CENTRAL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CENG 394: PRELIMINARY DESIGN REPORT FOR THE

PROPOSED COMMERCIAL AREA IN CENTRAL
UNIVERSITY

MARK CUBAN CONSULTANCY

FRANCIS FERGUSON-HOWARD CIE/19/01/9706

ROSE AMA AMPONSAH CIE/19/01/3453
EMMANUEL KWABENA ASANTE CIE/20/02/2155
STEPHEN EGYIN CIE/19/01/8158
JUSTIN EKOW NIXON CIE/18/01/2846

DECEMBER, 2022

i
Executive Summary
The preliminary executive report describes the strategy and methods used by MARK
CUBAN CONSULTANCY in the design of a proposed commercial area in Central
University, Miotso in the Greater Accra- Ghana. The main goal of the report is to propose
designs that are safe, cost-effective and appealing to the eye to serve in effectively within
its design life.
Consultants for this project, surveyed the selected area to identify the right concepts to be
used in the design of and construction of the commercial area. In the inception report
submitted on 11th November 2022, the proposed design standards and criteria were
considered. In this report, the conceptual design was analyzed by the consultants with
consultations from other experts to propose the optimum feasible solution. This was
captured as a desk study. In this final report, the consultants seek to prescribe effective
measures for the design. These measures would aid contractors to undertake the engineered
construction work.

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary .......................................................................................................... ii

List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xi

List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xii

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1

Background ................................................................................................................ 1

Site Location and Surroundings ................................................................................. 1

Climate ....................................................................................................................... 1

Rainfall Data .............................................................................................................. 2

Temperature ............................................................................................................... 2

Relative Humidity ...................................................................................................... 3

Topography ................................................................................................................ 3

Objective and Scope................................................................................................... 5

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING REPORT ............................................................ 7

Chapter 2: Introduction............................................................................................................... 8

Objectives of the Investigation................................................................................... 8

Scope of the Work...................................................................................................... 9

Geology of the Area ................................................................................................... 9

Seismicity of the Project Area.................................................................................. 11

Chapter 3: Methodology for the engineering geological investigation .................................... 12

General ..................................................................................................................... 12

Laboratory Investigations......................................................................................... 15

Environmental Impact Assessment .......................................................................... 15

Financial Budget ...................................................................................................... 17

Summary and Conclusion ........................................................................................ 19

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STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING REPORT ............................................................... 20
Chapter 4: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 21

Objectives................................................................................................................. 21

Scope ........................................................................................................................ 21

Materials................................................................................................................... 22

Design Codes ........................................................................................................... 24

Chapter 5: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................. 26

Design Criteria ......................................................................................................... 26

Design Philosophies ................................................................................................. 27

Expected Loads Acting on the Structure .................................................................. 28

Loading and Load Combinations ............................................................................. 30

Material Properties and Design Parameters ............................................................. 32

Reinforcement Quantities......................................................................................... 33

Minimum Cover ....................................................................................................... 33

Chapter 6: STRUCTURAL ELEMNTS ................................................................................... 35

Beams ....................................................................................................................... 35

Slab........................................................................................................................... 36

Column ..................................................................................................................... 38

Staircase ................................................................................................................... 39

Ramp ........................................................................................................................ 39

Truss ......................................................................................................................... 40

Chapter 7: PRELIMINARY SIZING OF STRUTURAL ELEMNTS ..................................... 42

Beams ....................................................................................................................... 42

Columns ................................................................................................................... 42

Slabs ......................................................................................................................... 42

Truss ......................................................................................................................... 42

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 Foundation ............................................................................................................... 42

Chapter 8: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT ................................................... 44

Background Information .......................................................................................... 44

Purpose of the EIA ................................................................................................... 44

Identification of Potential Impacts ........................................................................... 44

Recommendations on most significant issues .......................................................... 44

Chapter 9: COST ESTIMATE ................................................................................................. 46

CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 47

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING REPORT ..................................................... 48

Chapter 10: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 49

Objectives and Approach of this Report .................................................................. 49

Methodology ............................................................................................................ 49

Chapter 11: EXISTING CONDITIONS ................................................................................... 51

Site Layout and Location ......................................................................................... 51

Road Network .......................................................................................................... 51

Major Adjacent Roads.............................................................................................. 51

Traffic Volumes and Data ........................................................................................ 52

Traffic and Volume Count ....................................................................................... 53

Observations made from traffic volume counts ....................................................... 54

Uses of traffic volume counts in geometric design .................................................. 54

Computation of Cumulative ESAL .......................................................................... 55

Environmental Condition ......................................................................................... 56

Topography .............................................................................................................. 56

Chapter 12: Road Design Parameters ....................................................................................... 58

Design Standards...................................................................................................... 58

Design Vehicle ......................................................................................................... 58

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 Design Speed............................................................................................................ 59

Design life ................................................................................................................ 59

Chapter 13: Geometric Design ................................................................................................. 60

Cross-section Design................................................................................................ 60

Traffic Lanes ............................................................................................................ 60

Lane Width ............................................................................................................... 60

Cross-fall .................................................................................................................. 60

Curbs ........................................................................................................................ 60

Sidewalk ................................................................................................................... 61

Road Camber............................................................................................................ 61

Sight Distance .......................................................................................................... 62

Super Elevation ........................................................................................................ 62

Alignment ................................................................................................................. 63

Vertical Alignment ................................................................................................... 64

Horizontal Alignment............................................................................................... 65

Chapter 14: Intersection Design ............................................................................................... 69

Chapter 15: Pavement Design .................................................................................................. 71

Surface Dressing Design .......................................................................................... 71

Importance of Priming .......................................................................................................... 71

Selection of Binder................................................................................................... 71

Primer Seal ............................................................................................................................ 72

Main Seal .............................................................................................................................. 72

Chapter 16: Parking Design...................................................................................................... 73

Pavement Structure for the Parking Lot ................................................................... 73

Block Characteristics ............................................................................................... 74

Handicap Parking ..................................................................................................... 74

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 Parking Signs and Markings .................................................................................... 74

Chapter 17: Environmental Impact Assessment ....................................................................... 75

Description of Project .............................................................................................. 75

Environmental Impact Assessment .......................................................................... 75

Risk Management..................................................................................................... 76

Chapter 18: Bill of Quantities................................................................................................... 78

WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING REPORT ........................................................... 80

Chapter 20: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 81

Brief Information on the Existing Water Supply of the Study Area: ....................... 81

Preliminary Investigation for the Water Supply Scheme ......................................... 81

Water Supply Project Drawings ............................................................................... 82

Water Demand ......................................................................................................... 82

Design Population .................................................................................................... 83

Water Consumption ................................................................................................. 83

Water Demand ......................................................................................................... 85

Demand in the Next Decade Current Population ..................................................... 85

Existing Sources of Water Supply to the Structure .................................................. 85

Determination of Deficit .......................................................................................... 86

Firefighting............................................................................................................... 86

Non-Revenue Water ................................................................................................. 86

Demand Variations and Demand Factors................................................................. 87

Source Identification for the Scheme ....................................................................... 87

Development of the Underground Source ................................................................ 88

Rainfall Harvesting .................................................................................................. 89

Chapter 20: CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT........................................................................ 90

Process of Drilling.................................................................................................... 90

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 Well Yield Test ........................................................................................................ 90

Pumping Test and Discharge Measure ..................................................................... 91

Chapter 21: BOREHOLE PUMPIMG TEST ........................................................................... 92

Sampling of the Water Test...................................................................................... 92

Observation .............................................................................................................. 92

Mechanization of the Borehole ................................................................................ 92

Plain Development Casing ....................................................................................... 92

Grouting ................................................................................................................... 92

Gravel Pack .............................................................................................................. 93

Borehole Development............................................................................................. 93

Design Period of Water Pump.................................................................................. 93

Chapter 22: TREATMENT, STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER ...................... 94

Conveyance of Water to Treatment Plant ................................................................ 94

Storage of Treated Water ......................................................................................... 94

Distribution of Water ............................................................................................... 95

Requirements of a Good Distribution System.......................................................... 95

Accessories of Distribution System ......................................................................... 95

Chapter 23: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) ....................................... 97

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING REPORT ..................................................................... 98

Chapter 24: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 99

Task Objective ......................................................................................................... 99

Existing Drainage Structure ..................................................................................... 99

Land Use and Vegetation ....................................................................................... 102

Rainfall Analysis .................................................................................................... 102

INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY CURVE ............................................. 102

Classification of Road Drainage ............................................................................ 104

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 Design Criteria ....................................................................................................... 105

Design Standards.................................................................................................... 105

Types of Drains ...................................................................................................... 105

Chapter 25: HYDROLOGY ................................................................................................... 108

Design Flood Estimation and Flood Modeling. ..................................................... 108

Chapter 26: HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS ................................................................................ 112

Design of Culverts.................................................................................................. 112

Design Standards for Culverts ............................................................................... 113

Selection of Culvert Material ................................................................................. 113

Design of Side Drain .............................................................................................. 114

Design Standard for Closed Drains ........................................................................ 116

Carrying Capacity and Flow Velocity.................................................................... 117

Design of U-drain, Inlets and Culverts................................................................... 118

WASTE ENGINEERING REPORT .......................................................................... 119

Chapter 27: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 120

Objectives of Design .............................................................................................. 120

Design Scope.......................................................................................................... 120

Deliverables............................................................................................................ 120

Chapter 28: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 122

Project Focus .......................................................................................................... 122

Data Collection: ..................................................................................................... 122

Reconnaissance Survey .......................................................................................... 122

Existing Dump Sites............................................................................................... 123

Chapter 29: Solid and Liquid Waste Management ................................................................. 126

Solid and Liquid Waste Generation ....................................................................... 126

Solid Waste Handling and Separation, Storage and Processing at the Source....... 126

