temperature of each month...............................................5

Figure 3: Graph showing the different rainfall levels for each month............................6
Figure 4: Graph showing the different water temperature for each month..... ................7
Figure 5: Map of Ghana showing seismic zones and their respective ground acceleration
.........................................................................................................................................9
Figure 6: Seismic hazard zones for southern Ghana.......................................................10
Figure 7: Geological map of Ghana................................................................................11
Figure 8: Geological map of southern Ghana.................................................................11
Figure 9: Expansive soil on site......................................................................................12
Figure 10: Extracted dark subsoil...................................................................................12
Figure 11: Map showing the various aquifer types and their productivity levels...........13
Figure 22: Borehole drilling............................................................................................16
Figure 33: Trial pit 1.......................................................................................................17
Figure 44: Trial pit 2.......................................................................................................17
Figure 55: DCPT being carried out.................................................................................17
Figure 66: Layout of the site...........................................................................................25
Figure 77: Picture of Morrocco Mall Under Construction Using Concrete....................36
Figure 88: Picture of a Concrete Slab and Accra Mall Slab............................................38
Figure 99: Picture of a One-way Slab.............................................................................39
Figure 20: Picture of a Two-way Slab.............................................................................39
Figure 21: Picture of Flat Slab.........................................................................................40
Figure 22: Picture of Waffle Slab.................................................................................... 40
Figure 23: Picture of Flat Plate Slab.................................................................................41
Figure 24: Picture of Flat Hollow Core Slabs..................................................................41
Figure 25: Picture of Flat Hardy Slabs.............................................................................42

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Figure 26: Picture of Bubble deck Slabs..........................................................................42
Figure 27: Picture of Composite Slabs.............................................................................43
Figure 28: Picture of Precast Slabs...................................................................................43
Figure 29: Picture of Beams.............................................................................................44
Figure 30: Picture of Fixed beams...................................................................................45
Figure 31: Picture of Continuous beams..........................................................................46
Figure 32: Picture of Cantilever beams............................................................................46
Figure 33: Picture of Simply supported beams................................................................47
Figure 34: Picture of Overhanging beams........................................................................48
Figure 35: Picture of Accra Mall Columns......................................................................48
Figure 36: Picture of Stocky Columns.............................................................................49
Figure 37: Picture of Slender Columns............................................................................50
Figure 38: Picture of Accra Mall Entrance Staircase.......................................................51
Figure 39: Picture of Ramps............................................................................................52
Figure 40: Picture of Trusses...........................................................................................53
Figure 41: Picture of reinforcements been done in construction.....................................55
Figure 42: A site cleared for construction........................................................................67
Figure 43: Air pollution taking place at a construction site.............................................68
Figure 44: Noise pollution taking place at a construction site by site machines.............69
Figure 45: Image of how the existing road looks like on site..........................................73
Figure 46: Image of existing drainage system which needs to be constructed properly again
..........................................................................................................................................74
Figure 47: Image of how the nature of the roads leading to the site looks like...............74

Figure 48: Image of parking studies being done at Accra Mall.......................................75

Figure 49: Image of how the Tema-Aflao Road looks like..............................................76

Figure 50: Image of the site and how the road network system looks like......................76

Figure 51: Image showing the design speed to be used on the road.................................78
x
Figu re 52: Vehicle Design Speed.....................................................................................78
Figure 53: Vehicle Characteristics....................................................................................78
Figure 54: Image of how a spiral curve looks like...........................................................84

Figure 55: Image of a simple circular curve.....................................................................85

Figure 56: Image of a reverse curves................................................................................85
Figure 57: Image of how compound curves are being designed......................................86
Figure 58: Image of how a sag curve design looks like...................................................87

Figure 59: Image of how a crest curve design looks like.................................................88

Figure 60: Image of a pavement structure consisting of its layers...................................91

Figure 61: Image of pavement layers...............................................................................91

Figure 62: Image of a flexible pavement.........................................................................92

Figure 63: Image of a rigid pavement.............................................................................93

Figure 64: Image of a composite pavement......................................................................94

Figure 65: Image of how a simple intersection design looks like....................................97

Figure 66: Image of a flared intersection..........................................................................97

Figure 67: Image of a channelized intersection................................................................98

Figure 68: Image of a roundabout....................................................................................99

Figure 69: A practical example of how rain water harvesting looks like.........................107

Figure 69: This the rainy days chart in every month for 2023.........................................108

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Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Building a bustling shopping centre with spaces for student enterprises, offices, and recreational
amenities is one way Central University hopes to improve the student experience. In addition to data
collecting, design criteria, material selection, and an account of the steps involved in creating an
affordable structural design, this report describes the project's conceptual framework. Central
University have decided to seek the expertise of DIAMOND CONSULTANCY.

1.2 SITE DESCRIPTION

The proposed project site is located at Central University, Dawhenya-Prampram.
The location has a perimeter of 698.15m with an area of 27,886.92m2. It a
longitude of 5.4621N latitude of 0.0507E. This site is covered with an appreciable
amount of vegetation.

Figure 1: Layout of the site

1
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
REPORT

2
CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION

The investigation aims not only to evaluate the site's suitability for the proposed development but
also to gather relevant geotechnical data essential for designing the foundation of the proposed
facility and constructing vehicle and pedestrian pavements. The investigation area encompasses
the designated area of land. This report will outline the necessary activities for the investigation,
present findings from desk studies, and offer engineering recommendations to ensure a
successful investigation.

2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE INVESTIGATION

The primary goal of the investigation is to determine the site's suitability for the proposed
project. Specifically, the investigation aims to:

• Detailed description of site seismology, geologic and soils conditions;

• Acquisition of site information on groundwater levels, their seasonal fluctuation and
chemistry.
• To observe and report potential conditions relating to environmental impact.
• Derivation of pertinent foundation design parameters for the estimation of bearing
capacity and probable settlements and for the selection of suitable foundation types.
• The prediction of construction difficulties i.e. Changes that may arise in the ground and
environmental conditions.
• Engineering properties of materials excavated.
• Suitability of materials for use as fill/layer works materials.
• Potential expansiveness/collapsibility of the soils.

2.2 SCOPE OF THE WORK

To accomplish the objectives, the consultant devised the following scope of work, keeping the
client's requirements in close consideration:

• Review of available data pertinent to the site and its immediate surroundings.

• Carry out field investigation - involving observation of wells in the close vicinity of the site,
performance of Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and soil sampling; to know the mechanical and
geological properties of the geo-materials at the site.

3
• Conduct basic laboratory testing on selected soil samples in accordance with BS 1377 (1990).

• Perform geotechnical engineering analysis regarding the proposed construction using the
information obtained from the subsurface investigation and laboratory testing and prepare a
geotechnical report on the findings, conclusions, and recommendations for the geotechnical
engineering aspects of the proposed development.

Table 1: Features around site

s. No Surrounding feature Distance from Direction w.r.t

project site project site
1 Daniel Institute 145m W
Building
2 Lecture halls and 335m SW
department
3 Boys Hostel 737m SE
4 Campus Girls Hostel 610m SE
5 Administration 655m SW
6 Trinity Hall 480m S
7 Pronto Girls Hostel 659m SE
8 University Clinic 80m S

4
CHAPTER 3: HYDROLOGY AND METEOROLOGY

3.1 TEMPERATURE

The region experiences predominantly high temperatures throughout the year, peaking during the
main dry season (November – March). Prampram records an average yearly temperature of
26.9°C/80.4°F, maintaining warm conditions consistently.

March registers as the warmest month, with an average temperature of 28.6°C/83.4°F, while
August is comparatively cooler, with temperatures averaging around 24.6°C/76.2°F.

Figure 2: Graph showing the temperature of

each month

5
 3.2 RAINFALL DATA

Precipitation levels are generally low, with sporadic rainfall occurrences primarily between
September and November. The average annual rainfall ranges from 762.5 millimeters along the
coast to 1,220 millimeters in the northern district areas.

January marks the driest month, with a mere 19 mm (0.7 inches) of rainfall, while June receives
the highest average precipitation, totaling 146 mm (5.7 inches).

Figure 3: graph showing the different

rainfall levels for each month

3.3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY

The month with the highest relative humidity is August (87.0%), while January has the lowest
relative humidity (74.03%).

6
3.4 WATER TEMPERATURE

Within the Gulf of Guinea, Prampram maintains an average water temperature of about 26.90°C
(80.42°F).

August typically witnesses the coldest water temperatures, dipping to approximately 23.00°C
(73.40°F), while May boasts the highest average maximum temperature at around 28.80°C
(83.84°F).

Figure 4: graph showing the different water

temperature for each month

7
CHAPTER 4: FLOOD RECORDS THE PROJECT AREA

Flooding has been a frequent occurrence in Ghana since 1930. From 1995, the frequency of
flooding has increased in the coastal areas of Ghana. Flooding in Ghana often occurs in the
aftermath of intense and/or continuous rainfall, which results in high run-offs. Between the years
1900 and 2014, the economic loss because of flooding was approximately US$ 780,500,000.

The most devastating flooding event in Ghanaian history occurred on the 3rd of June 2015, when
most parts of southern Ghana experienced heavy thunderstorms and rain. The active spot of the
storm was centered over Accra, where 212.8 mm of rainfall was recorded leading to flooding
over many areas in the city. This flooding incident and an explosion of a fuel filling station at
Kwame Nkrumah Circle, a suburb of Accra, claimed over 150 lives and destroyed lots of
properties while displacing hundreds of people. The most recent flooding that occurred around
the project area was on 27th November 2023, Hundreds of residents of Dawhenya near
Prampram in the Greater Accra Region were displaced following the flooding of their homes
caused by the spillage of an irrigation dam in the area. More than 100 people were displaced with
others confined in their residences, due to the overflow of an irrigation dam in the Ningo-
Prampram District of the Greater Accra Region.

CHAPTER 5: SEISMICITY OF THE PROJECT AREA

The seismic activity in Ghana dates back to 1636, when a seismic activity was said to have
destroyed a village near Axim. Major seismic events have been experienced in parts of Ghana in
1862, 1906, 1939 and 1997, in addition to numerous other minor shocks. Fast forward and the
last earthquake happened on the 24th of June 2020. It was widely felt in the Greater Accra region
and some parts of the central region. The Ghana Geological Survey Authority (GGSA) recorded
and located the epicentre offshore Dansoman, near Accra.

It is also important to note that parts of Accra and Tema experienced Intensity III, while Intensity
II was experienced in areas like Adenta, Oyarifa, Abokobi, Prampram, Dodowa, Oyibi,
Somanya, and Aburi.
According to historical and available records most of the earthquakes and major earth tremors,
that had occurred in the country to date, had their epicenters either along the Akwapim fault zone
8
(in the Akwapim range) which trends approximately NE - SW and located about 20km to the
west of Accra, or along the Coastal Boundary faults which lies some 3.0km off-shore and runs
almost parallel to the coastline of Accra with known isoseismal values of between 7 and 9 have
been recorded on the modified Mercalli scale.
Damage survey conducted from previous earthquakes has led to the generation of seismic macro-
zonation map of Ghana (figure 4), which serves as the basis for the seismic design of civil
engineering structures. With reference to this figure, the site falls within zone 3 and 2 with a
ground acceleration of 0.35g and 0.25g respectively as shown below. According to the Figure 5,
the highest seismic hazard occurs in the Greater Accra region which previously experienced the
largest recorded Ghanaian earthquake (22 june 1936 Mw 6.4 event)

Figure 5: Map of ghana showing seismic zones and

their respective ground acceleration

9
Figure 6: Seismic hazard zones for southern Ghana

CHAPTER 6: GEOLOGY

The geological terrain of Miotso belongs to the older Dahomeyan Formation( Figure 7) which
are mostly metamorphic rocks comprises mafic gneiss, quartzite and mica schist. The site is
however underlain by Sandstone Quartz - Mica Schist Unit of the of the Dahomeyan system.
This sequence is well layered and strongly jointed. Schistosity is well developed and parallel to
bedding. The soil on site is black cotton soils or tropical black earths or black clays. This are
potentially expansive soils which classify as vertisols in pedological parlance and have been
found to occur in all major climatic zones of the world. These soils are considered problematic
and sometimes as potential natural hazard because they are susceptible to seasonal volumetric
changes, exhibit severe cracking when dry, swell and yield low bearing strengths when wet.
These problems cause extensive damage to light structures founded on them and estimated cost
of damage due to expansive soils in general runs into billions of dollars annually. A research
conducted on soil samples from Tsopoli revealed, that the black cotton soils are formed over the
Garnet-Amphibolites Gneisses of the Dahomeyan Supergroup. The chemical compositions of the
soils indicate that the most abundant oxides are silica, alumina and iron oxide. The presence of
Quartz and montmorillonite were established. 9 Geomechanical studies also suggest that the
natural black cotton soils are unsuitable for subgrade construction and hence require

10
improvement through stabilization. Pozzolana cement appeared to be most effective for
stabilizing the black cotton soils.

Figure 7: Geological map of Figure 8: Geological map of southern

Ghana. Ghana.

11
Figure 10: Expansive soil on site. Figure 10: Extracted dark
subsoil.

12
 CHAPTER 7: HYDROGEOLOGY

The site is underlain by the Dahomeyan aquifer. This aquifer is part of the Basement super group
alongside Birimian, Granite, Togo and Buem Aquifers. Yields from the basement aquifers vary
greatly, ranging from less than 0.1 to 10 liters per second (l/s). The measured transmissivity
which is the ability of an aquifer to transmit water) varies between 0.2 and 119 square meters per
day (m²/day). It is important to note that water quality in the basement aquifers is generally fair
to good and is slightly acidic (pH<6.5) with low salinity and total hardness. Recharge of the
basement aquifers mainly occurs from rainfall

Figure 11: Map showing the various

aquifer types and their productivity
levels.

13
CHAPTER 8: METHODOLOGY FOR THE ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATION

8.1 GENERAL
The geotechnical investigation will commence once approval has been granted by Central
University. The method to be employed is in accordance with what is stipulated in the British
Standard Code of Practice (BS.5930 - 1999) - Site investigation for Civil Engineering Projects.

The activities to be carried out included;

• Reviewing of available geological data (desk study),

• Site reconnaissance,

• Mechanical sinking of boreholes,

• Excavation of trial pits,

• Performance of Standard Penetration Test,

• Recovering of soil samples and laboratory testing of samples from the field to

the lab.

8.2 DESK STUDY

A comprehensive review of the pertinent literature relating to the geology, geotechnical reports
and other relevant weather within Miotso and beyond the boundaries of the project area was
undertaken to evaluate the known status of ground conditions.

8.3 RECONNAISSANCE STUDY

After careful background study and definition of survey data requirement, the consortium visited
the proposed site to:

• Confirm information collected during desk study.

• Confirm the accessibility to the site.

• Collect all pertinent site-specific information on the vegetation, drainage and

topography.

14
• Identify possible health and safety hazards.

• Adapt or amend as necessary the scope of services and survey data

requirements.

All information gathered during the site visit is documented in this report for the planning of the
detailed geotechnical investigation.

8.4 DRILLING OF BOREHOLES

The geotechnical investigation will consist of mechanically sinking eight (8) boreholes and soil
sampling for the structure at a depth of 10m and mechanically sinking eighteen (18) boreholes
and soil sampling for road construction at a depth of 6m. In the drilling of the boreholes,
undisturbed soil samples will be recovered from appropriate depths for laboratory testing. All
recovered samples will be encased in a core box with samples for moisture contents bagged in a
transparent polyethylene plastic wrapping to protect against moisture loss and external factors
that pose a threat. All samples will be identified according to project number, project location,
borehole number, depth of sampling, date of activity and sample description. Borehole are
positioned at suitable locations so as to capture enough subsoil characteristics. Samples
recovered from the site were subsequently transported to the laboratory for testing. In general,
the sinking of boreholes will be carried out in conformity with recommended practice as set out
in the relevant British Standards under the supervision of a Geological and Geotechnical
Engineer with a core drilling rig and drilling polymers such as polyacrylate, polymer polyglycol
and polyacrylamide. Oxide drilling will be suitable instead of rock drilling. Twenty-six (26)
boreholes will be drilled with the structure of 27886.92m2 land mass and roadway of 2027m
having 8 boreholes at 10m deep and 18 boreholes at every 120m of 6m in depth respectively.

15
Figure 12: Borehole drilling

8.5 TRIAL PIT

Trial pits of varying depths will be excavated by the help of an excavator and a cable percussion
drill for unpaved and paved spots respectively. The geotechnical investigation will consist of
mechanical extracting 24 trial pits of depth ranging between 1.5m to 4m (This will be based on
the depth of the foundation). The locations of the various investigation points are shown in the
table below. The extraction of undisturbed soil samples will be recovered and provided for
laboratory testing. All recovered samples will be encased in a transparent polyethylene plastic
wrapping to protect against moisture loss and external factors that pose a threat. All samples will
be identified according to project number, project location, test pit number, depth of sampling,
date of activity and sample description.

16
Figure 13: Trial pit 1. Figure 14: Trial pit 2

8.6 DYNAMIC CONE PENETRATION TEST (DCPT)

The Dynamic Cone Penetration Test provides a measure of a material’s in-situ resistance to
penetration. The test is performed by driving a metal cone into the ground by repeated striking it
with a 10kg weight dropped from a distance of 575mm. The penetration of the cone is measured
after each blow and is recorded to provide a continuous measure of shearing resistance up to
1.5m below the ground surface. Q ultimate = 30r, where r= number of blows.

Figure 15: DCPT being carried out.

17
8.7 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)
In-situ test in the form of Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is to be performed with the view of
studying the variation of the soil strength with depth. The procedure involves driving a standard
thick-walled sample tube into the ground at the bottom of a borehole by blows form a slide
hammer with standard weight and fall distance. The sample is driven 150 mm into the ground
and then the number of blows recorded. The number of blows needed for each 150 mm to
penetrate the ground up to a depth of 450 mm is recorded. The sum of the number of blows
required for the second and third 300 mm of penetration is reported as the N-value or Standard
penetration resistance.

8.8 LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS

Laboratory tests are to be performed on representative samples recovered from the site. Samples
include disturbed and undisturbed samples from boreholes and test pits to determine the physical
and pertinent engineering properties. Tests performed include as minimum; Atterberg's Limits
test, Sieve Analysis, Hydrometer Test, Compaction test, Moisture Content, Soil Acidity and
Alkalinity test (Chemical Test), Specific gravity of soil, Dry Density of Soil, California Bearing
Ratio) All phases of laboratory testing program will be performed in accordance with the
methods stipulated in the current British Standards (BS 1377-1990) - methods for testing soil for
civil engineering purposes.

18
 8.9 PRELIMINARY COST ESTIMATE
GEOTECHNICAL BOQ FOR 2-STOREY COMMERCIAL BUILDING CENTRAL
UNIVERSITY MIOTSO CAMPUS

ITEM
DESCRIPTION QUANTITY UNIT RATE(GH¢) AMOUNT(GH¢)
NO.
1 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
Carrying out in situ tests for
measurement of soil resistivity it
various locations as per
specification, drawing and
instructions of the engineer.

a) Mobilization 120000.00 120,000.00

b) Trial Pit 24 L.S 900.00 21,600.00

c) Drilling of borehole 26 L.S 2000.00 52,000.00

d) Dynamic Cone Penetration test 109 No. 700.00 76,300.00

e) standard cone penetration test 109 No. 300.00 32,700.00

f) field density test 10 No.

2 LABORATORY TESTING
Carrying out lab tests as per
specification and instructions of the
engineer Soil sample tests in
approved laboratory
a) Atterberg limits 60 No. 200.00 12,000.00

b) sieve analysis test 70 No. 200.00 14,000.00

c) hydrometer test 70 No. 200.00 14,000.00

d) compaction test 50 No. 270.00 13,500.00

19
 e) moisture content test 60 No. 120.00 7,200.00

f) Chemical test ( soil acidity and

50 No. 210.00 10,500.00
alkalinity)
g) California bearing ratio (CBR) 50 No. 270.00 10,3500.00

Total= GH¢387,300.00

CHAPTER 9: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) identified specific areas of concern that could be
affected by implementation of the proposed project in all the three phases; drilling and
construction, operation and decommissioning and proposed mitigation measures. Below is a
summary of potential environmental impacts associated with the proposed project and a brief
description of their mitigation measures:

Table 2: Environmental impact assessment

Environmental impact Solution

1. Noise pollution Geotechnical activities will be carried out at
day.
2. Air pollution 1. All workers will be provided with nose
mask to prevent inhalation of harmful gases
and dust.
2. A six (6) meter proximity barricade will
be set all round to protect civilians from
dust and gases.
3. Daily maintenance and servicing of
mechanical equipment.
3. Soil disturbance 1. Exposed pits will be refilled immediately
after excess samples have been extracted for
laboratory investigation

20
 2. Filled pits and exposed pits will be
surrounded with a reflective caution tape.
3. Pits will be excavated in the dry season to
avoid them from being filled with water and
later be a breeding ground for insects and
poisonous reptiles and amphibians.
4. utilize soil stabilization and revegetation
to restore disturbed areas
4. Fire hazard 1. Fire extinguisher/sand buckets/ water in
the facility.
3. Expert advice on the use and maintenance
of related infrastructure
5. Occupational Health and Safety of 1. Warning signs and mandatory signs will
Workers and Civilians. be placed at vantage points.
2. All workers and visitors will be required
to put on personal protective equipment
before entry will be given to him or her on
the site.
3. Fence site to prevent accidental falls into
gaping holes.
4. Workers to be trained on equipment use.
5. First aid facilities to be available on site.
Groundwater contamination 1.Use secondary containment systems for
storing and handling hazardous materials to
prevent spills and leaks.
2.Implement proper disposal practices for
construction waste, including hazardous
materials, to prevent contamination of
groundwater.

21
 3.Conduct regular inspections and
maintenance of equipment and storage areas
to detect and address potential sources of
contamination.
Waste generation 1.Implement waste management plans to
reduce, reuse, and recycle construction
materials whenever possible.
2.Separate and properly dispose of
construction waste according to local
regulations and best practices.
3.Encourage the use of sustainable building
materials and construction techniques to
minimize waste generation.

CHAPTER 10: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Based on the results of the preliminary investigation the following conclusions have been made:

• Proposed structural site cover 27,886.92 m2 and roadway of 2027m land mass.
• Dahomeyan which consist of Biotite, Garnet, Hornblende, Migmatites, Schists and
Ortho and Para Gneisses.
• In-situ soil is expansive and therefore considered problematic due to potential natural
hazard.
• They exhibit severe cracking when dry, swell when wet yielding low bearing
strengths.
• Project site falls between zone 2 and zone 3.
• A ground acceleration between 0.25g and 0.35g is recommended.
• Project must commence between December and April.
• A total of 26 boreholes will be mechanically sunk. Eight (8) for the structure and
eighteen (18) for the roadway at 10m and 6m respectively.
• The depth of the foundation was assumed to be of high yield
22
• There will be a borehole at every 120m on the provided roadway by the transportation
engineer.
• A total of 24 test pits will be excavated mechanically by a backhoe. Eight (8) for the
structures allocation and 16 for the roadway at 3m deep.
• Project must commence between December and April.
• Groundwater was encountered from borehole 01, 02, 03 at 8.4m, 7.1m and 8.6m
respectively.
• Project is estimated to cost GH¢ 387,300.00.

23
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
REPORT

24
Chapter 11: INTRODUCTION

11.1 BACKGROUND

Building a bustling shopping centre with spaces for student enterprises, offices, and
recreational amenities is one way Central University hopes to improve the student experience.
In addition to data collecting, design criteria, material selection, and an account of the steps
involved in creating an affordable structural design, this report describes the project's
conceptual framework.

Figure 16: Layout of the site

25
11.2 OBJECTIVES

Upon the completion of the Central University Shopping Centre Project, we aim to achieve the
following goals:

• Develop a commercial area that fosters a vibrant environment for student entrepreneurs
and provides recreational spaces.
• Blend educational spaces with commercial outlets to encourage learning.

• Design an economical three-storey structure that accommodates shops and open offices
within the estimated budget.
• Deliver a comprehensive bill of quantities and a realistic cost estimate.

• Present comprehensive reports detailing both manual and software prompted structural
analysis results (PROTA STRUCTURES, AUTOCAD AND STAAD PRO).
• Adhere to relevant design standards and criteria, considering local building codes and
regulations.
• Provide detailed structural drawings for construction.

11.3 SCOPE

The scope involves defining the tasks and project methodology.

Key elements include:

• Provide a brief description of the intended use and function of the building.

• Outline the financing plan by identifying the quantity of building materials needed such
as the reinforcements.
• Architectural drawings would be considered to provide suitable conceptual structural
designs of the building with the aim of accounting for the various loads
(Dead loads Live loads, Seismic loads and wind loads)

• Initial design of structural elements involves performing calculations for shear force and
bending moment to ascertain the stability of the building component.
• Makes sure the chosen design codes are applied in the design of the structural members
such as (beam, column, slab, and foundation).

26
Chapter 12: DESK STUDY

The desk study refers to the initial phase of a project where comprehensive data is gathered,
analysed, and synthesized without the need for physical site visits. This phase is crucial for
understanding the project's context and establishing a foundation for subsequent design and
construction activities. Here are key aspects typically included in the desk study:

• Clearly define the project site's geographical location, including coordinates, and
proximity to major landmarks or infrastructure.
• Describe the natural features of the site, such as elevation, slope, and soil conditions.
• Zoning and Land Use: Understand local zoning regulations and land use policies that
may impact the project.
• Building Codes: Identify and review applicable building codes and standards that govern
construction in the area.
12.1 DESIGN APPROACHES

This refers to the underlying principles, approaches, and considerations that guide the planning,
conceptualization, and execution of engineering projects. These philosophies provide a
framework for engineers to make informed decisions, solve complex problems, and achieve
specific goals. Several design philosophies are commonly employed in civil engineering, and
their application may vary based on the type of project, environmental factors, and technological
advancements.

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD):

• This incorporates factors of safety to account for uncertainties in material properties and
loads. It considers both the applied loads and the structural resistance in the design
process.
• It allows for a more rational and economical design by considering the actual variability
in loads and material properties.