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 Solid Waste Collection ........................................................................................... 127

Solid waste storage ................................................................................................. 127

Transfer and Transport of Solid Waste .................................................................. 130

Disposal and Treatment of Solid Waste ................................................................. 130

Design Options and Specifications for Solid Waste Management......................... 130

Chapter 30: Liquid Waste Management ................................................................................. 131

Collection and Transfer .......................................................................................... 131

Transport and Storage ............................................................................................ 131

Design Standards.................................................................................................... 133

Chapter 31: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT ............................................... 134

Major Findings of the EIA ..................................................................................... 134

Environmental Impacts .......................................................................................... 134

Impacts on Air Quality ........................................................................................... 134

Impacts on Noise Quality ....................................................................................... 134

Impact on Land use ................................................................................................ 134

Impact on Ground Water Resources ...................................................................... 135

Impact on Human Use Values................................................................................ 135

Environmental Management Measures Proposed .................................................. 135

Pre-Construction Stage........................................................................................... 135

Construction Stage ................................................................................................. 135

Operation Stage ...................................................................................................... 135

Chapter 32: Implementation Arrangements............................................................................ 140

CHAPTER 33. COST ESTIMATE ............................................................................. 141

References ...................................................................................................................... 144

Appendices ..................................................................................................................... 145

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List of Tables
Table 1: Adjacent features of the Project Site .................................................................... 4
Table 2: Environmental impact assessment ...................................................................... 15
Table 3:Traffic Count Data ............................................................................................... 53
Table 4: Total Daily ESA ................................................................................................. 55
Table 5: Table of demand variations ................................................................................ 87
Table 6: Summary of result of rainfall depth -duration-frequency relation.................... 103
Table 7:Runoff coefficient .............................................................................................. 111
Table 8:Minimum and maximum velocities in culverts ................................................. 113
Table 9: Freeboard for culverts ....................................................................................... 113
Table 10:mean velocity of flow ...................................................................................... 116
Table 11:Minimum and maximum dimensions of drains ............................................... 116
Table 12: Freeboard for drains ........................................................................................ 117
Table 13: Carrying capacity of drains (Manning’s roughness coefficient) .................... 117
Table 14: Flow velocities in drains ................................................................................. 117
Table 15: Existing dump sites and distance from commercial area................................ 123
Table 16: Possible SLWG ............................................................................................... 126
Table 17: Environmental Management Plan and Action Plan ........................................ 136

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List of Figures
Figure 1.0: Average Precipitation in Accra ........................................................................ 2
Figure 2: Average min and max temperature in Accra ....................................................... 2
Figure 3: Average relative humidity ................................................................................... 3
Figure 4: District Map of Ningo Prampram ........................................................................ 4
Figure 5: Map of Central University................................................................................... 5
Figure 6: Layout of Land ................................................................................................... 5
Figure 7: Geology of Ghana ............................................................................................. 10
Figure 8: Seismic Risk Map of Ghana .............................................................................. 11
Figure 9: The construction of the Dubai Mall .................................................................. 23
Figure 10: The construction of the SM mall of Asia ........................................................ 23
Figure 11: Simply supported beam. .................................................................................. 35
Figure 12: Continuous beam ............................................................................................. 36
Figure 13: Cantilever beam ............................................................................................... 36
Figure 14: Overhanging beam .......................................................................................... 36
Figure 15: Flat slab ........................................................................................................... 37
Figure 16: Conventional slab ............................................................................................ 37
Figure 17: u-shaped staircase ............................................................................................ 39
Figure 18: Ramp ............................................................................................................... 40
Figure 19: Truss system for the ground floor ................................................................... 40
Figure 20: Average equivalency factors for different vehicle types ................................. 54
Figure 21:Vehicle characteristics ...................................................................................... 58
Figure 22: Vehicle Design Speed The selected design speed will be for that of type 2 paved
populated areas which is 50km/h. ..................................................................................... 59
Figure 23: Sources of Water and Estimated Quantity Supplied ....................................... 86
Figure 24: Distribution system used, i.e. Grid-iron system .............................................. 96
Figure 25: Existing natural earth drain ........................................................................... 100
Figure 26: Existing rectangular drain ............................................................................. 100
Figure 27: Existing Stormwater drain ............................................................................. 101
Figure 28: Intensity-Duration-Frequency curve for Accra Meteorological station ........ 103
Figure 29: Types of drains .............................................................................................. 106

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Figure 30: a U-drain ........................................................................................................ 115
Figure 31: Existing dump sites ....................................................................................... 123
Figure 32: Dump site A................................................................................................... 124
Figure 33: Dump site B ................................................................................................... 124
Figure 34: Dump site C ................................................................................................... 125
Figure 35: Recycler waste bin......................................................................................... 128
Figure 36: Compartment Recycle bin ............................................................................. 128
Figure 37: Common waste bin ........................................................................................ 129
Figure 38: Waste Skip ..................................................................................................... 129
Figure 39: PVC pipe ....................................................................................................... 132
Figure 40: PVC pipe fittings ........................................................................................... 132
Figure 41: Septic tank ..................................................................................................... 133

xiii
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Background
In its attempt to bring entertainment to its hub while providing quality education to
students, Central University wishes to construct a commercial area on the Miotso Campus.
The CU, through the Department of Civil Engineering, which is the implementing
Department, seeks the services of Mark Cuban Consultancy to provide the design and
scheduling services for the facilities.

Site Location and Surroundings

The proposed project site is located at Central University, Dawhenya-Prampram ( 5.5663°N
0.2410°W) which is easily approachable through the Tema-Afloa road.

Climate
The south-eastern coastal plain of Ghana, which encompasses the Ningo-Prampram
district, is one of the hottest and driest parts of the country. Temperatures are however
subjected to occasional and minimal moderating influences along the coast and altitudinal
influences affected by the Akwapim range in the northwest. Temperatures are appreciably
high for most parts of the year with the highest during the main dry season (November –
March) and lowest during the short dry season (July – August). The most complete absence
of cloud cover for most parts of the year gives way to very high rates of evaporation which
leaves most parts of the district dry and with parched soils. The combined effects of high
temperatures and high insulation levels, on the other hand, are of invaluable asset to the
salt-making industry, as they account for the high and rapid rates of stalinization and
crystallization crucial for the winning of salt. They also provide enormous potentials for
solar power development. Rainfall is generally very low with most of the rains being very
erratic in coming mostly between September and November. The mean annual rainfall
increases from 762.5 milliliters in the coast to 1,220 milliliters in the northern parts of the
district. (Damago Zubaida, 2014)

1
 Rainfall Data

Figure 1.0: Average Precipitation in Accra

The project catchment area’s rainfall data reveals two rainy seasons, with the heavier rains
in July and the lighter rains in January, February and December.
On average, June has 222 mm (8.7 inch) of precipitation while January, the driest month
with 11 mm (0.4 inch) of precipitation. The average amount of annual precipitation is: 810
mm (31.9 inch).

Temperature

Figure 2: Average min and max temperature in Accra

From the graph above, the average monthly temperature ranges from 22°C to 32°C.
Due to cloud cover in July, August, September, and October, as well as December's
chilly northeast trade winds, these months had the lowest monthly temperatures ever mea
sured for the project area.Typically, January, February, March, and April are the months
with the highest monthly temperatures when the sky is clear.

2
The maximum and minimum temperatures on a yearly basis are,
30°C and 32°C and 22°C and 24°C.

Relative Humidity
The highest average relative humidity is 83%

Figure 3: Average relative humidity

Topography
The district forms the central portion of the Accra plains. The relief is generally gentle and
undulating, a low plain with heights not exceeding 70 meters. The plains are punctuated in
isolated areas by a few prominent inselbergs, isolated hills, outliers and knolls scattered
erratically over the area. (Damago Zubaida, 2014).
The project site is well connected through road network. The salient features surrounding
the project site is given below:

3
Table 1: Adjacent features of the Project Site

S. No. Surrounding Feature Distance from Project Site Direction w.r.t. Project Site

1 CU Male Hall 240m SW

2 Pronto Girls Hostel 350m E

3 Campus Girls Hostel 350m NE

4 Administration & 500m NW

University Hospital

5 Lecture Halls & 900m NW

Departments

6 Trinity Hall 350m NW

The project site location on Google image is shown in Figure below. Source: Ghana
Statistical Service, GIS

Figure 4: District Map of Ningo Prampram

4
Figure 5: Map of Central University

Figure 6: Layout of Land

Objective and Scope

The objective of the services is to complete the design documentation of the facilities on
time, within budget and to national and international standards. During the construction
stage, the consultant will also be required to provide construction supervision and contract
management to enable the completion of the construction of the facilities on time, within
budget and to national and international standards to meet the specified quality.

5
The scope of the consulting services comprises the design of the following facilities of the
commercial area:
 Shopping mall
 Offices for banks, restaurant, bookshop
 University printing press
 Canteen
 Security post

6
 GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING REPORT

7
 Chapter 2: Introduction
The investigation to be carried is to not only assess and evaluate the suitability of the site
for the proposed development, but also to generate pertinent geotechnical design
information in connection with the design of the foundation of the proposed facility and
the construction of pavement for vehicles and pedestrians. The site investigation covers
the highlighted parcel of land shown below. This report will describe the various activities
needed to conduct the investigation, discusses the findings on desk studies and makes
appropriate engineering recommendations to obtain a successful investigation.

Objectives of the Investigation

The main objectives of the investigation was outlined to ascertain the suitability of the site
for the proposed project.
More specifically the investigation will facilitate:

• Detailed description of site seismology, geologic and soils conditions;

• Acquisition of site information on groundwater levels, their seasonal

fluctuation and chemistry;
• To observe and report potential conditions relating to environmental impact;

• Derivation of pertinent foundation design parameters for the estimation of

bearing capacity and probable settlements and for the selection of suitable
foundation types;
• The prediction of construction difficulties i.e. Changes that may arise in the
ground and environmental conditions.