27
Limit State Design:

• Structures are designed to ensure that specific limit states, such as strength, stability, and
serviceability, are not exceeded under different loading conditions.
• This philosophy involves defining various limit states, including ultimate and
serviceability states, and ensuring the structure remains within acceptable limits.
Working Stress Design (WSD):

• Structures are designed based on allowable stresses in materials under specific loading
conditions. This approach was more commonly used in the past.
• It involves calculating stresses in the material and ensuring they do not exceed
permissible values, taking into account safety factors.
Structural Redundancy:

• Incorporates redundancy in the structure to ensure alternative load paths exist if one
component fails. Redundancy enhances the overall safety and resilience of a structure.
• Designing structures with backup systems or alternative load-bearing elements.

12.2 DESIGN CODES

Structural design codes are sets of standards and guidelines developed by professional
organizations and regulatory bodies to ensure the safe and reliable design of structures. These
codes provide engineers and architects with established criteria and procedures for designing
buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure elements. The codes take into account factors
such as structural integrity, safety, and durability. Here are some widely recognized structural
design codes:

• Ghana National Building Regulations (1996):

The Ghana National Building Regulations, established in 1996, provides a legal
framework for building construction in the country. It covers various aspects of
construction, including structural design, sanitation, fire safety, and accessibility.

28
• Eurocodes:
Focus on European standards for structural design. A series of European standards
covering different aspects of structural design, such as Eurocode 2 for concrete structures
and Eurocode 3 for steel structures.

EN 1998-1: General rules, seismic actions, and rules for buildings: This part provides
general principles for the seismic design of buildings, including methods for assessing
seismic hazards, structural analysis, and design criteria.

EN 1998-2: Bridges: This part focuses on the seismic design of bridges and other civil
engineering structures, providing specific guidelines for their seismic resistance.

EN 1998-3: Assessment and retrofitting of buildings: This part deals with the assessment
and retrofitting of existing buildings to improve their seismic resistance and ensure their
safety during earthquakes.

• British Standards (BS8110 Part 1-3 1997):

This section of BS 8110 provides guidance for utilizing concrete structurally in buildings
and structures, with the exception of bridges and structural concrete produced using high
alumina cement. The guidelines for ensuring structural robustness are developed under
the premise that all load-bearing components, such as slabs, columns, and walls, are
constructed of concrete. When applicable, British Standards are accessible for precast
concrete items, such as kerbs and pipes.

• British Standards (BS5950 Part 1-2000):

Code of practice for design rolled and welded sections. Structural use of steelwork in
building.
• British Standards (BS-6399 Part 1):
Pertains to loading for buildings. It provides guidance on the imposed loads, including
snow loads, wind loads, and other environmental factors, that buildings and structures are
expected to withstand.

29
12.3 DESIGN CRITERIA

Design criteria in civil engineering refer to the specific parameters, standards, and
considerations that engineers follow during the planning and design phases of a project.
These criteria are established to ensure the safety, functionality, and durability of
structures. Here are key design criteria commonly considered in civil engineering:

• Material Properties:
Specifications for the materials used, including robustness, durability, and fire resistance
properties.
Adherence to material standards established by organizations like ASTM or EN.

• Structural Stability:
Verification of structural stability against forces, ensuring resistance to deformation,
bending, and buckling.
Adequate factors of safety are applied to account for uncertainties.

• Robustness: this is the ability of a structure to maintain its integrity and functionality
under a variety of conditions, including unexpected or extreme events. A robust structure
is resilient and able to withstand unforeseen challenges, ensuring the safety of occupants
and the longevity of the construction.
• Durability: this is the ability of a structure or construction material to withstand various
environmental, operational, and structural challenges over an extended period. A durable
structure is one that maintains its intended function, performance, and appearance
throughout its expected service life.
• Fire-Resistance: the ability of a structure, building component, or material to withstand
exposure to fire or high temperatures for a specified period while maintaining its
structural integrity and safety. Fire-resistant design and materials are essential to ensure
the protection of occupants, prevent the spread of fire, and minimize damage to
structures.

30
12.4 LOAD REQUIREMENTS:
Dead Load(Gk): The weight of permanent, immovable components of a structure, such
as the building itself.
Self-weight is load coming from all structural elements defined in model calculated in
respect to used sections material and slab or walls thickness.
Self-weight = Thickness x Density of concrete
Where,
Thickness of Slab = 150mm
Density of concrete = 24KN/m3
Dead load = Self weight + Service load + Finishes
Partial safety factor for dead load = 1.4

Live Load(Qk): The dynamic loads imposed on a structure due to occupancy, furniture,
and other movable elements.
BS 6399 part 1 is the code which would be used to obtain the Imposed load on the
various use of space in the structure.
Partial safety factor for live load = 1.6
Imposed load for shop spaces 4.0KN/m2
Imposed load for corridor spaces 3.0KN/m2
Imposed load for offices spaces 2.5KN/m2
Imposed load for accessible roof 1.5KN/m2
Imposed loads on stairs 4.0KN/m2
Imposed loads for ram 5.0 KN/m2
Imposed loads for toilet 2.0 KN/m2
Table 3: Imposed loads

31
Wind Load(Wk): Consideration of wind forces on structures, especially for tall buildings
and bridges. The building's structural design must absorb wind forces safely and
efficiently and transfer them to the foundations in order to avoid structural collapse.

Seismic Load: Earthquake forces are crucial in seismic-prone areas, influencing

structural design to withstand ground motion. Found in Eurocode 8 (EN 1998). It is
essential for designing structures that can safely withstand the forces and shaking
generated during an earthquake.

32
Chapter 13: MATERIALS

Material standards for construction refer to established specifications and guidelines that
define the properties, quality, and performance requirements of construction materials. The
structural element would primarily be designed using reinforced concrete members for the
following reasons:

• Reinforced concrete offers cost advantages over steel.

• Reinforced concrete structures are known for their durability, boasting a long lifespan.
• These standards are developed and maintained by various organizations and regulatory
bodies, both at the national and international levels. Adhering to these standards ensures
consistency, safety, and reliability in construction projects.
13.1 CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material made from mixing cement, aggregates such as sand and
crushed stone and water. The properties of concrete depend on the ratios used in the mix design.
For example, concrete is an excellent material for building foundations where the weight of the
structure meets the ground. This requires strength to carry the load and also durability to
withstand the contact with the surrounding soil.

13.2 CEMENT

Cement is a fine gray powder created from raw materials and chemical compounds that
professionals use in various types of construction jobs. It's a manufactured ingredient used in
concrete. Professionals create cement by mixing raw materials with metals and minerals such as
aluminium, iron, calcium and silicon before heating it to high temperatures to form a solid
material called clinker. Clinker is then ground into a powder sold as cement to ready-mix
concrete companies. Raw materials in cement may include:

• Chalk
• Clay
• Iron ore
• Limestone
• Shale

33
 • Shells
• Silica sand

TYPES OF CEMENT

There are a variety of types of cement you can use depending on your project's purpose and
conditions:
• ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT (OPC)
Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement manufactured and used
worldwide. “Portland” is a generic name derived from a type of building stone quarried
on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. OPC is suitable for most general concrete
jobs and mortar or stucco construction projects.
• PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT (PPC)
Manufacturers create Portland pozzolana cement by grinding pozzolanic clinker,
sometimes with additives of gypsum or calcium sulfate, with ordinary Portland cement.
Compared to OPC, it has a higher resistance to various chemical reactions within
concrete. PPC is often used for projects like bridges, piers, dams, marine
structures, sewage works or underwater concrete projects.
• RAPID-HARDENING CEMENT
Contractors or construction teams may choose rapid-hardening cement for its high
strength in the early stages of the hardening process. Its strength in three days is
comparable to OPC strength at seven days with the same water-to-cement ratio. Rapid-
hardening cement may have an increased lime content, combined with a finer grinding
process, or better strength development. It is often used for projects with early-stage
formwork removal or when the focus is on increasing construction rates and decreasing
costs.
• EXTRA-RAPID-HARDENING CEMENT
Extra-rapid-hardening cement may set and become durable even faster than OPC and
rapid-hardening cement. Construction professionals achieve this by adding calcium
chloride to rapid-hardening cement. This cement type may be useful for cold-weather
concrete projects due to its fast setting rate.

34
• QUICK-SETTING CEMENT
Similar to extra-rapid-hardening cement, this concrete type may set and become stronger
even quicker than OPC and rapid-hardening cement. Its grain and strength rate are similar
to OPC, but it hardens faster. Quick-setting cement may be beneficial for time-sensitive
projects or those located near stagnant or running water.
• LOW-HEAT CEMENT
Manufacturers produce low-heat cement by monitoring the percentage of tricalcium
aluminate in the mixture to ensure it stays below 6% of the whole. This helps maintain
low heat during the hydration process, making this cement type more resistant to sulfates
and less reactive than other types of cement. It may be suitable for mass concrete
construction or projects to help prevent cracking due to heat. However, low-heat cement
may have a longer initial setting time than other types.
• SULFATE-RESISTING CEMENT
Sulfate-resisting cement helps reduce the risk of sulfate side effects on concrete. Its most
common use is for constructing foundations in soil with high sulfate content. This
concrete type can also be beneficial for projects like canal linings, culverts and retaining
walls.
• BLAST FURNACE SLAG CEMENT
Manufacturers make blast furnace slag cement by grinding clinker with up to 60% slag.
This creates cement with many of the same properties as OPC. However, it may be less
expensive to produce than other types, making it a good choice for financially conscious
projects.
• HIGH-ALUMINA CEMENT
High-alumina cement is a type of rapid-hardening cement created by melting bauxite and
lime together and grinding it with clinker. It has high compressive strength and may be
more flexible and workable than OPC. Construction teams can use high-alumina cement
for projects where cement is subject to extreme weather like high temperatures or frost.

35
 • WHITE CEMENT
White cement is a type of OPC that's white instead of gray. It's prepared from raw
materials that don't include iron oxide and may be more expensive than other cement
types. It's often useful in architectural projects and interior and exterior decorative
projects like designing garden paths, floors, swimming pools and ornamental concrete
products.

13.3 CONCRETE GRADE

This is the compressive strength of concrete mixtures used in various structural applications. It is
denoted by the letter "C" followed by a number, such as C20, C25 and C30. The grade of
concrete indicates the characteristic compressive strength of the concrete after a specified curing
period, usually 28 days. Due to the sub and superstructure of the building we would be using a
variation of concrete grade of C25 and C30 with a blinding concrete grade of C15 and C25.

Figure 17: Picture of Morrocco Mall Under Construction Using Concrete.

36
Chapter 14: CONCRETE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Structural members are any load-supporting components or part of an assembly which provides
vertical or lateral support to a building or structure.
Such as:

• Slabs
• Beams
• Columns
• Staircases
• Ramps
• Trusses

37
14.1 SLABS
A slab is a flat, two-dimensional planar structural component of building having a very
small thickness compared to its other two dimensions.
Reinforced concrete slabs are used in roofs, floors, ceilings and as the decks of bridges.
The slab may be supported by walls or by reinforced concrete beams usually cast
monolithically. with the slab or by structural steel beams or by columns, or by the ground.

Figure 18: Picture of a Concrete Slab and Accra Mall Slab.

TYPES OF SLABS

• CONVENTIONAL SLAB
A slab supported by beams and columns is called a conventional slab or regular slab. In
these types, the thickness of the slab is small, while the depth of the beam is large and it
is transferred to the load-bearing beams and then to the columns. Types of a conventional
slab is as below:
• One way Slab and
• Two way Slab

38
 • ONE-WAY SLAB ON BEAMS
These slabs are supported by parallel beams that transfer the load to columns. These
slabs are designed to resist loads in one direction only, and the reinforcement is
provided in the direction perpendicular to the beams.

Figure 19: Picture of a One-way Slab.

• TWO-WAY SLAB ON BEAMS

These slabs are supported by beams in both directions and are designed to resist loads in
two directions. The reinforcement is provided in both directions, and the slab is usually
thicker than one-way slabs.

Figure 20: Picture of a Two-way Slab.

39
• FLAT SLAB
Flat slabs are similar to flat plate slabs but have drop panels around the columns to
increase the strength and stiffness of the slab. The reinforcement is provided in both
directions, and the slab is supported directly on the columns or walls.

Figure 21: Picture of Flat Slab.

• WAFFLE SLAB (grid slab)

A waffle slab, also known as a grid slab, is a two-way reinforced concrete slab with
square or rectangular recesses, resembling a waffle or grid pattern. These recesses or
voids reduce the weight of the slab while maintaining its strength and stiffness. The
beams between the recesses act as stiffeners and transfer the load to the columns.

Figure 22: Picture of Waffle Slab.

40
• FLAT PLATE SLAB
A flat plate slab is a one-way or two-way reinforced concrete slab supported directly on
columns or walls. The slab is usually thin and has no beams or ribs. The reinforcement is
provided in both directions to resist the loads. Flat plate slabs are simple and economical
to construct.

Figure 23: Picture of Flat Plate Slabs.

• HOLLOW CORE SLAB
A hollow core slab is a precast concrete slab with hollow cores running through the
length of the slab. The hollow cores reduce the weight of the slab, making it easier to
handle and transport. The slab is supported by beams or walls, and the reinforcement is
provided in both directions.

Figure 24: Picture of Flat Hollow Core Slabs.

41
• HARDY SLAB
A Hardy slab, also known as a profiled steel sheet slab, is a composite slab made of a
steel sheet and a concrete topping. The steel sheet acts as a formwork during construction
and as a tensile reinforcement after the concrete has hardened. The composite slab has a
high strength-to-weight ratio.

Figure 25: Picture of Hardy Slabs.

• BUBBLE DECK SLAB

Bubble deck slab is a type of two-way concrete slab that has hollow plastic balls or
bubbles incorporated into the slab. These plastic balls are made from recycled materials
and are placed in a matrix pattern within the slab. The bubbles reduce the amount of
concrete required in the slab, making it lighter and more cost-effective. The voids created
by the bubbles can also be used for services such as electrical and plumbing conduits.

Figure 26: Picture of Bubble deck Slabs.

42
• COMPOSITE SLAB
A composite slab is made up of two or more materials that work together to provide the
required strength and stiffness. A typical composite slab consists of a steel deck, steel
reinforcement, and a concrete topping. The steel deck acts as a formwork and a tensile
reinforcement, while the concrete topping provides compression strength.

Figure 27: Picture of Composite Slabs.

• PRECAST SLAB
Precast slabs are precast concrete elements that are manufactured in a factory and
transported to the construction site. These slabs can be one-way or two-way and can have
a variety of shapes and sizes. Precast slabs are usually supported by beams or walls and
are connected to each other by jointing systems.

Figure 28: Picture of Precast Slabs.

43
FUNCTIONS OF SLABS

• To provide a flat surface.

• To act as sound, heat and fire insulator.
• It provides a covering shelter or working flat surface in buildings.
• Its primary function is to transfer the load by bending in one or two directions.
• The upper slab becomes the ceiling for the storey beneath it.

14.2 BEAMS

Beams are horizontal elements which carry loads mostly perpendicular to its axis to
distribute them to its supports. One characteristic of beams is that they act in bending,
which occurs when loads act perpendicular to the element axis.

Figure 29: Picture of Beams.

TYPES OF BEAMS

• Cantilever beams
• Fixed beams
• Continuous beams
• Simply supported beams
• Overhanging beams

44
• FIXED BEAMS
A fixed beam is a type of beam that is rigidly connected to its supports. This
configuration prevents any movement or rotation at the connection points, resulting in
greater structural rigidity compared to other beam types.

Figure 30: Picture of Fixed beams.

• CONTINUOUS BEAMS
A continuous beam is a structural component that provides resistance to bending when a
load or force is applied. These beams are commonly used in bridges. A beam of this type
has more than two points of support along its length. These are usually in the same
horizontal plane, and the spans between the supports are in one straight line.

Figure 31: Picture of Continuous beams.

45
• CANTILEVER BEAMS
These are beams supported at one end and carrying a load at the other end or distributed
along the unsupported portion. The upper half of the thickness of such a beam is
subjected to tensile stress, tending to elongate the fibres, the lower half to compressive
stress, tending to crush them.

Figure 32: Picture of Cantilever beams.

• SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

The simply supported beam is quite possibly the most simple construction. It includes
just two supports, one at each end. One is a pinned support and the other is roller support.
With this setup, the beam is hindered from any upward development at the two closures
though it is permitted to pivot.

Figure 33: Picture of Simply supported beams.

46
• OVERHANGING BEAMS
Beams are structural elements primarily designed to resist loads applied laterally to the
beam’s axis. They are essential in engineering and construction, providing support to
floors, roofs, and other structures to bear loads. They can be made of various materials,
such as wood, steel, or reinforced concrete.
Beams are typically classified according to their support conditions, which are the points
where the beam’s weight is carried by other elements. This article focuses on one type
called the overhanging beam.

Figure 34: Picture of Overhanging beams

47
14.3 COLUMNS

Columns are defined as vertical load-bearing members supporting axial compressive

loads chiefly. This structural member is used to transmit the load of the structure to the
foundation. In reinforced concrete buildings beams, floors, and columns are cast
monolithically. The bending action in the column may produce tensile forces over a part
of cross-section. Still, columns are called compression members because compressive
forces dominate their behavior.

Figure 35: Picture of Accra Mall Columns.

COLUMN FAILURES

• Pure Compression Failure.

• Combine stress failure.
• Buckling Failure.
• Shear Failure.
• Failure due to Lack of Confinement Reinforcement.
• Torsional Failures.
• Failures due to Construction Defects.
• Failures due to errors in the Construction.

48
TYPES OF COLUMNS

• STOCKY COLUMNS
Stub (or stocky) columns are characterised by very low slenderness, are not effected by
buckling and can be designed to the yield stress fy. A stocky column is mostly identified
𝐿𝑒𝑥
when < 15.
ℎ

Mostly prone to pure compression failure.

Figure 36: Picture of Stocky columns.

49
• SLENDER COLUMNS
Columns with small cross sections compared to their lengths. Generally, slender columns
have lower strength when compared to short columns, for a constant cross section,
increasing the length causes a reduction in the strength. Identification of a slender column
𝐿𝑒𝑦
is when < 15.
𝑏

Mostly prone to buckling failure.

Figure 37: Picture of Slender columns.

50
14.4 STAIRCASE

Stairscases are a structures designed to bridge a large vertical distance between lower and higher
levels by dividing it into smaller vertical distances. This is achieved as a diagonal series of
horizontal platforms called steps which enable passage to the other level by stepping from one to
another step in turn.

Figure 38: Picture of Accra Mall Entrance Staircase

FUNCTIONS OF STAIRCASE

• Provide an access from one floor to another.

• Provide a safe means of travel between floors.
• Provide an easy mean of travel between floors.
• Provide a suitable means of escape in case of fire.

51
14.5 RAMPS

Ramps are sloped pathways used both inside and outside buildings and elsewhere in the
built environment used to provide access between different vertical levels.

Figure 39: Picture of Ramps

FUNCTION OF RAMPS

• Ramps provide an alternative to stairs for wheelchair users, people with mobility issues
and people with prams, bicycles and other wheeled items.

52
14.6 TRUSSES

A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural elements.

The most common use of trusses is in buildings, where support to roofs, the floors and
internal loading such as services and suspended ceilings, are readily provided.

Figure 40: Picture of Trusses.

TYPES OF TRUSSES

• PRATT TRUSS

A Pratt Truss has been used over the past two centuries as an effective truss method. The
vertical members are in compression, whilst the diagonal members are in tension. This
simplifies and produces a more efficient design since the steel in the diagonal members
(in tension) can be reduced. This type of truss is most appropriate for horizontal spans,
where the force is predominantly in the vertical direction.

• It reduces the cost of the structure due to more efficient members.

• Reduces the self-weight, and eases the constructability of the structure.
53
 • WARREN TRUSS

The Warren Truss is another very popular truss structure system and is easily identified
by its construction from equilateral triangles. One of the main advantages of the Warren
Truss is another very popular truss structure system and is easily identified by its
construction from equilateral triangles. One of the main advantages of a Warren Truss is
its ability to spread the load evenly across a number of different members; this is
however generally for cases when the structure is undergoing a spanned load (a
distributed load). Its main advantage is also the cause of its disadvantage – the truss
structure will undergo concentrated force under a point load. Under these concentrated
load scenarios, the structure is not as good at distributing the load evenly across its
members.

FUNCTIONS OF TRUSSES

A truss gives a stable form capable of supporting considerable external load over a large span
with the component parts stressed primarily in axial tension or compression. The individual
pieces intersect at truss joints, or panel points.

54
Chapter 15: REINFORCEMENTS

• Reinforcement for concrete is provided by embedding deformed steel bars or welded

wire fabric within freshly made concrete at the time of casting. The purpose of
reinforcement is to provide additional strength for concrete where it is needed.
• Increase the resistant sections of beams, pillars, slabs, bridge trays and wall beams to
raise the load capacity of the structure.
• For this project a variation of characteristic strength of steel would be used these are:
• High yield steel = 460N/mm2 and
• Mild steel = 250N/mm2

Figure 41: Picture of reinforcements been done in construction.

55
15.1 LOADING AND LOAD COMBINATION
DATA

REFERENCE CALCULATION OUTPUT

Slab thickness = 150mm

BS6399 Imposed load for Shop
spaces = 4.0KN/m2
Slab finishes = 1.5KN/m2
Slab Service loads =
1.0KN/m2
Density of concrete =
24KN/m2
Density of
2
Partition =1.9KN/m
Table 1 concrete=24KN/m2

Slab self-weight =
Partition = 1.9KN/m2
Thickness x Density of
concrete
= 0.15m x 24KN/m2
= 3.6KN/m2
Total Imposed dead
Gk = 8KN/m2
load = 3.6 + 1.0 + 1.5
+1.9
Gk = 8KN/m2

Design load(N) =
1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
= 1.4(8) + 1.6(4.0) N = 17.6KN/m2

= 11.2 + 6.4

56
 N= 17.6KN/m2
BS6399
Imposed load for
Corridor spaces =
3.0KN/m2
Density of
2
Slab finishes = 1.5KN/m concrete=24KN/m2
Slab Service loads =
1.0KN/m2
Partition = 1.9KN/m2
Density of concrete =
24KN/m2
Table 1
Partition =1.9KN/m2
Slab self-weight =
Thickness x Density of
concrete
Gk = 8KN/m2
= 0.15m x 24KN/m2
= 3.6KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load =
3.6 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.9
Gk = 8KN/m2

Design load(N) = N = 16KN/m2

1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
= 1.4(8) + 1.6(3.0)
= 11.2 + 4.8
N= 16KN/m2

57
 Density of
concrete=24KN/m2

BS6399 Slab imposed load for

Staircases = 3.0KN/m2
Slab finishes = 1.5KN/m2
Slab Service loads = Partition = 1.9KN/m2
1.0KN/m2
Density of concrete =
24KN/m2
Partition =1.9KN/m2
Table 1
Slab self-weight =
Thickness x Density of
Gk = 8KN/m2
concrete
= 0.15m x 24KN/m2
= 3.6KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load =
3.6 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.9
Gk = 8KN/m2
N = 16KN/m2

Design load(N) =
1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
= 1.4(8) + 1.6(3.0)
= 11.2 + 4.8
= 16KN/m2

Density of
concrete=24KN/m2

58
 Slab imposed load for
Offices = 2.5KN/m2

BS6399 Slab finishes = 1.5KN/m2 Partition = 1.9KN/m2

Slab Service loads =
1.0KN/m2
Density of concrete =
24KN/m2
Partition =1.9KN/m2

Slab self-weight =
Table 1 Gk = 8KN/m2
Thickness x Density of
concrete
= 0.15m x 24KN/m2
= 3.6KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load =
3.6 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.9
Gk = 8KN/m2

Design load(N) =
1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
= 1.4(8) + 1.6(2.5) N = 15.2KN/m2

= 11.2 + 4
= 15.2KN/m2

59
 Slab imposed load for Ram = Slab self-
5.0KN/m2 weight =
Slab finishes = 1.5KN/m2 3.6KN/m2

Slab Service loads = 1.0KN/m2

BS6399 Density of concrete = 24KN/m2

Partition =1.9KN/m2

Slab self-weight = Thickness x Density

of concrete = 0.15m x 24KN/m2
Table 1
= 3.6KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load = 3.6 + 1.0
+1.5 +1.9 Gk = 8KN/m2
Gk = 8KN/m2

Design load(N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(8) + 1.6(5.0)
= 11.2 + 8
= 19.2KN/m2 N=19.2KN/m2

60
BS6399 Slab imposed load for Toilet =
2.0KN/m2
Slab finishes = 1.5KN/m2 Slab self-
Slab Service loads = 1.0KN/m2 weight =
Density of concrete = 24KN/m2 3.6KN/m2

Table 1 Partition =1.9KN/m2

Slab self-weight = Thickness x

Density of concrete
= 0.15m x 24KN/m2
= 3.6KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load = 3.6 + 1.0 +
1.5 +1.9
Gk = 8KN/m2 Gk = 8KN/m2

Design load(N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(8) + 1.6(2.0)
= 11.2 + 3.2
= 14.4KN/m2 N=14.4KN/m2

61
15.2 PRELIMINARY SIZING OF STRUTURAL MEMBERS

ASSUMPTIONS

SLAB

For the calculation of the slab certain assumptions were taken into consideration.