8
 Scope of the Work
In order to achieve the above objectives, the following scope of work was designed by
consultant with clients’ request firmly in mind.

• Review of available data pertinent to the site and its immediate surroundings.
• Carry out field investigation - involving observation of wells in the close vicinity
of the site, performance of Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and soil sampling; to
know the mechanical and geological properties of the geo-materials at the site.
• Conduct basic laboratory testing on selected soil samples in accordance with BS
1377 (1990).
• Perform geotechnical engineering analysis regarding the proposed construction
using the information obtained from the subsurface investigation and laboratory
testing and prepare a geotechnical report on the findings, conclusions, and
recommendations for the geotechnical engineering aspects of the proposed
development.

Geology of the Area

The geological terrain of Miotso belongs to the Dahomeyan, which consist of Biotite,
Garnet, Hornblende, Migmatites, Schists and Ortho and Para Gneisses. The geology of
this area is mainly made up of Sandstone Quartz - Mica Schist Unit. This sequence is well
layered and strongly jointed. Schistosity is well developed and parallel to bedding. Black
cotton soils or tropical black earths or black clays are potentially expansive soils which
classify as vertisols in pedological parlance and have been found to occur in all major
climatic zones of the world. These soils are considered problematic and sometimes as
potential natural hazard because they are susceptible to seasonal volumetric changes,
exhibit severe cracking when dry, swell and yield low bearing strengths when wet. These
problems cause extensive damage to light structures founded on them and estimated cost
of damage due to expansive soils in general runs into billions of dollars annually. A
research conducted on soil samples from Tsopoli revealed, that the black cotton soils are
formed over the Garnet-Amphibolites Gneisses of the Dahomeyan Supergroup. The
chemical compositions of the soils indicate that the most abundant oxides are silica,
alumina and iron oxide. The presence of Quartz and montmorillonite were established.

9
Geomechanical studies also suggest that the natural black cotton soils are unsuitable for
subgrade construction and hence require improvement through stabilization. Pozzolana-
cement appeared to be most effective for stabilizing the black cotton soils.

Figure 7: Geology of Ghana

10
 Seismicity of the Project Area
Although Ghana is not located in the world's seismic zones, Southern Ghana in general
have had a history of seismic activity dating back to 1636, when a seismic activity was
said to have destroyed a village near Axim. Seismic intensities, with known isoseismal
values of between 7 and 9, have been recorded on the Modified Mercalli Scale within
southern and south eastern Ghana. Major seismic events have been experienced in parts
of Ghana in 1862, 1906, 1939 and latest 1997, in addition to numerous other minor shocks
of engineering significance. It is therefore evident that part of South and South Eastern
Ghana in general are seismically active.
According to historical and available records most of the earthquakes and major earth
tremors, that had occurred in the country to date, had their epicenters either along the
Akwapim fault zone (in the Akwapim range) which trends approximately NE - SW and
located about 20km to the west of Accra, or along the Coastal Boundary faults which lies
some 3.0km off-shore and runs almost parallel to the coastline of Accra.
Damage survey conducted from previous earthquake has led to the generation of seismic
macro-zonation map of Ghana, Fig. 2.1, which serves as the basis for the seismic design
of civil engineering structures. With reference to this figure, the site falls within zone 3
and 2 with a ground acceleration of 0.35g and 0.25g respectively as shown below.

Zone AssignedHorizontalGround
Accelerationg,(unit of gravity
)
0 0
1 0.15
2 0.25
3 0.35

SiteZone

Figure 8: Seismic Risk Map of Ghana

11
 Chapter 3: Methodology for the engineering geological
investigation
General
The geotechnical investigation will commence once approval has been granted by Central
University. The method to be employed is in accordance with what is stipulated in the
British Standard Code of Practice (BS.5930 - 1999) - Site investigation for Civil
Engineering Projects.
The activities to be carried out included;

• Reviewing of available geological data(desk study),

• Site reconnaissance,
• Mechanical sinking of boreholes,

• Excavation of trial pits,

• Performance of Standard Penetration Test,

• Recovering of soil samples and laboratory testing of samples from the field to
the lab.

3.1.1 Desk Study

A comprehensive review of the pertinent literature relating to the geology, geotechnical
reports and other relevant weather within Miotso and beyond the boundaries of the project
area was undertaken to evaluate the known status of ground conditions.

3.1.2 Reconnaissance Study

After careful background study and definition of survey data requirement, the consortium
visited the proposed site to:

• Confirm information collected during desk study.

• Confirm the accessibility to the site.

• Collect all pertinent site-specific information on the vegetation, drainage and

topography.

12
 • Identify possible health and safety hazards.

• Adapt or amend as necessary the scope of services and survey data

requirements.

All information gathered during the site visit is documented in this report for the planning
of the detailed geotechnical investigation.

3.1.3 Drilling of Boreholes

The geotechnical investigation will consist of mechanically sinking eight (8) boreholes
and soil sampling for the structure at a depth of 10m and also mechanically sinking
eighteen (18) boreholes and soil sampling for road construction at a depth of 6m. The
locations of the various investigation points are shown in the coordinates below. The
drilling of the boreholes, undisturbed soil samples will be recovered from appropriate
depths provided for laboratory testing. All recovered samples will be encased in a core
box with samples for moisture contents bagged in a transparent polyethylene plastic
wrapping to protect against moisture loss and external factors that pose a threat. All
samples will be identified according to project number, project location, borehole number,
depth of sampling, date of activity and sample description.
Borehole are positioned at suitable locations so as to capture enough subsoil
characteristics. Samples recovered from the site were subsequently transported to the
laboratory for testing.
In general, the sinking of boreholes will be carried out in conformity with recommended
practice as set out in the relevant British Standards under the supervision of a Geological
and Geotechnical Engineer with a core drilling rig and drilling polymers such as
polyacrylate, snergistic polymer polyglycol and polyacrylamide. Oxide drilling will be
suitable instead of rock drilling. Twenty-six (26) boreholes will be drilled with the
structure of 7907m2 land mass and roadway of 2027m having 8 boreholes at 10m deep
and 18 boreholes at every 120m of 6m in depth respectively.

13
3.1.4 Trial Pit
Trial pits of varying depths will be excavated by the help of an excavator and a cable
percussion drill for unpaved and paved spots respectively. The geotechnical investigation
will consist of mechanical extracting 24 trial pits of depth ranging between 1.5m to 4m
(This will be based on the depth of the foundation). The locations of the various
investigation points are shown in the table below. The extraction of undisturbed soil
samples will be recovered and provided for laboratory testing. All recovered samples will
be encased in a transparent polyethylene plastic wrapping to protect against moisture loss
and external factors that pose a threat. All samples will be identified according to project
number, project location, test pit number, depth of sampling, date of activity and sample
description.

3.1.5 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

The Dynamic Cone Penetration Test provides a measure of a material’s in-situ resistance
to penetration. The test is performed by driving a metal cone into the ground by repeated
striking it with a 10Kg weight dropped from a distance of 575mm. The penetration of the
cone is measured after each blow and is recorded to provide a continuous measure of
shearing resistance up to 1.5m below the ground surface. Q ultimate = 30r, where r= number
of blows 1.

3.1.6 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

In-situ test in the form of Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is to be performed with the view
of studying the variation of the soil strength with depth. The procedure involves driving a
standard thick-walled sample tube into the ground at the bottom of a borehole by blows
form a slide hammer with standard weight and fall distance. The sample is driven 150 mm
into the ground and then the number of blows recorded. The number of blows needed for
each 150 mm to penetrate the ground up to a depth of 450 mm is recorded. The sum of the
number of blows required for the second and third 300 mm of penetration is reported as
the N-value or Standard penetration resistance.

14
 Laboratory Investigations
Laboratory tests are to be performed on representative samples recovered from the site.
Samples include disturbed and undisturbed samples from boreholes and test pits to
determine the physical and pertinent engineering properties. Tests performed include as
minimum; Atterberg's Limits test, Sieve Analysis, Hydrometer Test, Compaction test,
Moisture Content, Soil Acidity and Alkalinity test (Chemical Test), Specific gravity of
soil, Dry Density of Soil, California Bearing Ratio)
All phases of laboratory testing program will be performed in accordance with the methods
stipulated in the current British Standards (BS 1377-1990) - methods for testing soil for
civil engineering purposes.

Environmental Impact Assessment

Table 2: Environmental impact assessment
Environmental Impact Solution
1. Noise pollution Geotechnical activities will be carried out
at day.
2. Air pollution 1. All workers will be provided with
nose mask to prevent inhalation
of harmful gases and dust.
2. A six (6) meter proximity
barricade will be set all round to
protect civilians from dust and
gases.
3. Daily maintenance and servicing
of mechanical equipment.

3. Excavation of soil 1. Exposed pits will be refilled

immediately excess samples have
been extracted for laboratory
investigations.

15
 2. Filled pits and exposed pits will
be surrounded with a reflective
caution tape.
3. Pits will be excavated in the dry
season to avoid them from being
filled with water and later be a
breeding ground for insects and
poisonous reptiles and
amphibians.

4. Fire hazard 1. Pressure gauge to detect stored

quantity.
2. Fire extinguisher/sand buckets/
water in the facility.
3. Expert advice on the use and
maintenance of related
infrastructure

5. Occupational Health and Safety of 1. Warning signs and mandatory

Workers and Civilians. signs will be placed at vantage
points.
2. All workers and visitors will be
required to put on personal
protective equipment before entry
will be given to him or her on the
site.
3. Fence site to prevent accidental
falls into gaping holes.
4. Workers to be trained on
equipment use.

16
 5. First aid facilities to be available
on site.