• Grade(Fcu) = 30N/m
• Mild steel(Fy) = 250N/mm
• Concrete cover = 25mm
• Diameter of the rebar = 12mm
• Effective depth = 150-25-12/2 = 119mm
ASSUMPTION
BEAMS
• Dimension for the beams is 300 x 150mm and a variation of 300 x 200mm for the ground
floor
• Dimension for the beams is 450 x 200mm for the first floor.
• For the roof beams, a variation of 500 x 200.
• Fcu = 30N/mm2
• Fy = 460N/mm2 and 250N/mm2
• Concrete Cover = 25mm
• Diameter of the rebar =12mm,16mm and 20mm
• Links diameter = 8mm
• Therefore effective depth = beam depth – links – bar diameter - cover
=300 – 25 – 8 – 16/2 = 259mm

62
 ASSUMPTIONS

COLUMN

1. Dimension of columns = 250 x 250mm, 300 x 300mm, 300 x 200mm and

400 x 200mm.
2. Fcu = 30N/mm2
3. Fy = 460N/mm2 and 250N/mm2
4. Concrete cover = 40mm
5. Diameter of rebar = 12mm and 16mm
6. Links of diameter = 8mm
7. Effective depth = 250-40-8-12/2 = 196mm

ASSUMPTION

STAIRCASE

a) Waist of Staircase = 150mm

b) Dimension of steps = 145 x 300mm
c) Fcu = 30N/mm2
d) Fy = 250N/mm2
e) Concrete cover = 20mm
f) Diameter of the rebar = 10mm and 16mm
g) Effective depth = 150-20-10/2 = 125mm

63
Chapter 16: BILL OF QUANTITIES(BOQ)

PROJECT NAME: INTEGRATED DESIGN

PROJECT LOCATION: PRAMPRAM, AFLAO.

CLIENT: CENTRAL UNIVERSITY

CONSULTANT: DIAMOND CONSULTANCY

DATE: APRIL, 2024.

64
ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTIT UNIT TOTAL
NO. Y RATE AMOUNT
GHC GHC
Ground Floor Substructure and
Superstructure
Concrete Works
1 Plain in-situ concrete (Grade 10/20) in M2 176 250 44,000.00
50mm blinding.
2 (Grade 30/40) in Strip foundation 150mm M3 30 250 7,500.00
thick.
3 In floor bed 100mm thick M3 130 156 20,280.00
4 18mm cement and sand plaster (1:6 ) on M2 1,240 27 33,480.00
block walls finished smooth with a steel
trowel (over openings).
5 Ditto: 20mm thick on Concrete surfaces in M2 970 27 26,190.00
beams columns
Reinforced vibrated in-situ concrete
(Grade30/20) as described in:
6 Slabs M3 12 715 8,580.00
7 Columns M3 24 715 17,160.00
8 Beams M3 59 715 42,185.00
9 Suspended Beams M3 59 715 42,185.00
10 Suspended Floor Slabs M3 12 715 8,580.00
11 Staircases and Landing slabs M3 9 715 6,435.00
12 Ramps M3 6 715 4,290.00
Reinforcement

Mild and high yield steel reinforcement

bars in cuts bends hooks and fixed in
position in accordance with specifications
in:
13 20mm diameter in beams and suspended KG 6,823 120.00 818,760.00
beams

65
14 Ditto: In columns KG 3,570 120.00 428,400.00
15 Ditto: Rectangular support column for stair KG 900 120.00 108,000.00
cases and escalating ramps
16 16mm diameter in Staircases KG 520 90.00 46,800.00
17 Ditto: in Balustrade KG 960 90.00 86,400.00
18 Ditto in staircase beams KG 220 90.00 19,800.00
19 Ditto in inclined disable escalating slabs KG 576 90.00 51,840.00
20 Ditto: Slopping hand rail on staircases and KG 685 90.00 61,650.00
landing
21 8mm diameter as stirrups in columns KG 978 15.00 14,670.00
22 Ditto: In suspended beams KG 3,230 15.00 48,450.00
23 Ditto: In staircase and escalating beams KG 150 15.00 2,250.00
24 12mm diameter in Suspended Floor Slabs KG 1,660 55.00 91,300.00
on stairs and ramps
25 Ditto as stirrups in support for stairs and KG 938 55.00 51,590.00
escalating
TOTAL 2,090,775
Table 4. Bill of Quantities

66
Chapter 17: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Environmental Impact Assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of

increasing environmental awareness. An EIA is prepared to estimate the effects of a proposed
development or construction project. EIA provides technical evaluations that are intended to
contribute to more objective decision making. By identifying and addressing potential
environmental risks and opportunities early in the planning process, EIA helps to minimize
adverse impacts, protect natural resources, and enhance the long-term environmental
sustainability of development projects.

DURING CONSTRUCTION

• Habitat Destruction: Construction sites often require clearing of land, which can lead to
the destruction of natural habitats, including forests, wetlands, and grasslands. This can
result in loss of biodiversity and disruption of wildlife habitats.

Figure 42: A site cleared for construction

SOLUTION
• Without much additional cost, artificial habitats can be incorporated to buildings and
around developments to give animals and insects a fighting chance. Solutions such as

67
 insect hotels, reptile refuges, and water features can each contribute to supporting
biodiversity.
• Air Pollution: Pre-construction activities such as land clearing, demolition, and site
preparation can generate dust, particulate matter, and airborne pollutants, leading to air
quality degradation and potential health impacts for nearby communities.

Figure 43: Air pollution taking place at a construction site

SOLUTION

• Many construction sites implement dust control measures because dust can significantly
contribute to PM2.5 and PM10 levels.

• This is often carried out through sprayers, mist cannon, or sprinklers that spray water
over the area to reduce dust being taken up into the air.

• Other methods include having vegetative cover around the areas used for vehicle traffic
where vehicles can stir up dust or placing mulch over a recently disturbed area. Research
shows that mulch can be an effective solution, as it reduces wind erosion by 75-95%.

68
• Noise Pollution: Construction activities can generate significant noise levels from
equipment operation, machinery, and construction-related activities. Excessive noise can
disrupt nearby communities, disturb wildlife, and impact human health and well-being.

Figure 44: Noise pollution taking place at a construction site by site machines.

SOLUTION
• Creating a designated place, enclosed in sound-blocking materials, necessary for cutting,
sawing, jack hammering or other such work, can really help to reduce overall site noise.

• Use our Echo Eliminator panels made from bonded acoustical cotton to help optimize
noise control.

69
CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the structural preliminary report has provided valuable insights into the
initial phases of our ambitious project through the design and construction of the
Shopping Centre.

70
 TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING REPORT

71
Chapter 18: INTRODUCTION.
18.1 Introduction.
The scope for this integrated design course is to design a road network of systems and a parking
lot system for people to access the commercial area. Diamond consultancy firm seeks to provide,
produce, yield design results and set up services for the commercial area. This report seeks to
gather data that will be used to design and construct a road network of systems and parking lot
systems that will help facilitate easy and safe transportation movement system within the facility.

18.2 Objectives, Purpose and Goals

The objective is to properly design a road network of systems which can help minimize accidents
and ensure safety of drivers and pedestrians. There will be some investigations and studies made
to analyze the existing road network system at the facility and make some recommendations for
the development and improvement of the road if compulsory at the planning stage. The goal is
to,

• Design and produce a geometric design in compliance with the accepted design standards
and guidelines. For this project, the Ghana Authority Road Design Guide and also the
Green Book AASHTO will be used for the design and construction of the roads.
-Study the road profiles of the road which are the cross sectional shape of the road surface
which show the grade, alignment (vertical and horizontal alignment), designed cross
section, excavation and surfacing requirement.
-Examine and investigate how the various road intersections are going to be done. Road
intersection is an intersection or a junction where two or more roads converge, diverge,
meet or cross at the same height.
-Design cross sections at several spots.
• Design for pavement which include,
-Determining the number of loads the pavement is going to support. The traffic load and
characteristics will help to estimate the amount of traffic and the cumulative number of
equal standard axles that are going to use the road over the selected design life period.
-Examine the subgrade strength. This will help you know whether the subgrade has full
capacity or ability to support loads transmitted from the pavement.

72
 -Determine the type of pavement material to be used in construction. This will help you to
select the type of material to used that will provide adequate service over the design life of
the pavement. Some of these materials include asphalt or concrete.
• Also another goal is to design a parking lot at the facility for people to be able to park their
cars when they visit the facility. This to provide safe and efficient vehicular access to the
parking stalls.

18.3 Methodology/Approach

1.2.1 Desk study

During this stage, investigations will be done to gather available information such as maps,
weather reports and images of how the nature of the site looks like to acquire data collected. This
will provide adequate information about how these different conditions affect the site and help in
proper designing of the road network system.

18.4 Site visit/Field study

To understand more about the site, a site visit was made to the location of the site to understand
more about the orientation of the important features at the site. The site survey and visit helped to
identify any existing obstacles in the area. With this commencement of the work can begin. It
was also observed that the site does not slope and it is relatively leveled. Another important
aspect that was identified at the site was the existing drainage features located at the site. The
existing drainage features located at the site are not properly constructed and therefore need to be
constructed well enough again.

Figure 45: Image of how the existing road looks like on site
73
Figure 46: Image of existing drainage system which needs to be constructed properly again.

Figure 47: Image of how the nature of the roads leading to the site looks like.

In conclusion, after visiting the site to observe all these situation, I will like to properly construct
and design the road well enough again that will help facilitate safe and easy movement leading to
the facility.

18.5 Data Collection

Data collection that will be essential in the project’s design were collected and obtained. The data
collected were analyzed, examined and studied from a wide range of sources. With this data
collection, a trip was made to the Accra Mall shopping centre in Accra, Ghana located on the
Spintex road adjacent to the Tema Motorway to understand how their transportation system
works and obtain accurate data that will help in the construction of the transportation systems at
the site where the shopping mall is being constructed. Data collected include,

• The type of vehicles that come in and out of the mall.

• How their parking lot design looks like.
• Parking studies to be able to determine and obtain data on the number of vehicles parked
in the parking lot for a specific period of time.

74
Also another data that was collected is the major roads that is mainly connected or linked to the
mall. This will also help to determine the major roads that will be connected to the commercial
area or facility that is being constructed.

Figure 48: Image of parking studies being done at Accra Mall.

Chapter 19: EXISTING CONDITIONS LOCATED AT THE SITE.

19.1 Site Layout and Location.

The site can be found in Central University located in Miotso near Dawhenya on the Accra-Aflao
N1 highway in the Greater Accra Region. The total population is about 8,800 and has a total land
size estimated to be 1.00 km2. The commercial workers mostly engage in,

• Printing services.
• Financial services which involves the operation of banks and mobile money services.
• Trading which involves the buying and selling of food and operation of provision shops.
• Retail which has to do with the operation of bookshops.

75
19.2 Road Network

The road network system in its present state is a two lane road. Each of the lane is approximately
3.4m wide without a shoulder. To allow easy flow of movement of vehicles and pedestrians,
walkways will be constructed on all existing roads in the university mainly for the pedestrians to
facilitate safe and easy transportation movement system. The width of the road is approximately
7.3m wide. The road network begins from the university’s main entrance gate to other important
facilities in the university. The major road that connects to the university is the Tema-Aflao
Road. The road which is a major highway is being constructed again due to its poor state.

Figure 49: Image of how the Tema-Aflao Road looks like.

Construction of phase 1 of the 17km road has already proceeded steadily. The works being
undertaken by BHM Construction International (UK) LTD include the construction of a three
lane dual carriage expressway over the full length of the section, the construction of the two lane
one service roads on either of the main carriageway, and the construction of four interchanges at
the Kpone Barrier, Savanah, Afienya and Prampram road. The project will also see the provision
of drainage systems, pedestrian facilities including bridges and High mast lighting.

Figure 50: Image of the site and how the road network system looks like.
76
Representation.

• Red rout- The red rout begins from the school’s main entrance gate to the location of the
site. Here, the road needs to be constructed well enough again due to its deteriorating state.
• Yellow rout- The yellow rout is the road that is going to be constructed at the facility. This
road that is going to be constructed will help design a parking lot system for the facility to
enable people park their vehicles when they visit the facility.
• Gold rout- With this particular rout, there is a drainage located there which needs to be
properly constructed well enough again.

Chapter 20: Road Design Criteria/Parameters

20.1 Design Standards

Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road in a terrain is designed to meet
the need of the road users. Some of these standards include the Australian Guide to Road Design,
British Design Manual for Roads and the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The design standard that will be used for this project is the
Ghana Highway Authority Road Design Guide which is the only official document that is used in
country for the construction of roads. We also have the Ministry of Roads and Highways Manual
for Low Volume Roads and the Green Book AASHTO.

20.2 Design Speed

Design speed is the target speed at which the drivers are intended to travel on street. The
allowable range of design speeds are established, once the functional classification of the road
has been determined. Functional classification is the process of grouping streets and highways
into classes according to the character of service they are intended to provide. The speed that a
driver adopts on a road depends on,

• The physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings.

• Weather conditions in the area.
• Presence of other vehicles and nature of these vehicles.
• Speed limitation placed upon the vehicles by law.
77
Design speed is the maximum safe speed selected for designing specific section of road
considering the terrain, land use and classification of the road.

Figure 51: Image showing the design speed to be used on the road.

NB- The design speed to be used for this project will be 30km/h.

Figure 52: Vehicle Design Speed

20.3 Design Vehicle

Design vehicles are vehicles with representative dimensions and operating characteristics used to
establish highway design controls for accommodating vehicles of a designated class. Design
vehicles are used to define several geometric features including,

• Turning radii
• Vehicle height
• Driver eye height

78
The largest vehicle that is expected to use the road in a significant number on a daily basis is
chosen as the design vehicle. There are four general classes of design vehicle which include,

• 4x4 utility vehicle

• Single unit truck
• Single unit bus
• Semi-trailer combination

The width of vehicle affects the width of the traffic lane.

Figure 53: Vehicle Characteristics

20.4 Design Life

The design life of the road network will be for 10 years.

79
Chapter 21: Geometric Design

21.1 Sight Distance

Sight distance is the actual distance along the road surface, over which a driver from a specified
height above the carriageway has visibility of stationary or moving objects. Adequate sight
distance provides time for drivers to identify hazards and take appropriate action to avoid them.
Improved sight distances on the approaches to intersections and through curves can reduce
crashes at these high risk locations. Sight distance is important because it affects the safety and
performance of road users. There are three type of sight distance which include,

• Stopping sight distance- It is the total distance travelled by a given vehicle before stopping
during three times intervals. For stopping sight distance, as the speed increases, the reaction
time decreases.
• Passing sight distance- It is the length of the roadway that the driver of the passing vehicle
must be able to see initially, in order to make a passing maneuver safely. It allows time for
driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle and not cut off passed vehicle upon
return to lane. Passing vehicle accelerate during the passing manoeuver and velocity of the
passing vehicle is about 16km/h greater than that of the passed vehicle. Enough distance is
allowed between passing and oncoming vehicle when the passing vehicle returns to its
lane.
• Meeting sight distance- The distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicle traveling
in opposite directions to bring their vehicles to a safe stop after becoming visible to each
other. Meeting sight distance is normally calculated as twice the minimum stopping sight
distance.

21.2 Super-Elevation

Super-elevation is the tilting of the roadway to help offset centripetal forces developed as the
vehicle goes around a curve. Along with friction, they are what keeps a vehicle from going
off the road. It must be done gradually over a distance without noticeable reduction in speed
or safety.

80
21.3 Cross-Sections

Cross-section is the perpendicular view of the right way of a road. Cross-sections are the
elements of the highway which affect vehicle movement. The characteristics of cross-
sectional elements are important in highway geometric design because they influence the
safety and comfort. These elements include,

• Lane width- The lane width are decided from the point of view of traffic safety, capacity
and comfort. A lane width of 3.25m will be used based on the functional characteristics
of the road as stated in the GHA design guide. Lane width will help provide adequate
clearance for movement and also ensure safety of vehicles.
• Curbs- A curb is short-wall structure constructed to hold the pavement from the sides
and strengthen the road. A curb acts as a barrier between a yard and street. It is attached
with a gutter which is a small flat concrete slab that drains-out water away from the
yard. Generally, curb and gutter are constructed together. Curbs are used to control
drainage, improve aesthetic and reduce or delineate right-of-way. Curbs are classified
into two. The Barrier curbs which is designed for preventing vehicles from leaving the
road and Mountable curves which is designed so that vehicles can cross over them. For
this particular project, curbs will be provided along the sidewalks.
• Traffic lanes- They provide designated spaces for vehicles to travel in a specific
direction and help to prevent collision and also congestion on the road. They allow
different speeds and types of vehicles to be separated such as cars, bicycles, pedestrians
and buses. Traffic lanes often have markings, such as lane dividers and arrows, to guide
drivers and indicate proper lane usage. They help to contribute to the smooth and
regulated movement of vehicles on the road. Two lanes will be used for this project
because it will cater for the traffic volume of the selected area.
• Sidewalks- Sidewalks separated from the roadway are the preferred accommodation
for pedestrians. Sidewalks provide many benefits including safety and mobility. In
addition to reducing walking along roadway crashes, sidewalks reduces other
pedestrian crashes. They are provided on both urban and rural roads, when pedestrian
traffic is high along main or high speeds roads and when shoulders are not provided on
roads even when pedestrian traffic is low. In urban areas, sidewalks are provided along
81
 both sides of street to serve pedestrian access to schools, parks, shopping centers and
transit stops.
• Cross-fall- Cross-fall, also known as cross slope is a geometric feature of pavement
surfaces. It is a very important safety factor. It is provided to provide a drainage gradient
so that water will run off the surface to a drainage system such as a street gutter or
ditch.
• Road Camber- It basically refers to the curvature or slope provided to the surface of a
road or any other paved surface. It is used for removing the rainwater from the
pavement surface very quickly and allows the pavement for getting dry after the rain.
It ensures effective rainwater drainage preventing water accumulation on the road
surface and enhances road stability by directing water away, reducing the risk of
structural drainage.

21.4 Alignment

The alignment is the route of the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and
curves. The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves and the
straight grade lines connecting them. There are two types of alignment when it comes to the
designing of a road. They are,

• Horizontal alignment
• Vertical alignment

82
21.5 Horizontal Alignment

It refers to the layout and design of the road’s path when viewed from above. It determines the
road curvature. Horizontal alignment consist of,

• Straight lines (tangents)

• Curves (simple circular curves, compound curves, reverse curves and spiral transitions)

These elements should be chosen to provide good drainage and minimize earthworks. The
alignment should be aimed at achieving a uniform operating speed.

21.5.1 Straight lines (tangents)

Long tangents should be avoided, as they are monotonous for driver’s and cause headlight dazzle
on straight grades. A more pleasing appearance and higher road safety can be obtained by
winding alignment. The following should be used in the length of tangents,

• Tangents between the end and the beginning of un-transitioned reverse circular curves
should have lengths greater than two-thirds of the total super-elevation run-off
• Tangents should not have lengths greater than 20*V meter, where V is the design speed in
kph.
• Tangents between circular curves turning in the same direction should have length greater
than 6*V meter, where V is the design speed in kph.

21.5.2 Curves

Curves provide transition between two tangent strip of roadway, allowing a vehicle to negotiate a
turn at a gradual rate rather than a sharp cut. The design of the curve is dependent on the
intended design peed for the roadway, as well as other factors including drainage and friction.
Along the circular path of curves, vehicles undergo centripetal acceleration towards the centre of
curvature.

83
21.5.3 Transition curves

Transition curves, also known as spiral curves, are curves with a continuously, changing radii.
Combination of high speed and sharp curvature can result in lateral shifts in position and
encroachment on adjoining lanes. Spiral curves provide gradual change in curvature from
tangent to curve. It improves appearance and driver’s comfort, provides location for super-
elevation run-off and it provides transition in width when horizontal curve is widened.

Figure 54: Image of how a spiral curve looks like

21.5.4 Simple Circular curves

They are curves consisting of a single arc with a constant radius connecting two tangents. It
defines the following key elements of simple circular curves,

Δ- Deflection angle

L- Length of curve

C- Chord length

R- Radius of curvature

M- Middle ordinate

E- External distance

T- Length of tangent

P.I. - Point of intersection

PC- Point of curve (beginning point of horizontal curve)

84
CT- Point of tangent (ending point)

Figure 55: Image of a simple circular curve.

21.5.5 Reverse curves

A reverse curve is a two adjacent, or nearly so, circular curves with deflection in opposite
directions. The curves may have equal or unequal radii or deflection angles. Reverse curves are
very useful when laying things such as, pipelines, flumes and leeves. The surveyor may also use
them on low- speed roads and railroads. They cannot be used on high-speed roads or railroads
since they cannot be properly super-elevated. For safety reasons, the use of reverse curves should
be avoided when possible as drivers do not expect to encounter this arrangement on typical
highway geometry.

Figure 56: Image of a reverse curves.

85
21.5.6 Compound curves

Compound curves consist of two or more circular curves with deflections in the same direction
immediately adjacent to each other. Compound curves are used to transition into and from a
simple curve and to avoid some or obstacle which cannot be relocated. Compound curves lie on
the same side of their common tangent, and connect to form a continuous arc.

Figure 57: Image of how compound curves are being designed.

21.6 Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment is made up of gradients (straight sections) and vertical curves. Vertical
alignment is usually drawn as a profile, which is a graph with elevation as vertical axis and
horizontal distance along the centre of the road as the horizontal axis. Vertical curves are used to
connect two gradients namely, convex (crest) or concave (valley or sag) curves.

• Gradients- Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of a road with respect to the
horizontal. The topography of the area through which the road traverse has a significant
impact on the design on the vertical alignment Maximum grade on a highway should be
carefully selected based on the design speed and design vehicle. Grades of 4 to 5% usually
have little or no effect on the passenger vehicles, except for those with high
weight/horsepower ratios. Grade > 5% decreases speed of passenger cars on upgrades and
increases speed on downgrades. Before finalizing a gradient, the construction cost,
vehicular operation cost and the practical problems on the site has to be considered. Steep
gradients are usually avoided as far as possible because of the difficulty in climbing and
increase in construction cost. This usually happens where the proportion of heavy vehicles

86
 is important. Due to restrictive sight distance at uphill gradients, the speed of traffic is often
controlled by heavy cars. Accidents abound on gradients due to high differential speed
between heavy and light vehicles. The type of gradients include, ruling or design gradient,
limitation gradient, exceptional gradient and minimum gradient.
• Curves- Curves are used to provide gradual change from one tangent grade to another so
that vehicles may run smoothly as the used the road. Design criteria for curves include,
provision of minimum stopping sight distance, adequate drainage, comfortable in operation
and pleasure appearance.

21.6.1 Sag curves

They are used to transition between different grades or slopes smoothly and safely. For sag
curves, stopping sight distance is based on the distance illuminated by the headlights at night.
Design standards are based on an assumed headlight height of 0.6m.

Figure 58: Image of how a sag curve design looks like.

21.6.2 Crest curves

Crest curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards. They are formed when the following
conditions are met. They include,

• A positive gradient meets another positive gradient.

• A positive gradient meets a flat gradient.
• A positive gradient meets a descending gradient.
• A negative gradient meets another negative gradient.

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 Figure 59: Image of how a crest curve design looks.

When the PVT is above the road surface, it is called a crest curve.

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Chapter 22: Pavement Design

Pavement is the upper part of a roadway, airport or parking area. It includes all layers resting on
the original ground. Pavement consist of all structural elements or layers including shoulders.
Pavement design is the process by which the structural components of a road segment are
determined taking into account the nature of the subgrade, density and traffic composition.

22.1 Objectives of Pavement Design.

The objective of pavement design is to provide a surface that is,

• Strong overall structure.

• Surface strength.
• Moisture control.
• Safe.

22.2 Functions of Pavement Design.

The following are functions of pavement design,

• Reduce and distribute traffic loading so as not to damage the subgrade.

• Provide vehicle access between two points under all-weather conditions.
• Provide safe, smooth and comfortable ride to road users without undue delays and
excessive wear or tear.
• Meet environmental and aesthetics requirement.
• Limited noise and air pollution.
• Reasonable economy.

22.3 Pavement Design Phases.

Pavement design has two phases which include, Highway phase and Structural phase.

22.3.1 Highway Phase.

Highway design consist of three stages which include,

• Geometric design (route selection or alignment design).

• Capacity design (number of lanes to meet traffic demand).
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 • Structural design to withstand loads and environment.

22.3.2 Structural Phase.

It involves structural design which consist of three steps. They include,

• Selection of materials (types of pavement).

• Proportioning of materials.
• Layer thickness design.

22.4 Requirements of Pavement Structures.

Pavement structures should have the following requirements. They are,

• Sufficient thickness to spread loading to a pressure intensity tolerable by subgrade.

• Sufficiently strong to carry imposed stress due to traffic load.
• Sufficient thickness to prevent effect of frost susceptible subgrade.
• Pavement material should be impervious to penetration of surface water which could
weaken subgrade and subsequently pavement.
• Pavement material should be non-frost susceptible.
• Pavement surface should be skid resistant.

22.5 Classification of Pavements

Pavements are classified into the following,

22.5.1 Classification by Function.

• Airport Pavement
• Highway and Freeway Pavement
• Parking and Street Pavement

22.5.2 Classification by Structure.

• Rigid (concrete) Pavements

• Flexible Pavements (Asphalt concrete)
• Composite Pavement
• Gravel (unpaved) Pavement
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22.6 Pavement Structure.

Pavement structure is used to distribute the imposed wheel loads over a large area of the natural
soil underneath the pavement so the stresses in the soil remain low. Without pavement, shear
failure would occur.

Figure 60: Image of a pavement structure consisting of its layers.

22.7 Pavement Layer.

Pavement layers include, seal coat, surface course, tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base
course, sub- base course, compacted sub-grade and natural sub-grade.

Figure 61: Image of pavement layers.

22.8 Types of Pavements.

There are three types of pavement design. These are, flexible pavement, rigid pavement and
composite pavement.

22.8.1 Flexible Pavement.

Flexible pavement is composed of a bituminous material surface course and underlying base and
subbase course. The bituminous material is more often asphalt whose viscous nature allows
significant plastic deformation. Most asphalt surfaces are built on a gravel base, although some
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full depth asphalt surfaces are built directly on the on the subgrade. Depending on the
temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix asphalt (HMA), warm mix
asphalt (WMA) and cold mix asphalt (CMA). Flexible pavement is so named as the pavement
surface reflects total deflection of all subsequent layers due to the traffic load acting upon it. The
flexible pavement design is based on the load distributing characteristics of a layered system. It
transmits load to the subgrade through a combination of layers, Flexible pavement distribute load
over a relatively smaller area of the subgrade beneath. The initial cost of flexible pavement is
quite low which is why this type of pavement is more commonly seen universally. However, the
flexible pavement requires maintenance and routine repairs every few years. In addition, flexible
pavement deteriorates rapidly. Cracks and potholes are likely to appear due to poor drainage and
heavy vehicular traffic.