3.3.1 Environmental Impact Assessment Conclusion

From the study it is evident that the proposed project will have both positive and negative
impacts. If the proposed project is constructed and operated taking into account the
proposed mitigation measures, most of the negative impacts are considered minor against
the projected short and long term benefits that will accrue from its establishment and
operation.

Financial Budget
Activity Test Quantity Unit Price Total (GHC)
Location (GHC)

Atterberg's Limits Laboratory 109 180.00 19620.00

Test

Sieve Analysis Test Laboratory 109 160.00 17440.00

Hydrometer Test Laboratory 50 210.00 10500.00

Compaction Test Laboratory 50 270.00 13500.00

(MPT)

Moisture Content Laboratory 109 120.00 13080.00

(MC)

Chemical Test (Soil Laboratory 50 210.00 10500.00

Acidity and
Alkalinity)

17
California Bearing Laboratory 50 270.00 13500.00
Ratio (CBR)

Standard In-situ & 109 300.00 32700.00

Penetration Test Laboratory

Trial Pit In-situ 24 850.00 20400.00

Drilling In-situ 26 1400.00 35000.00

Dynamic Cone In-situ 109 400 28,000.00

Penetration Test

Mobilisation 20000.00 20000.00

Miscellaneous In-situ & 8000.00 8000.00

Laboratory

TOTAL 242,240.00

18
 Summary and Conclusion
Based on the results of the preliminary investigation the following conclusions have been
made:

 Proposed structural site cover 7907m2 and roadway of 2027m land mass.
 Dahomeyan which consist of Biotite, Garnet, Hornblende, Migmatites, Schists
and Ortho and Para Gneisses.
 In-situ soil is expansive and therefore considered problematic due to potential
natural hazard.
 They exhibit severe cracking when dry, swell when wet yielding low bearing
strengths.
 Project site falls between zone 2 and zone 3.
 A ground acceleration between 0.25g and 0.35g is recommended.
 Project must commence between December and April.
 A total of 26 boreholes will be mechanically sunk. Eight (8) for the structure
and eighteen (18) for the roadway at 10m and 6m respectively.
 The depth of the foundation was assumed to be of high yield
 There will be a borehole at every 120m on the provided roadway by the
transportation engineer.
 A total of 24 test pits will be excavated mechanically by a backhoe. Eight (8)
for the structures allocation and 16 for the roadway at 3m deep.
 Project must commence between December and April.
 Groundwater was encountered from borehole 01, 02, 03 at 8.4m, 7.1m and
8.6m respectively.
 Project is estimated to cost GHC242240.00.

19
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
REPORT

20
 Chapter 4: INTRODUCTION
While considering the best materials and strategy for the project, it is important to keep the
project within the estimated budget. This report presents the procedures that would be
employed or adopted to determine the sizes of structural members and the reinforcement
required to make the structure safe for use. An overview of the procedure to be used for an
economical structural design is also outlined. This comprises the selection of materials in
relation to their strength properties, the sizing of structural members to withstand expected
design loads and other measures taken to make the structure functional and safe for its
intended use within budgetary constraints.
This three-storey structure comprises 21 shops and 8 open offices and is to be constructed
on land of 5488.9m2. Its natural terrain is relatively flat and the land is virgin.

Objectives
At the end of the project, we intend to achieve a number of goals:
i. to provide analysis made both by manual calculations and software-prompted
calculations from PROTA, STAAD, and RCC sheets
ii. To provide typical structural drawings.
iii. To carry out detailed design in accordance with the chosen design standards and
criteria.
iv. To prepare a bill of quantities and cost estimate for the project.
v. To design a safe and economic structure

Scope
The scope basically includes the work to be done and how the project should be completed.
There are a number of things that need to be identified for this process, such as:
i. Identifying the requirements of the space.
ii. Study architectural drawings and adopt the best structural system of the building to
carry all the live load, dead load, and lateral load.
iii. Preliminary design of structural elements: calculations of shear force and bending
moment to determine the size of the building component.

21
iv. Perform a deflection test on members of the structure to confirm its stability and
strength.
v. Measure the quantity of reinforcements and materials needed for the construction and
then provide a cost estimate.
vi. The design of the superstructure’s beam, column, slab, and foundation follows the
chosen design codes.

Materials
The chosen material for the construction of the structural elements is reinforced concrete.
This is because, during research, medium to high-rise buildings and structures with open
interiors and complicated designs and use are mostly constructed from reinforced concrete
because of its excellent load resisting ability and its ability to be molded into any form or
shape. Examples are The Dubai Mall in United Arab Emirates and the SM mall of Asia in
Philippines.

22
Figure 9: The construction of the Dubai Mall

Figure 10: The construction of the SM mall of Asia

For this type of structure, steel truss will be considered for the roof structure. This is
because, compared to timber, although they are relatively expensive, they are
homogeneous and isotropic that allow an accurate structural analysis resulting in light and
economic roof trusses. In addition, they are quicker and easier to install.

23
 Design Codes

The execution of the construction of this building is covered by various codes of design to
the extent that it is necessary to indicate the quality of construction materials and products
that should be used. Design codes ensure the design is within its safe to prevent failure of
the structure within its service life. Comparing all the codes of practice to the present laws,
we will be opting to use the British Standard code of practice alongside the Ghana building
code because the British code is generally accepted and is the code mostly used in Ghana.
However, Eurocode 8 would also be incorporated in the calculations for this structure
because of earthquake load. For this design, the individual codes have been enlisted below

I. British Standard 648: 1964 (Weight of building material): This code comprises a
schedule of weights of building materials to standardise the calculation of weights of
building materials used for structural purposes.
II. British Standard 6399: Part 1: 1996(Loading for buildings): This code gives us an
idea of the values of the imposed loads to be used depending on the occupancy.

III. British Standard 8110: Part 1 and Part 3: 1997(Code of practice for design and
construction): The part 1 of the BS 8110 gives recommendation for structural use of
concrete in buildings and structures excluding bridges and structural concrete made
with high alumina concrete while part 3 covers the design charts for singly reinforced
beams, doubly reinforced beams and rectangular columns.

IV. British Standard 5950 Part 1:2000( Code of practice for steel work design): This
code gives recommendations for the design of structural steelwork using hot rolled
steel sections, flats, plates, hot finished structural hollow sections and cold formed
structural hollow sections in buildings and allied structures.

V. Ghana Building code, GS1207:2018: The Ghana building code is founded on broad-
based principles that make possible the use of new materials and new building designs.
This code ensures uniformity of standards for the regulation and compliance of
Designers with regards to national standards.

24
VI. Eurocode 8, EN 1998-1:2004 (Design of structures for earthquake resistance –
Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings): EN 1998 Eurocode
8 applies to the design and construction of buildings and other civil engineering works
in seismic regions. Its purpose is to ensure that in the event of earthquakes
 human lives are protected;
 damage is limited;
 structures important for civil protection remain operational

Every structure is designed and constructed based on the client’s wants and requirements,
its purpose, the topographical condition of the area, and a code of practices. Therefore, to
begin any work on the structure, various methods and sets of assumptions have to be
adopted from the beginning of the project to the final stage to meet the conditions of
serviceability, safety, economy, and functionality of the structure.

25
 Chapter 5: METHODOLOGY

The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure capable of
resisting all applied loads without failure during its service life. With the application of
structural design, we can obtain the required size of structural members to withstand the
internal forces calculated from the structural analysis. Safe structures can be designed by
applying the proper knowledge of structural mechanics and past experiences. It is important
to provide authentic reference to the design made, such as, the design should follow the
provisions made in the code of practices.

Design Criteria
When designing a structure, the overall design should consider:
- Stability: A stable structure must maintain its stability under any internal or
external loads. Stability will be achieved in two orthogonal directions. The
positions of movements and/ or acoustic joints will be considered and each part of
the structure will be designed to be independently stable. Stable members will be
located on the plan so that their shear center is aligned with the resultant of the
overturning forces. If an eccentricity cannot be avoided, the stable members will be
designed to resist the resulting torsion across the plan.
- Robustness: A structure designed and constructed to be robust should not suffer
from collapse under accidental loading. All structural elements will be effectively
tied together in each of the two orthogonal directions, both horizontally and
vertically to achieve the structure’s robustness.
- Expansion joints: This is a dynamic feature created to ease or absorb movement
between structural elements and aid in crack prevention. This type of movement is
caused by thermal expansion and contraction, settlement and seismic activity.
Expansion joints will be provided for this structure to control the temperature,
moisture and ground movement.
Primary expansion joints will be required to prevent cracking since the building
pan is quite large while secondary expansion joints will be provided to divide the
building into smaller elements to deal with the local effects of temperature and
moisture content.

26
 - Fire resistance: A structure is required to have a good period of fire resistance to
prevent structural elements from collapse due to transfer of excess heat. The
structure will be designed based on the fire resistance stated in the design code.
Taking into consideration the distance from the closest Fire Service facility to the
proposed location is 14km, a fire resistance of 1.5 hours is adopted in design
although it is a commercial area (mall).
- Durability: Durability is the resistance to degradation of structures over time. The
selected materials should be chosen with regard to high durability. Typically,
structures are designed with a design life of 50-100 years.

Design Philosophies
For this project, we will be considering the use of the limit state design because our choice
of code. The BS 8110 is based on the limit state design. In addition, considerations were
given to the requirement for durability and fire resistance in this code.The design working
life from this code of practice is 50 years, which is deemed appropriate for general
buildings.
Limit state design refers to structural engineering design method. This method considers
that the structure should sustain all loads and deformations likely to occur during its
construction, perform adequately in normal use, and have adequate durability.
Limit state design requires two principal criteria to be satisfied:
 ultimate limit state (ULS)
 serviceability limit state (SLS)

5.2.1 Ultimate Limit State

Ultimate limit state (ULS) is related to the safety of a structure and its users by limiting
the stress that the materials experience. The ultimate limit state is concerned with strength
(including general yielding, rupture, buckling, and transformation into mechanism),
stability against overturning and sway, and fracture due to fatigue and brittle fracture. The
ultimate limit state models the behavior of the element at failure due to a variety of
mechanisms, including excessive bending, shear, and compression or tension. If the values
calculated for the mechanism fall below the calculated resistances, then the structure will

27
satisfy the ULS criterion. In reinforced concrete structures, the ultimate limit states of
bending and shear are used to determine the size of the beam. The design is then checked
for the remaining limit states, for example, deflection and cracking.

5.2.2 Serviceability Limit State

The serviceability limit state models the behavior of the structural members at working
loads. The serviceability limit is the design that ensures the structure is comfortable and
usable. And in the context of reinforced concrete, design is principally concerned with the
limit states of vibrations.
Expected Loads Acting on the Structure

The characteristic or service loads are the actual loads that the structure is designed to carry.
These are normally thought of as the maximum loads that will not be exceeded during the
life of the structure. The loads acting on a structure are divided into three basic types:
characteristic dead load, characteristic imposed load, and characteristic wind load.
Occasionally, earthquake loads are considered for structures of height greater or equal to
11m, therefore, earthquake load will be considered because the building is 12m above
ground level. Associated with each type of loading, with the exception of earthquake loads,
are characteristic design values, which must be assessed before the individual elements of
the structure can be designed.

28
5.3.1 Characteristic Dead Load, Gk
According to BS 8110: Part 1: 1997, Section 2.4.1.1, the dead load is the weight of the
structure complete with finishes, fixtures, and partitions. The characteristic dead load can
be estimated using the schedule of weights of building materials given in BS 648 (Table
2.1). Estimation
of the self-weight of an element tends to be a cyclic process since its value can only be
assessed once the element has been designed, which requires prior knowledge of the self-
weight of the element. Generally, the self-weight of the element is likely to be small in
comparison with other dead and live loads, and any error in estimation will tend to have a
minimal effect on the overall design. For this project, we assume the self-weight of finishes
(such as plasters, tiles), partitions and services (electrical cables) is 1.7kN/m 2, 1.5kN/m and
1.0kN/m2 respectively. Also, the density of concrete is 24kN/m 3.
5.3.2 Characteristic Imposed Load, Qk
Imposed load, also known as live load, is load due to occupancy and the movement of
people, furniture, and equipment. Imposed loads are more difficult to predict compared to
live load because of their variation, hence the need to use BS 6399, Part 1: 1984 (Table
2.2). According
to BS 6399: Part 1, the values of the live load for the respective occupancy are:
 Offices - 2.5kN/m2
 Balcony and open yard - 3.0kN/m2
 Staircases -3.0kN/m2
 Shops - 4.0kN/m2( its use is not specified)
 Toilet area - 2.0kN/m2

29
5.3.3 Characteristic Wind Load, W k
Wind load is basically the load imposed on the building due to wind actions. Lateral loads
arising due to wind effects are generated by the elevations and resisted by the rigid concrete
frames in both directions. The reinforced concrete floor slabs act as a horizontal diaphragm
and also resist wind loads, transferring these loads into the beam and columns. These loads
are subsequently transferred into the underlying subsoil via the columns and foundation. A
basic wind speed of 29 m/s for Accra was applied as per the Ghana Building Code. This
basic wind speed is multiplied by partial safety factors to obtain the design wind speed,
which is subsequently converted to the dynamic pressure.
5.3.4 Earthquake Load
Earthquake loads are also known as seismic loads. Ghana is noted for its yearly earth tremor
with its worse earthquake having happened in 1939. It is very important that we consider
earthquake loads in our design to counter the effect of foreseen predictions on the proposed
building. From information given by the geotechnical engineer, we would be considering
a peak ground acceleration of 0.25-0.35g.
Loading and Load Combinations
5.4.1 Loading
Imposed load for offices = 2.5 x 1.6 = 4 kN/m 2
Finishes = 1.7 x 1.4 = 2.38 kN/m2
Partitions = 1.5 x 1.4 = 2.1 kN/m2
Slab self-weight = 0.15 x 24 x 1.4 = 5.04 kN/m2
Total Load = 13.52 kN/m2

Imposed load for corridor = 3 x 1.6 = 4.8 kN/m 2

Finishes = 1.7 x 1.4 = 2.38 kN/m2
Slab self-weight = 0.15 x 24 x 1.4 = 5.04 kN/m2
Total Load = 12.22 kN/m2

Imposed load for staircases = 3 x 1.6 = 4.8 kN/m 2

Finishes = 1.7 x 1.4 = 2.38 kN/m2
Slab self-weight = 0.15 x 24 x 1.4 = 5.04 kN/m2

30
Total Load = 12.22 kN/m2

Imposed load for shops = 4 x 1.6 = 6.4 kN/m 2

Finishes = 1.7 x 1.4 = 2.38 kN/m2
Partitions = 1.5 x 1.4 = 2.1 kN/m2
Slab self-weight = 0.15 x 24 x 1.4 = 5.04 kN/m2
Total Load = 15.92 kN/m2

Imposed load for toilet area = 2 x 1.6 = 3.2 kN/m 2

Finishes = 1.7 x 1.4 = 2.38 kN/m2
Partitions = 1.5 x 1.4 = 2.1 kN/m2
Slab self-weight = 0.15 x 24 x 1.4 = 5.04 kN/m2
Total Load = 12.72 kN/m2

5.4.2 Load Combinations

A load combination results when more than one load type acts on the structure. Building
codes usually specify a variety of load combinations together with partial safety factors for
each load type in order to ensure the safety of the structure under different maximum
expected loading scenarios
The design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by the partial safety
factor for loads, γf. The value for γf depends on several factors including the limit state
under consideration, i.e. ultimate or serviceability, the accuracy of predicting the load and
the particular combination of loading which will produce the worst possible effect on the
structure in terms of bending moments, shear forces and deflections.
According to BS8110: Part 1: 1997, the load combination and value for dead and imposed
load is: Design load = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk.
And the load combination for dead, imposed and wind is: Design load = 1.2G k + 1.2Qk +
1.2Wk.

31
 Material Properties and Design Parameters
Cement is a cover material that makes bond between aggregates and reinforcing materials
with water acting as the bonding element. There are different types of cements for different
construction works such as:
 Ordinary Portland Cement: widely used for concrete, mortar and plastering and
construction of buildings.
 Portland Pozzolana Cement: used for construction of marine structures, dams,
bridges, pier and mass concrete works.
 Rapid and Extra Hardening Cement: Used for rapid constructions like pavements.
 Low Heat Cement: Used in construction of gravity dams.
 Sulfates Resisting Cements: Used in concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting
and drying like bridge piers.
 Quick Setting Cement: Used for constructions that need quick setting like underwater
constructions and in cold and rainy weather conditions.
 Blast Furnace Slag Cement: Used when economic considerations are very
important.
 High Alumina Cement: Used in constructions that are subjected to high temperatures
like workshop, refractory and foundries.
 White Cement: This is similar to the ordinary Portland cement but more expensive.
The strength development of a cement is not only defined by the composition but also by
the grinding fineness which can be divided into classes (32.5 - 42.5 - 52.5).Within each
strength class the performances define from an early stage the distinction between the
‘Normal’ (N) and ‘Rapid’ (R) version. It is based on a compressive strength test of 28 days.
 The 32.5R cement is suitable for plastering, low rise buildings, masonry.
 The 42.5R cement is most suitable for high-rise buildings.
 The 52.5R cement is used for major infrastructures such as bridges and dams.
The minimum grades for concrete fcu are; 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 in N/mm2. While for
steel reinforcements, the characteristic specified strength f y for high yield steel is
460N/mm2 and for mild steel is 250N/mm2.
Diameter of steel bars used in building construction vary from as low as 6mm to as high as
25mm. For stirrup also known as links, a diameter of 6mm to 12 mm of bars can be used.

32
In slabs, a bar of minimum diameter of 8mm to maximum diameter of 12mm can be used.
A bar of diameter 12mm to 25mm can be used for beam and column reinforcement.
Also, SI (metric) units are used in this report. Whenever dimensions are not mentioned in
figure and drawings, it should be taken as mm.
For this design, we will be adopting a minimum grade of 30N/mm 2 for the strength of
concrete, both 460N/mm 2 and 250N/mm2 for strength of steel reinforcements while using
the Original Portland Cement and a class of 42.5R. This means that a design mix of ratio
1:2.5:3.5 will be used where a trial mix will be prepared to test its workability, density,
compaction and its compressive strength.

Reinforcement Quantities
The quantities of the materials, including those of the reinforcements, must be available in
order to estimate the cost of the structure. If the working drawings and schedules for the
reinforcement are not available, an estimate of the anticipated quantities must be provided.
The typical quantities of reinforcement within structural members are as follows:
Columns
For 16mm diameter bars -15.07kg/m3
For 12mm diameter bars – 29.56kg/m3
Slabs
12mm diameter bars are proposed for all the slabs. The reinforcement per unit volume in
the slabs is 20.325kg/m3.
Beams
For 20mm diameter bars- 78.67kg/m3
For 16mm diameter bars- 105.32kg/m3
For 12mm diameter bars- 240.91kg/m3

Minimum Cover
The minimum cover to reinforcement selection was based on the durability requirements
and protection of steel against corrosion due to location of structure. The fire resistance of
the structure is required to determine the minimum cover and to maintain the structural
integrity of the building, to allow time for the building to be evacuated in the event of a

33
fire. We earlier took into consideration the fire resistance time of the structure and with
that, the minimum cover to reinforcement in the various structural elements are as
followed:
 Slabs - 25mm
 Beams - 25mm
 Columns - 40mm
 Staircase - 25mm
 Foundationn - 50mm

34
 Chapter 6: STRUCTURAL ELEMNTS
For this chapter, we will be discussing the various types of structural elements that make
up this structure. The structural elements are basically the components that make up the
structure such as slabs, beams, columns staircases, steel roof trusses and foundation.
Beams
Very often, beams are classified according to the way they support loads. The different
classification of beams are:
 Simply supported beams
 Continuous beams
 Cantilever beams
 Overhanging beams
 Fixed beams
After the study of architectural drawing, we will be elaborating on the beams present in the
structure. The beams present are cantilever, continuous, overhanging and simply
supported.