Figure 62: Image of a flexible pavement.

22.8.2 Advantages of Flexible Pavement.

• Adjust to limited differential settlement.

• Easily repaired.
• Additional thickness added any time.
• Non-skid properties do not deteriorate.

22.8.3 Disadvantage of Flexible pavement

• Loose some flexibility and cohesion with me.

• Needs resurfaced sooner than cement concrete.
• Not normally chosen where water is expected.

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22.8.4 Rigid Pavement.

Rigid pavement also known as concrete, are a type of road or pavement structure that provides a
durable and long-lasting surface for vehicular traffic. They are composed of several key
components, each serving a specific function to ensure the pavement’s performance and
longevity. The components of rigid pavements include the subgrade, subbase course (when
used), concrete slabs, joints and surface treatments. Understanding the roles and intersections of
these component is essential in designing and constructing rigid pavements that can withstand
heavy loads, resist cracking and provide a smooth and safe driving surface.

Figure 63: Image of a rigid pavement.

22.8.5 Advantages of rigid pavement.

• Longer lifespan.
• Maintenance cost are low.
• Allows for future asphalt resurfacing.
• Allows for wider load distribution with fewer base and subbase requirement.
• Can be installed on low and high quality soils.
• Strong edges don’t require additional edging work or curbs.

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22.8.6 Disadvantages of rigid pavement.

• Initial installation fee is expensive.

• Cost and repairs is expensive.
• Low and very rough riding quality.
• Support joints are required for concreter contraction and expansion in various conditions.

22.8.7 Composite Pavements.

A composite pavement is a type of pavement that utilizes both asphalt and concrete. Typically, a
concrete base layer provides structural capacity while a n asphalt surface layer provides a
wearing course. This pavement type can also be used in conjunction with roller-compacted
concrete (RCC) pavements, where the RCC pavement provides the structural capacity that the
conventional concrete pavement base. They are used to rehabilitate existing roadways rather than
in new construction.

Figure 64: Image of a composite pavement.

22.8.8 Advantages of Composite Pavement.

• They provide long life pavement.

• Good serviceability.
• Rapid cost effective maintenance operations.

22.9 Types of Pavement Failure.

22.9.1 Flexible Pavements.

• Fatigue cracking.
• Rutting.
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 • Thermal cracking.

22.9.2 Rigid Pavement.

• Fatigue cracking.
• Pumping or erosion.
• Faulting, spalling and joint deterioration.

Chapter 23: Parking Lot Design.

The parking lot will be designed at the facility for people to park their vehicles when visiting the
facility. Each parking lot will have a width of 3m and a length of 6m. The primary objective of
the parking lot is to provide vehicular access to the parking stalls. The various angles in which
the parking stalls can be aligned with include 30 degrees, 45 degrees, 60 degrees and 90 degrees.
Since it is a commercial area, the angle to be used will be 90 degrees.

23.1 Factors to consider in designing the parking lot.

• Parking lot size.

• Pavement thickness.
• Parking space angles.

23.2 Handicap Parking

A handicap parking lot will also be considered for the disabled. A disabled parking space will be
constructed and marked out in the car park for disabled persons only. This will allow the disabled
person to get around their vehicles safely and to put together any mobility equipment they need
to use. It also ensures that nobody can park their vehicle too close to the disabled persons’s
vehicle.

23.3 Parking signs and markings.

Parking signs are markings will be done in order to ensure safety, order and efficient traffic flow
in the parking area. This will help prevent chaos and guide visitors when they visit the facility to
park their vehicles.

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Chapter 24: Intersection Design

Intersections are a critical aspect of street design as the point where motorist, bicycle and
pedestrian movements converge. Successful intersection design addresses all mobility and safety
goals as well as opportunities to enhance the public realm. An intersection is also an area where
two or more streets join or cross at-grade. Intersection includes not only pavement area, but
typically the adjacent sidewalks and pedestrian curb cut ramps. The intersection is defined as
alterations (for example turning lanes) to the otherwise typical cross-sections of the intersecting
streets. Intersections are a key feature of street design in four respects. They include,

• Focus of activity- The land near intersections often contains a concentration of travel
destinations.
• Conflicting movements- Pedestrian crossings and motor vehicle and bicycle turning and
crossing movements are typically concentrated at intersections.
• Traffic control- At intersections, movement of users is assigned by traffic control devices
such as yield signs, stop signs and traffic signals. Traffic control often results in delay to
users travelling along the intersection roadways, but helps to organize traffic and decrease
the potential for conflict.
• Capacity- In many cases, traffic control at intersections limits the capacity of intersecting
roadways, defined as the number of users that can be accommodated within a given time
period.

24.1 Types of Intersections.

• Simple intersections- Simple intersection maintain the street’s typical cross section and
number of lanes throughout the intersections, on both the major and minor streets. Simple
intersections are best suited to locations where auxiliary (turning) lanes are not needed to
achieve the desired level of service or are infeasible due to nearby constraints. Generally
simple intersections provide the minimum crossing distances for pedestrians and are
common in low-volume locations.

96
 Figure 65: Image of how a simple intersection design looks like.

• Flared intersections- Flared intersections expand the cross-section of the street (main, cross
or both). The flaring is often done due to accommodate a left-turn lane, so that left-turning
bicycles and motor vehicles are removed from the through-traffic stream to increase
capacity at high-volume locations and safety on higher speed street. Right-turn lanes, less
frequently used than the left-turn lanes, are usually a response to large volumes of right
turns.

Figure 66: Image of a flared intersection.

• Channelized intersections- They use pavement markings or raised islands to designate

intended vehicle path. The most frequent use is for right turns, particularly when
accompanied by an auxiliary right-turn lane. At skewed intersections, channelization
islands are often used to delineate right turns, even in the absence of auxiliary right turn
lanes. At intersections located on a curve, divisional islands can help direct drivers to and
through the intersection. At large intersections, short median islands can be used effectively
for pedestrian refuge. These intersections are usually large and, therefore, require large
97
 pedestrian crosswalks. The design of channelized intersection needs to ensure the needs of
pedestrian are considered, including pedestrian curb cut ramps or “cut-throughs” that allow
wheelchair users the same safe harbor as other pedestrian on channelization islands.

Figure 67: Image of a channelized intersection.

• Roundabout- The roundabout is a channelized one-way traffic flow circulating around a
central island. Although the usually circular in shape, the central island of a roundabout
can be oval or irregularly shaped. Roundabouts are also considered as traffic calming
devices in some locations since all traffic is slowed to the design speed of the one-way
circulating roadway. This is in contrast is in contrast with application of two-way stop
control, where the major streets is not slowed by the intersection, or all-way stop control
where traffic is required to stop. Roundabouts can also be considered for retrofit of existing
rotaries, however, in cases with very high traffic volumes traffic signal control may be more
suitable.

Figure 68: Image of a roundabout.

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Chapter 25: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

This will be the tool used to access the significant effects of the project on the environment. It
will make sure that project decision makers think about the likely effects on the environment at
the earliest possible time and aim to avoid, reduce or offset those effects. It purpose on the
project include,

• To aid in the planning of development project.

• To understand the environment impact that may occur from this project before its
implementation.
• To help determine ways to minimize the damage that will be done to the environment
during the project’s phase.

25.1 Noise and vibration.

The use of certain equipment’s at the construction site is going to affect people who live and also
work there. To minimize the negative impact of noise and vibration at the construction site, some
of these possible suggestions can be considered.

• Operating fewer machinery and equipment when fewer people are present.
• Limiting the amount of time that a worker is exposed to noisy areas.
• Establishing a quiet place where workers can rest during breaks.

This will help to reduce the amount of noise and vibration that will be produced at the
construction site.

25.2 Air

According to the site observation, the project activity will have a negative impact on the area’s
air quality. Dust will be produced from the area’s traffic, which will contaminate the air near the
road corridor. Construction related activities such as earthworks, clearing of the site will
contaminate the air. The distribution of cement and sand will also affect the air. All these can
affect the respiratory health of the people in the area.

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25.3 Risk Management

Some measures will be taken to control hazards in order to create a risk-free environment during
construction. During the implementation phase, the environment may be harmed at its crucial
stage. The contractor’s choice of building will determine how the environment turns out. Efforts
must be taken to ensure that all issues are sorted or controlled.

25.4 Soil and Land

Machines such as the excavators, are used in grading and road construction processes. This can
break up the soil lumps and also end up exposing the soil. Rainwater percolation into the
naturally occurring drainage pattern can be determined by doing this as well as coating the soil
surface with bitumen and other petroleum-base products.

Chapter 26: Bill of Quantities

CESS ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTITY RATE AMOUNT

M4 (GHc) (GHc)
CODE
E224 Excavation for the cutting of soil. m3 2900.901 120 348108.12
BEDDING SAND
Filling to a thickness of 0.025m m3 160
130.01 20801.6
with imported soil above the
granular base.

E645 SUB-BASE MATERIAL

Laying and compacting granular
base material to a depth of 105mm m3 580.87 100 58087
for parking facility.

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R118 BASE MATERIAL
Laying and compacting granular
base material to depth of 175mm m3 1751.20 80 140096
for pavement.

R118 BASE MATERIAL

Laying and compacting granular
base material to a depth of 100m pcs 267600 1.72 460272
for parking facility.

R114 PAVEMENT BLOCKS

Laying Pavement blocks of
thickness= 80mm, for parking pcs 100.04 170 17006.8
facility.
PARKING OF SIDEWALK
Bedding sand: 25mm thick. m3 452.4 80 36192

Filling and compacting of base 640.2 80 51216

material 100mm thick. m3

Provide pavement blocks for 2.22 392993.28

177024
pedestrian sidewalk m3

ROAD MARKINGS

Continuous reflective white lines

120mm wide with applied Balotini m 890 120 106800
(1.2A).

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 TOTAL GHc1,631,572.8

PROJECT PRELIMINARY COST ESTIMATE = GHc 1,631,572.8

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WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING
REPORT

103
QUESTIONS ABOUT PROJECT AND ANSWER TO HELP IN PROJECT DESIGN

➢ What is the problem for the integrated design that I am required to solve?

As a company we are designing a two storey shopping mall and I am the water supply

engineer for this project.

My job is to design a water supply system for the mall.

I am to consider some factors such as;

• Demand

• Population projection

• Peak hour factor

• Storage

• Distribution

➢ What is the current situation of water supply in the area?

Upon my investigation Ghana water supply central university with water mostly

➢ What is the population?

8796 (student and staff)

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Chapter 27: WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Water supply system infrastructure for the collection, transmission, treatment, storage, and

distribution of water for homes, commercial establishments, industry, and irrigation, as well as

for such public needs as firefighting and street flushing.

27.1 SOURCES OF WATER

Sources of water considered are as follows

1. Borehole (Ground water)

2. Water from GWCL

3. Rain water

27.1.1 Borehole (Ground water)

A borehole is a deep round hole made by a special tool or machine, especially one that is made in

the ground when searching for oil or water but in this case we are searching for water.

A high efficiency pump is fitted in order to remove the water from the porous rock underneath.

Layers of chalk and rock serve as natural filters for the water as it moves through the earth. This

results in a water supply that is frequently cleaner than what water companies offer.

27.1.2 Water from GWCL (Ghana Water Company limited)

Another source that has to be considered is water from GWCL. From our investigation we

realized it supplied clean water to most of the universities facilities as the main source. As a

consultancy group we decided to employ this system.

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27.1.3 Rain Water harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve rainwater by

collecting, storing, conveying and purifying of rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks,

roads, open grounds, etc. for later use.

The parts of a rainwater collection system are as follows:

• Gutter: A structure used to gather and hold caught precipitation.

• The captured water is moved from the gutter through the piping to the filter station.

• Filter: Used to remove contaminants and filter the rainwater collected.

• The ready-to-use filtered water is kept in tanks

Figure 69: A practical example of how rain water harvesting looks like.

Advantages of rainwater harvesting

✓ Less cost.

✓ Helps in reducing the water bill.

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 ✓ Decreases the demand for water.

✓ Reduces the need for imported water.

Disadvantages of rainwater harvesting

✓ Regular maintenance is required.

✓ Requires some technical skills for installation.

✓ Limited and no rainfall can limit the supply of rainwater.

Although this is not the main source of water for the project, we decided to use this as a

secondary source when it rains.

Figure 70: This the rainy days chart in every month for 2023

From this data we can identify May and June to have many rainy day with March, April, July,

august, September and October having a lot of rainy day

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27.2 Treatment of water
For the commercial facility's main water supply, the group decided to use the water from Ghana

Water Company limited. We employed boreholes and rainwater harvesting as secondary supplier.

In order to establish the quality of the groundwater, testing would be done on the borehole

system, and an appropriate treatment method would be selected.

Integrated water treatment systems include; UV sterilizers, addition of chlorine to disinfect the

water (chlorination), iron and manganese filtration units, Reverse osmosis filters.

Chlorine will be used to disinfect the water from the borehole. This is because of its availability

and low cost.

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Chapter 28: WATER DEMAND

• Population estimation

According to the university's website, there are approximately 8796 people at Central University

including staff, faculty, and students. The number of students who use the schools facility is one

third of the population (2932) (estimated)

• Water usage estimation

The population of people in Miotso is growing. The per capita consumption varies between 60

and 120 lpcd based on population income from GWCL. Sing the area is a growing community

they are regarded as a low income population. A low income populations (lpd) is 15 litres per day

in every house hold.