6.1.1 Simply Supported Beam

A simply supported beam is one whose ends freely rest on walls or columns. They help
reduce deflection at mid-span. A simply supported beam can be found on gridline 3a, L-N.
This beam is used to break the span and carry load coming from both slabs.

Figure 11: Simply supported beam.

35
6.1.2 Continuous Beam
A continuous beam is one which has more than two supports. A continuous beam can be
found on gridline J, 2-7. The load acting on the slabs in the different spaces act directly on
the beam

Figure 12: Continuous beam

6.1.3 Cantilever Beam

A cantilever is a beam anchored at only one end. A cantilever beam is ideal for certain
areas in the structure such as the corridor because it only needs one support hence, columns
do not need to be present. An ideal example is the beam on gridline 3, A-B1. Per the
architect’s discretion, columns are not needed on the outside of the structure, however, the
roof extends over to cover the walkway. The cantilever beam is able to support the roofing
system.

Figure 13: Cantilever beam

6.1.4 Overhanging beam

An overhanging beam is one in which the supports are not situated at the ends. Either one
or both the ends project beyond the supports. An overhanging beam can be found on
gridline N, 1d-3a.

Figure 14: Overhanging beam

Slab
There are two commonly used slabs: flat slab and the conventional slab.

36
6.2.1 Flat Slab
This is typically a two-way reinforced concrete without the use of beams but supported
directly by drop panels or column capitals at columns to resist heavier loads and thus permit
longer spans. This type of slab is generally easy to construct and requires little formwork.

Figure 15: Flat slab

6.2.2 Conventional Slab

A conventional slab also known as the beam-slab is supported by beams and columns. In
this type of slab, the thickness of the slab is relatively small, while the depth of the beam
is relatively large and the load is transferred to the load-bearing beams and then to the
columns. Reinforcement is provided in conventional slab and the bars which are set in
horizontal are called main reinforcement bars and bars which are set in vertical are called
distribution bars.
A conventional slab is classified as either:
 One-way: supported by beams on two opposite sides, carrying the load in one
direction.
 Two-way: supported by beams on all four sides, carrying the load along with both
directions.

Figure 16: Conventional slab

37
For this project, we will be adopting the conventional slab system because it is more cost
effective compared to a flat slab. Also, since earthquake is being considered, a conventional
slab is more effective to use as compared to the flat slab because of its flexibility.

Column
A column is predominantly a compression member and can be braced or unbraced, stocky
or slender. A column may be considered braced if the lateral loads, due to wind are resisted
by shear walls or some other form of bracing rather than by the column while a column
may be considered to be unbraced if the lateral loads are resisted by the sway action of the
column. The columns in the structure ranges from being braced to unbraced.
A column is likely to fail due to one of three mechanisms:
1. Compression failure of the concrete/steel reinforcement
2. Buckling
3. Combination of buckling and compression failure.
The first failure mode is most likely to occur with columns which are short and stocky,
while second failure mode likely to occur with columns which are long and slender. A
ℓ ℓ
column is identified as short and stocky if : < 15 or < 15 .This condition applies to

braced condition. For an unbraced condition, a column is identified as short and stocky if:
ℓ ℓ
< 10 or < 10. The height of every column in this structure is 4m and per analysis,

the columns in the structure are short and stocky.

38
 Staircase
For this project, we will be considering the U- shaped stairs with a 90 o landing as given in
the architectural drawing. The height, length and number of threads have been stated
respectively in the architectural drawing.
According to then Ghana builders’ code, the minimum tread width for a commercial
building is 300mm and maximum riser height is 150mm.

Figure 17: u-shaped staircase

Ramp
A ramp has to be very accessible and affordable and hence has to obey the slope limits
used generally.The commercial and public facility standard for slope ranges from 5-8.33
degrees of incline, in addition to the need for intermediate levels for rest or change of
direction. In order to keep our structure budget friendly, a slope of 8 degrees will be used.
Calculation of going-ramp height
Length of ramp = 13475mm
Gradient of ramp = 0.08
Height of ramp = 0.08 x 13475 = 673.75mm

39
Figure 18: Ramp

Truss
As earlier stated, we would be considering the steel roof truss. These steel trusses consists
of equal angle bars for the top and bottom and unequal angle bars for the diagonal and
vertical members. Generally, angle bars are preferred option to use for steel construction
because they can be welded directly onto each other forming very light trusses up to about
12m span. To prevent overturning of the individual trusses due to wind loads and buckling
of compression chords, the truss system is going to be braced using an X-brace to laterally
restrain the truss together with the purlins. Cladding will be done to protect the system
from wind and rain and also act as noise control.
During the analysis of the structure, different types of truss systems were adopted.

Figure 19: Truss system for the ground floor

The system on the left is known as a scissors truss design. This was used to support the
high pitched roof with the sloped ceiling surface as suggested by the architectural drawing,

40
This design also allows for rain to flow down preventing un-factored live load. The system
on the right is a sloping flat truss design. This design was used to prevent the rain from
flowing into the structure while creating the desired pitched roof effect.
The second floor truss system is a combination of the scissors, the flat roof and a sloping
flat roof to create the desired roof system.
The common truss systems considered were:
 Fink Truss: This truss has shorter members and chords.This type is useful in places
with shorter span.
 King Post Truss: They are used for a short span of around 8 meters and so, they are
ideal for small houses.
 Queen Post Truss: This type can be used to make covered bridges, roofs, etc. It can
be used for a short-span of 10 meters.
However their slope gradients were not ideal for the design.

41
 Chapter 7: PRELIMINARY SIZING OF STRUTURAL
ELEMNTS
Beams
All beams have been designed to resist the ultimate bending moment, shear and deflection.
To ensure that beams behave satisfactorily, checks for deflection and shear were also
considered. The proposed beam sizes are: 225mm x 450mm, 250mm x 500mm, 150mm x
300mm, 150mm x 450mm, with an orientation of depth by width, were adopted for the
design. In the design of the beams, the maximum hogging moments and sagging moments
for the worse load combinations were used for the design.
Columns
The columns were designed as short, unbraced and braced columns, which serve the
purpose of caring the loads from the beams and slabs down to the foundation. The ultimate
limit state governed the design of the columns subjected to bending and axial load. The
proposed column sizes are: 400mm x 400mm, 300mm x 300mm, 150mm x 300mm, 500 x
500mm as per the preliminary structural analysis. A number of load cases from BS6399
were considered for the design of the members subjected to dead loads, imposed loads in
addition to alternating effect of wind and seismic loads.
Slabs
The floors and roofs of a shopping centre were divided into several slab panels. This was
followed by the calculation of the aspect ratio to determine whether aa selected panel is
either a one-way slab or a two-way slab and these were designed to resist the dead loads
and imposed loads coming on them. Per preliminary analysis, a thickness of 150mm was
used in the design of the roof to floor slab. It indicates a pass floor all shear checks.
Truss
The truss members are constructed from angle bars because they are light in weight. For
the top and bottom bars, an unequal angle bar of UA 100mm x 65mm x 8mm while an
equal bar of EA 90mm x 90mm x 7mm will be used for the vertical and diagonal members.
Foundation
The foundation will be designed such that the bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded
as stated in the geotechnical investigation report. Also, for the designed foundation to be
able to sustain any earthquake stresses, foundation can be designed as continuous mat or

42
raft to avoid relative horizontal displacement. In the case of isolated footing, the foundation
is joined to each other by means of foundation tie beams. The column positions were
determined based on the architectural requirements and structural relevance. The
architectural drawings for most part of the structure shows symmetry and subsequently
repeat themselves on two floors. In the view of this, only structural members under critical
condition were considered in this preliminary design.

The computer software used for the structural analysis and design is PROTA structures and
general arrangement and structural detailing will be done using AutoCAD structural
detailing.

43
 Chapter 8: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Background Information
The primary purpose of this project is to identify the most feasible technical solution for
the construction of the commercial area. The impact assessment report (EIA) will be made
as part of the project based on the preliminary design, in order to identify and foresee
possible environmental conflicts and to point to solutions and mitigation measures for
avoiding permanent impacts of the project on the environment.
Purpose of the EIA
The purpose of the EIA is to address problems and potential impacts the structure has on
the structure has on the environment either during its construction or during the operation
in accordance with the environmental regulations, 1999(LI 1652)
The EIA will outline:
 The impacts to be accessed, focusing on the most important impacts.
 The types of alternatives to be examined, including measures to mitigate impacts.
Identification of Potential Impacts
The project will be accessed based on the:
 Location: The location has to do with the occupancy of the property and the land
use changes, the underground structure such as the drainage system.
 Construction Phase: This phase deals with the earthwork, emission of heat, noise
and light, dust generation, use of hazardous material, temporary storage.
 Operation Phase: This deals with the access and movement of people and human
safety after the construction.
These components are likely to have potential environmental impacts on the geology
and ground conditions, habitat species and biodiversity.
Recommendations on most significant issues
1. Noise: During construction, emissions are unavoidable. To reduce the noise in a
certain aspect, the amount of transportation needed to get materials to the site can
be reduced and the vehicles resized to contain more materials.
2. Air Quality: To improve the air quality in the environment, water tankers can be
provided to keep the ground wet.

44
3. Waste: During construction phase, construction debris, and solid waste from
worker camps should be properly treated. In addition, a part of soil generated from
the excavation work may not be reusable and should be properly treated as waste
soil. In operation phase, waste generated from the commercial area should also be
properly collected, treated, and disposed by authorized company.

45
 Chapter 9: COST ESTIMATE
This chapter gives us a rough cost estimate for the materials needed for the construction.
Quantity, rates and amount are subjected to change depending on further analysis and
increase in market prices.

Item No. Item Description Unit Quantity Rate GH₵ Amount GH₵

1.1 Concrete works

1.1.1 Concrete test cubes LS 12 500 6,000

1.1.2 Fine aggregate Kg

1.1.3 Cement Kg 3332 100 333,200

1.1.4 Coarse aggregate

1.2 Reinforcement quantities Per Ton

1.2.1 diameter 12mm mild steel column links Kg 1984 8,500 16,864

1.2.2 diameter 16mm high yield column rebars Kg 2117 11,000 23,287

1.2.3 diameter 12mm high yield slab rebars kg 5512 11,000 60,632

1.2.4 diameter 20mm high yield beam rebars kg 9622 11,000 105,842

1.2.5 diameter 16mm high yield beam rebars kg 12881 11,000 141,691

1.2.6 diameter 12mm mild steel beam links kg 29465 8,500 250,452

1.3 Truss frames Per Kg

1.3.1 90mm x90mm x7mm angle bar kg 396 15 5940

1.3.2 100mm x 65mm x 8mm angle bar kg 132 15 1980

1.4 Purlins

100mm x 50mm x 10mmm PFC kg 64 10 640

1.5 Foundation 176,054.63

Total 1,122,583

*LS- Large sum

*Kg- Kilogram

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CONCLUSION
The general arrangement of the structural elements in the proposed structure has been
thoughtfully placed to:
 Be aesthetically pleasing
 increase room space
 Cost and budget friendly
After the considering alternative designs, the design below poses to be ideal. These
drawings can be found in the appendices
This preliminary report has simply outlined the major decisions taken and has given a
structure to follow in the next stage of the design process. In the final report, manual
calculation will be provided to support every analysis made.

47
 TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING REPORT

48
 Chapter 10: INTRODUCTION
Objectives and Approach of this Report
Study of existing road network and making suggestions for improvement, if any. Land
preparation must consider levels of adjoining roads.
• Prepare geometrical design in accordance with acceptable design standard and guidelines;
− Road profiles (Horizontal and Vertical alignments)
− Road intersections
− Cross-sections at various locations must be prepared
• Pavement design based on
− Traffic load and characteristic – estimate the amount of traffic and the cumulative number
of equivalent standard axles that will use the road over the selected design life.
− Sub grade strength – assess the strength of the subgrade soil over which the road is to be
built. Decide whether the subgrade is to be maintained or replaced noting cost implications,
among others.
− Pavement materials – selecting the most economical combination of pavement materials
and layer thickness that will provide satisfactory service over the design life of the
pavement.

Methodology
10.2.1 Desk study
At this phase, it is essential to examine all available data sources in the form of maps,
graphs, and aerial photos and to assess the data collected. The feasibility of the road plan
suggested for the location was determined after a thorough study of the reference
documents.

49
10.2.2 Site reconnaissance
To understand more about the project site, as well as to recognize and validate the type, the
location, and the orientation of significant features there, a trip was made.
It was discovered that the location is relatively level and the transport network leading there
is insufficient. Aside from this, the region is moderately developed and serves as a key
access point for students.

10.2.3 Data collection

Data required for the project's design was gathered and analyzed from a wide range of
sources. The design vehicle that is expected to use the road more frequently and the
potential effects of vehicle weights on the proposed facility were both determined during
study at University of Ghana Legon at a similar commercial area.

50
 Chapter 11: EXISTING CONDITIONS
Site Layout and Location
Central University is situated near Dawhenya on the N1 Highway in the Greater Accra
Region of Ghana. It is made up of about 8,500 students and has a total land size of about
1km2. Commercial workers on campus mainly engage in;
 Financial services: mainly banks and mobile money services.
 Retail: The operation of bookshops.
 Commercial printing
 Trading: which includes the operation of provision shops, selling of food and
foodstuff etc.

Road Network
The Central University Road network in its current form is a two lane, two-way uncurbed
road. Each lane is approximately 3.2m wide without a shoulder. To meet global standards
for pedestrian safety, sidewalks will be constructed on all existing roads on Central
university campus to improve students access to facilities and support safe routs within the
campus. The central university road network is approximately 7.5m wide. The road
network extends from the school’s main gate to the major facilities on campus.

Major Adjacent Roads

Tema – Aflao Road
The Tema Aflao Road is a national highway with two lanes in each direction. The Tema –
Aflao road commences at the Tema junction East of Accra in the Greater Accra Region
and ends at Aflao on the Togo boarder in the Volta Region considered as an important
international road in the South – east of Ghana, forming part of the Trans-West African
Highway. The road links Ghana with her ECOWAS trading partner-countries, especially
Togo, Benin, Nigeria and Niger. The Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ghana will be
upgrading a 17km stretch of the existing Tema-Aflao Road in the greater Accra region of
Ghana. The existing road experiences significant congestion and the overall Project
objectives are to enhance the capacity of the road and by doing so reduce travel times, road
accidents and freight transport costs along the route, and hence facilitate trade and transit

51
in the West African sub-region. The Project will convert the existing single carriageway
into a three-carriageway expressway.
Central University College Road
Central University College Road is an unpaved Collector Road and provides access into
Central University from Miotso junction.

Figure 11.0: Road to be constructed in White and Blue

Representation
Yellow rout – Already constructed road
White rout – Road to be constructed
Blue rout – Road to be constructed leading to the commercial area

Traffic Volumes and Data

Data on traffic volume was gathered by data collecting, site reconnaissance, and desk
research. To depict the terrain and serve as a reference for the design, information from
maps and aerial images was gathered and evaluated.

52
A comparable commercial area at University of Ghana Legon, underwent traffic studies to
gather traffic data for the design. The required traffic information was gathered, include
traffic volume counts.
Volume counting was also done to calculate the design vehicle and to estimate the strength
of pavement that would be needed to handle the vehicles that will use the road network.
From October 3rd, 2022, through Sunday, October 8th, 2022, traffic counts were recorded.
The study helped count the number of cars entering and departing the school using the road
leading to the commercial area. The number of pedestrians walking along the road was also
counted to determine pedestrian volume on the walkways. Traffic volume counts will help
in;
• To calculate AADT with the proper expansion factors.
• To calculate the comparable standard axle load for pavement design.

Traffic and Volume Count

The following traffic and volume data were obtained. The data was taken from Monday to
Saturday.
Table 3: Traffic Count Data
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Vehicle Class
15/03/21 16/03/21 17/03/21 18/03/21 19/03/21 20/03/21 ADT
Motorcycles 88 114 102 107 96 82 98
Saloon cars 476 435 459 467 458 417 452
taxis 86 85 82 85 78 82 83
Pickups/Vans/4x4 131 127 135 126 133 118 128
Small buses 48 57 46 55 51 41 50
Medium buses 5 1 2 5 3 0 3
Large buses 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Manny wagons 2 0 0 2 1 1 1
Small trucks 13 10 10 8 10 0 9
Medium trucks 3 1 1 2 1 0 1

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 Large trucks 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 852 830 837 858 831 741 825
Observations made from traffic volume counts

The following observations were made from the traffic volume counts
 The highest percentage of vehicles recorded using the road facility could be
categorized under small vehicles in the GHA road design guide.

Uses of traffic volume counts in geometric design

 Selecting the design vehicle type

 Estimating the Speed limits for the proposed road layout.
 Designing both the vertical and horizontal geometric layout, as well as cross
sections for the proposed road.
 Calculating the necessary sight distances for proposed road layout.

Figure 20: Average equivalency factors for different vehicle types

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 Computation of Cumulative ESAL
Table 4: Total Daily ESA
Average ESA Daily
Vehicle Class Axles
per vehicle ADT ESA
Motorcycles 0 negligible 98 0
Saloon cars 2 negligible 452 0
taxis 2 negligible 83 0
Pickups/Vans/4x4 2 negligible 128 0
Small buses 2 negligible 50 0
Medium buses 2 negligible 3 0
Large buses 2 8.9 0 0
Manny wagons 2 negligible 1 0
Small trucks 2 8.9 9 80.1
Medium trucks 2 8.9 1 8.9
Large trucks 3 8.9 0 0
Total daily ESA = 89
Cumulative ESA=ESA*G*365*D*LF
Where;
G; Traffic growth
D; Directional distributional factor (0.5)
LF; Lane distribution factor (1)
G = (1+r) n - 1/r
n= design period (10)
r= 4% sourced: World Bank, 2014
G= [(1.04)15-1]/0.04
G = 20.023
Cumulative ESA=325,223.5775 = 0.3* 106 ESA
TLC = 0.3

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With a traffic class of T2 and a subgrade strength of S6, we obtain a surface-dressed road
with a base course of thickness of 175mm by tracing from the TRL CBR Charts.

Environmental Condition
11.9.1 Relief
The area falls in the central portion of the Accra plains. The land is generally gentle and
undulating.
The area is known to have ancient igneous rocks underlining most part of the district.
Strongly metamorphosed ancient sediments occur along the western boundary. There are
also important areas of relatively young unconsolidated sediments in the south and
southeast. Dahomeyan gneiss and schists occupy most of the plains proper.
Topography

Figure 11.3: Contours generated from Google earth

56
The Site generally slopes to the east and north east. The south eastern portion of the land
seems to be of the highest elevation. Surface water flow has been mapped to generally flow
east towards the girl’s hostel area which discharges into a main drain which leads away
from the school campus in the eastern direction.