Now calculating the demand for the shopping mall, it is necessary for us consider a few things;

With one third of people using its facilities, the rate at which the malls facilities are going to be

low because time spent on the university’s campus is longer as compared to time going to be

spent in the mall. So we decided to find one third of the 2932 people who use the schools facility

making (977 people). We also considered pedestrian passing to visit the mall. So although there

is no information on the number of people who use the Tema-Afloa rad we estimated that 500

people with pass through the mall. So 500+977= 1477 people. Therefore;

Demand = population x LPCD

Demand = 1477 x 15 lpcd

= 22155 lpcd

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 = 25.155 m3 per day

• Fire Fighting and other losses

It is important to allocate water for firefighting in a commercial building in case of any fire

outburst.

5
Allocating 5% for firefighting; 100 x 25.155 = 1.257 m3 per day

10
10% for other water losses; 100 x 25.155 = 2.515m3 per day

Therefore, the total water demand that should be accounted for = 25.155+1.257+2.515

= 28.927 m3 per day

28.1. Design period

The term "design period" refers to the number of years that are allotted for planning the capacity

of the various water supply scheme components. A building's design period can range from ten to

one hundred years or more, depending on the materials' lifespan, the rate of population growth,

and the available funding. It was determined that the water supply scheme's design period for

this particular project should be 30 years.

28.2 Population Projection

The population of the design area is expected to increase within the design period. There is

therefore the need to project the population at the end of the design period. The team has chosen

110
a design period of 30 years. According to the Ghana Statistical Services, the population growth

rate of Ghana is 2.18%. The projected population at the end of the design period is given by,

𝑃 = = Po [1 + (r/100)] ^n

Where, P = population at the end of the design period

𝑃𝑜 = population at start of design = 1477

r = population growth rate according to Ghana Statistical Services = 1.92% = 0.0192

n = design period = 30 years

1.92 30
𝑃 = 1477 ( 1 + )
100

P = 2613.14

Hence, population increase =2613.14-1477 = 1136 persons

Water demand for the following decades (30 years) =1136 x 15 lpcd

= 17040 lpcd

Therefore, total demand =17040+22155 =39195 lpcd

= 39.195 m3 per day

• Fire Fighting and other losses

It is important to allocate water for firefighting in a commercial building in case of any fire

outburst.

5
Allocating 5% for firefighting; 100 x 39.195=1.959 m3 per day

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 10
10% for other water losses; 100 x 39.195 = 3.919 m3 per day

Therefore, the total water demand that should be accounted for = 39.195+1.959+3.919

= 45.073 m3 per day

There will be variations in the daily and diurnal demand of water and so these variations are

accounted for by the daily and hourly peak factors in order to obtain the maximum water

demand. Daily peak factor = 1.2 Hourly peak factor = 2.5 Maximum daily demand = 1094.54 *

1.2 * 2.5 = 3283.62 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

Chapter 29: WATER SOURCE: GHANA WATER COMPANY LIMITED

The primary water pipelines in Accra, which supply drinking water to homes, companies, and

other institutions, are run by the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL).

The corporation operates a number of water treatment facilities in the city, such as the Kpong

and Weija facilities, which use a system of pipelines to deliver water to various areas of Accra.

Large-diameter pipes composed of steel, ductile iron, or concrete that are placed underground to

prevent damage and reduce water loss from evaporation or leaks are the principal pipelines in

Accra. Depending on the region and the land's topography, the pipes' precise position and path

may change. A primary pipeline runs alongside the Central University's Miosto campus entrance.

Water is supplied to certain areas of Accra and Tema by the Accra-Tema Metropolitan Area

(ATMA) Water Treatment Plant.

29.1 Storage

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Water tanks made of plastic or steel each have advantages and disadvantages. The location and

intended use are the only factors that determine the best option. Plastic water tanks are only

appropriate for homes and small companies, while being more affordable, aesthetically pleasing,

widely accessible, and easier to move. Steel water tanks are appropriate for use in public

structures including office and apartment complexes, shopping malls, hospitals, and schools, as

well as in the mining, power production, processing, and manufacturing industries. Additionally,

steel tanks are less prone to contract an infection from external pollutants. Before making a

purchase of a water tank, careful thought and comparison shopping are necessary because both

types of tanks are useful under the right circumstances.

Four storage tanks in all would be made available for the commercial mall. Two tanks for the

borehole water, one tank for the water from GWCL and one tank for rainwater storage.

29.2 Distribution

The following methods of delivering water to customers under sufficient pressure may be

employed, depending on the terrain between the source and the consumer:

• Gravity: used when the pressure needed is obtained from a source that is sufficiently above the

user. Extremely frugal.

• Pumping: In order to distribute to consumers and storage reservoirs, the head (pressure)

required is created by pumps.

• Pump-Storage System: In times of high demand and emergencies (fires and power outages),

storage reservoirs are employed to maintain appropriate pressure. In the storage reservoir, water

is pumped and kept during periods of low usage.

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For this project, the gravity and pump storage technique would be used.

Ascending principal: Water is delivered by this connection from the pump to the storage tank. It

ought to be placed in a trench using with a minimum of 0.6m of earth cover, and if brought

above ground for any reason should be held firmly by clamps to concrete blocks.

Pipe materials to be considered for this project include, ductile iron, HDPE and PVC.

Chapter 30: ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT

An extensive analysis of the potential consequences of a project that has a major impact on the

environment is called an environmental impact assessment, or EIA. EIA gives decision-makers a

sense of the anticipated environmental effects of the policies they have chosen (Jay et al., 2007).

Several environmental issues would arise for this water delivery project, and they include:

The earth would be deformed as a result of the borehole drilling, which is what causes the

destruction of the natural ground. That would be the only extensive drilling that would happen

while the water supply system was being built.

Noise and vibration: Borehole drilling can contribute to environmental noise pollution since it

generates a lot of vibrations from the machinery.

Air quality: When a borehole is dug, dirt or dust particles are released into the atmosphere, which

lowers the air quality in the area where the work is happening. The air quality is also decreased

114
during construction by heavy machinery exhaust fumes. In order to protect their eyes and

respiratory systems from harm, workers must wear safety goggles and facemasks.

All of these detrimental effects would happen while the commercial area was being built, and

then they would stop.

Chapter 31: Bill of Quantities

ITEM DESCRIPTION AMOUNT

SR UNIT QTY RATE
₵
1. Earthworks m3 1000 1,000

Excavation and back filling for pipe

materials

2 Pipe cost ft(10)

HDPE 105
PVC 85
DI 120
NB: pipe cost is the base rate of all. Quantities are yet to be estimated.

Table 5. Bill of Quantities for Water Supply Design

Schedule of weights of building materials. London.

BS 6399: Design loading for buildings; Part 1: Code of practice for dead and
imposed loads, 1996; London.

115
MINUTES OF
CONSULTANTS

116
DATE: 11TH JANUARY, 2024. ON ZOOM
MEMBERS PRESENT MATTERS DISCUSSED
1. EWURAMA FREEMAN 1. The meeting commenced at
11am on zoom.

2. PRINCE HOLOMAH 2. We had a brief open prayer from

Mr. Prince Holomah.

3. From there Isaac started with

3. ELORM WILSON
talking about his progress report.
Where he stated he was now on
the calculation and would soon
4. ISAAC ABBREY
be done with it

4. Followed by Elorm he talked

about carrying out various test at
the lab and his preparations
towards it.

5. Again, Ewurama Freeman also

spoke about her transportational
reports and the difficulty in
getting some information from
she needed.

6. Furthermore, Prince Holomah

touched on his water supply
work and how he’s deciding the
distribution of water throught
out the building and the

117
 appropriate materials to choose
for pipping .

7. Lastly, the class agreed on the

next meeting date where we are
to share our findings to fast truck
the progress of the report.

8. The meeting finally ended at

12:46pm with Ewurama ending it
with a brief prayer.

118
DATE: 25TH JANUARY, 2024. IN PERSON
MEMBERS PRESENT MATTERS DISCUSSED
1. EWURAMA FREEMAN 1. This meeting also started with
Ewurama Freeman saying an
open prayer at exactly 2pm.

2. PRINCE HOLOMAH 2. Elorm talked about receiving

some
Lab records from Dr. Eric
making his geotechnical analysis
3. ELORM WILSON smoother.

3. Prince Holomah shared his

progress report by being assisted
by Ing.Ackom in his water
4. ISAAC ABBREY supply working. He said the
Lecturer helped him with some
knowledge of how the supply
chain of water is supposed to
run through the building.

4. Isaac Abbrey also talked about

his structural designs and some
problems he had been facing
during that phase.
He also touched on being
assisted by the T.A Ama Rose on
his report so far.

5. Ewurama also spoke about

working on her parking studies,
traffic and speed data data that
she had to obtain.

6. The group agreed on a date to

check on a similar shopping
mall to get data from them
which was to be 5th february.

7. The meeting ended at 3:23pm,

with a closing prayer from
Elorm wilson.

119
DATE: 15TH FEBRUARY, 2024. ON ZOOM
MEMBERS PRESENT MATTERS DISCUSSED
1. EWURAMA FREEMAN 1. On this day Isaac Abbrey led the
open prayer. The meeting began
at 1:15pm.

2. Isaac thanked the group for being

2. PRINCE HOLOMAH present on the 5th of February
when the group came together
to visit Accra Mall.

3. ELORM WILSON 3. He touched about some

members not being able to get
some of the information needed
and the likelihood of them going
4. ISAAC ABBREY back to get the needed
information.

4. Everyone was present with a

laptop and we all viewed each
others work comparing it one
another and making changes.

5. Prince holomah was working on

the sizing of the pipes and
describing the source of water
supply.

6. With the help of the parking

studies data obtained from the
mall Ewurama Freeman was able
to continue with her work.

7. Elorm also talked about DCPT

test test he carried out during the
weekend.

8. Isaa Abbrey spoke about using

the structural dimension
obtained from the mall into his
Autocad and prota analysis
drawing.

120
 9. The only problem now was time
constraints and Isaac urged the
group to make up for the time
lost.

10. The meeting ended at 2:39pm

with Ewurama finishing with an
open prayer.

121
DATE: 16TH MARCH, 2024. ON ZOOM

MEMBERS MATTERS DISCUSSED

PRESENT
1. EWURAMA FREEMAN 1. An open prayer was
said by Elorm Wilson
at 10am.

2. Isaac asked about

2. PRINCE HOLOMAH where everyone has
gootten to so far.

3. Prince Holomah by
saying he had already
3. ELORM WILSON
began with his BOQ
and would be going to
town for some of
pricing on the
4. ISAAC ABBREY materials.

4. Ewurama talked about

meeting with one
engineering friend to
get an expert
overview on her work.

5. Elorm Wilson on the

other hand talked
about he being done
with his Laboratory
tests and has began
recording them in his
report.

6. Isaac Abbrey was still

o the design analysis
on the structural
elements.

7. A decision was made

to start compiling all
our collected data on
April 3rd.
122
 8. A closing prayer was
said by Isaac Abbrey
with the meeting
ending at 11:09am.

DATE: 3RD APRIL, 2024. IN PERSON

MEMBERS MEMBERS
PRESENT DISCUSSED
1. EWURAMA FREEMAN 1. The meeting
began at 9am
with an open
prayer from
Elorm Wilson
2. PRINCE HOLOMAH(LATE) held at E302

2. We were all
present with
laptops but
3. ELORM WILSON
Holomah was
running late.

4. ISAAC ABBREY 3. We waited for

about 20mins
for him to come

4. We began
analysing and
discussing how
the report
would be
presented

5. Elorm was to
start with his
geotechnical
report followed
by Isaac Abbrey
handling the
structural part
then Ewurama
Freeman with
the

123
 Transportational
part.

6. Lastly, Prince
Holomah wtih
the Water
Supply part.

7. We spent some
couple of hours
with Elorm still
compiling.

8. The meeting
ended at 6pm
with Ewurama
Freeman
blessing the
day.

124
Bibliography
• Chanakya Arya,2009. Design of Structural Elements
• Geoffrey C. Mrema , 2011.Rural structures in the tropics. Design and
Development
• Second edition Reynolds, (1980) Reinforced concrete designers’ Hand
book 11th Edition
• T.J MacGinley, 1981. Reinforced Concrete Design Theory and Examples
• The Institution of Structural Engineers. Manual for the design of concrete
building structures to Eurocode 2
• Ghana Highway Authority Road design guide

2010 population and housing census (district analytical report)

• Civil West Engineering Services, Inc. (2008). Water system master plan.
• Newport,oregon: Civil West Engineering Services, Inc.
• and climate website: https://weather-and-climate.com/average-monthlyprecipitation-
Rainfall,prampram-gh,Ghana
• PK, C. E. (2022). Water supply design. Retrieved from Civil Engineers PK website:
https://www.civilengineerspk.com/water-supply-design/
• Sonowal, R. (n.d.). Engineering notes. Retrieved from Engineering notes website:
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/water-engineering-2/water-demand/waterdemand-
estimating-and-variations-water-engineering/44022

125
Appendices

126