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 Chapter 12: Road Design Parameters
Design Standards
Geometric design is carried out based on standards. Some of the standards include;
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Australian Guide to Road Design, and the British Design Manual for Roads. The standard
which will be used is the GHA Road Design Guide which is the only document standard
in the country, Ministry Of Roads and Highways Manual for Low Volume Roads, and the
Green Book AASHTO.

Design Vehicle
The design vehicle represents properties of a vehicle that is used in the design of the
elements of the road.

Figure 21: Vehicle characteristics

Vehicle category usually adopted for design according to the ministry of roads and
highways manual for low volume roads are four. They include: passenger car, single unit
bus, single unit truck and truck and semi-trailer. For the purpose of this designs, single unit
bus will be chosen as the design vehicle. Type 2 was used as the design vehicle because
based on the data obtained from the volume count, it was observed that a fair amount of
single unit busses may use the road. The representative dimensions can be found in the
table above.

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 Design Speed
Design speed is the highest continuous speed at which individual vehicles can travel with
safety when conditions are favourable. Design speed depends on the functional class of the
road, the topography of the area in which the highway is located, and the land use of the
adjacent area. The design speed is a primary determinant of the geometric design.

Figure 22: Vehicle Design Speed

The selected design speed will be for that of type 2 paved populated areas which is
50km/h.

Design life
The design life of the road network will be 10 years.

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 Chapter 13: Geometric Design
Cross-section Design
Cross section is the perpendicular view of the right of way of a road. It includes elements
of the highway which affect vehicle movement. Cross section elements are those features
of road ways which make it effective with hand effect vehicle moment the dimension of
the element varies with traffic characteristic and level of services expected of the facility.
Low volume road may require only lines. While roadways with higher design volume
require more lines and have greater needs for design feature such as shoulder, median
central of access.

Traffic Lanes
Traffic lane can be defined as that portion of the traveled way used for the movement of a
single line of vehicles in one direction. The number of traffic lanes depends upon the
volume and type of traffic going to use the facility. The width of traffic lane is control for
safety and efficiency to be built in the facility. Two lanes will be used because it will
adequately cater for the traffic volume of the selected area.

Lane Width
The design speed of vehicles will influence the width of the road and when the design speed
increases, the width of roadway also increases proportionally.
A lane width of 3.25 has been selected based on the design speed and functional
characteristics of the road. This should provide adequate clearance for passing and
oncoming vehicles, ensure safety and comfort to motorists.

Cross-fall
The pavement crossfalls are 3%

Curbs
Curbs will be provided along the sidewalks.

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 Sidewalk
Sidewalks were incorporated into the cross-section composition to prevent traffic
congestion and the degradation of the road's functionality. They also help to distinguish
between the different vehicular and pedestrian traffic streams. The GHA Road Design
Guide's flowchart was utilized to determine the Sidewalk Type 1's 2.0m width on both
sides.

Road Camber
Camber is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:

 Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

 Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
 Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

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 Sight Distance
The need to achieve minimum sight distance standards sets limits on how sharp the curves
can be. These standards are of course speed-related – they are the link between design
speed and curvature.
There are three main types of sight distance to consider:
Stopping Sight Distance: This is the visibility necessary for a driver to be able to see an
obstruction in time to bring the vehicle to a halt without a collision. This is a basic minimum
standard for two-lane single carriageway roads. It is assumed that the driver’s eye height
is 1.2m and the height of the obstruction is at least 0.15m above the road surface.
Overtaking Sight Distance: This is the visibility necessary for a driver to be able to see
whether the road ahead is sufficiently clear to enable him to overtake a vehicle in front –
even if an oncoming vehicle appears after he has started the overtaking maneuver. It is a
very long distance, especially at the higher speeds, and it can be difficult to achieve.
Intermediate Sight Distance: This is the visibility necessary for a driver to be able to see
whether the road ahead is sufficiently clear to enable him to overtake, assuming that he
will abort the maneuver if an oncoming vehicle appears before he has got level with the
slower vehicle. ISD is much less than OSD yet it permits reasonably safe overtaking. ISD
is about twice SSD. It is assumed that the observer and the obstruction are at eye height
(1.2m).

Super Elevation
This is the inner tilt given to cross section of a road on a horizontal curve. The normal
crossfall on a road will result in vehicles on the outside lane of a horizontal curve needing
to develop higher than normal levels of frictional force to resist sliding. In many cases it
will be necessary to remove this adverse crossfall, for safety and comfort reasons. For
small radius curves and at higher speeds the removal of adverse crossfall will not be enough
to reduce the frictional needs to an acceptable level and a steeper crossfall (superelevation)
must be provided. The minimum superelevation requirements for the various design speeds
and curve radii is 3% and Maximum permitted superelevation is 7% but it is desirable to
avoid using curves that need this amount of superelevation unless site constraints make it

62
really necessary. Use of lower superelevation levels allows the alignment to be upgraded
to a higher design speed in the future by increasing the superelevation.

Alignment
A road's alignment is made up of both vertical and horizontal components. The vertical
alignment contains the parabolic curves that link the straight (tangent) roadway grades. The
roadway's straight (tangent) segments and the connected circular bends that mark their
direction change are all included in the horizontal alignment. The alignment's design is
largely influenced by the design speed chosen for the roadway. The alignment that mimics
the topography of the land is the least expensive. Because the designer must abide by
specific requirements that might not be present on the natural terrain, it is not always viable
to choose the least expensive option.

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 Vertical Alignment
Gradients (straight portions) and vertical curves make up vertical alignment. Vertical
alignment is typically represented by a profile, which is a graph with elevation as the
vertical axis and horizontal distance along the road's center line as the horizontal axis. To
link two gradients, vertical curves are employed. Curves that are either convex (crest) or
concave (valley or sag).

Crest curve
Crest curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards. They are formed when
 A positive gradient meets another positive gradient
 A positive gradient meets a flat gradient
 A positive gradient meets a descending gradient

64
  A negative gradient meets another negative gradient

If the point of vertical intersection (termed PVT) is above the road surface termed as crest
curve.

Sag curve
For sag vertical curves, stopping sight distance is based on the distance illuminated by the
headlights at night. Design standards are based on an assumed headlight height of 0.6m
and an upward divergence of the headlight beam of 1 o
If the point of intersection is below the road surface it is formed as sag curve.

The existing road network is relatively flat so the existing vertical alignment will be used.

Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment is made up of straight portions of road linked together by bends.
Curves are often segments of circles with radii that allow for a smooth flow of traffic. The
horizontal alignment design comprises determining the minimum radius, determining the
length of the curve, and computing the horizontal offsets from the tangents to the curve to
aid in identifying the curve in the field. In some circumstances, to avoid a rapid transition
from an infinite-radius tangent to a finite-radius curve, a curve with radii ranging from

65
infinite to the radius of the circular curve is inserted between the circular curve and the
tangent. A spiral or transition curve is one such curve. Horizontal curves are classified into
four types: simple, complex, reversed, and spiral.
The road's horizontal alignments were designed at a peak speed of 50 km/h. Horizontal
radii and curve lengths were chosen to meet the specifications of the GHA road design
guide and Ministry of Roads and Highways Manual for Low Volume Roads. Horizontal
curves are classified into four types: simple curves, complex curves, reverse curves, and
spiral curves.

Simple Circular Curve

A simple circular curve is a curve connecting two intersecting straight having a constant
radius throughout the curve. This type of curve is tangential to the straight at the joining
sides.

Element of Simple Circular Curve

T= Tangent
L = Length of curve
LC = Length of chord
D =Degree of curvature,
E = External (Secant) Distance

66
M = Mid-ordinate
Knowing the chainage of PI
Chainage of PC= chainage of PI= T
Chainage of PT =chainage of PC + LC

Compound Curve
Compound curve consist of two or more consecutive simple circular curves of different
radii without any intersective straight section. The two center compound curves have two
circular arcs of difference radii that deviate in the same direction and join at a common
tangent point known as “point of compound curvature”. The objective of such curve is to
avoid certain point, the crossing of which cannot be avoided by a simple circular curve.

From the above figure.

CI and DI are two straight intersection at I
T1ET2 is the compound curve consisting two arcs of radii R 1 and R2
E is the point of compound curve
AB is a common tangent making deflection angle α and β at points A and B respectively.

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Reverse Curve
Reverse curve consists of two circular arcs of the same or different radii (curvature) without
any intervening straight define and with common tangent. The common tangent point
where the curve meet is known as “point of reverse curvature”
Elements of reverse curves
1. Radii R1 and R2 of the two curves arcs
2. Angle of deflection, θ between the straights.
3. Central (deflection) angle, α and β of the common tangent.
4. Angle Q1 and Q2 between the straight and the line T1T2

Transition curve
A transition curves is a curve of varying radius introduced between a straight and a circular
curve to facilitate change over from straight to curve or from one curve to another.
Therefore, in transition curve, the radius is constant changing.
The radius of the curve for the existing road does not exceed the recommended radius for
the class of road selected, which is 180. Therefore, the existing road’s horizontal alignment
will be used.

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 Chapter 14: Intersection Design
An intersection is a point where two or more roads meet, with the primary purpose of
allowing for route direction changes. A simple junction is one where just two roads cross
at a right angle to one another, whereas a complicated intersection is one where three or
more roads meet in the same space.
From a design aspect, intersections can also be divided according to whether they are
uncontrolled, priority (stop give way), space sharing (round about), time-sharing (traffic
signal controlled), or grade separated (interchanges).
Uncontrolled at-grade: These are the intersections between any two roads with relatively
lower volume of traffic and traffic of neither road has precedence over the other.
Priority control: There is theoretically no delay occurring on the major road and vehicles
on the minor road are controlled by “GIVE WAY” or “STOP” signs.
Time separated /signalized intersection at grade: These are widely seen road intersection
with traffic signals.
Space separated/Grade separated intersection: These intersections facilitates movement at
different levels for vehicles and pedestrians. Example of such type include intersections
with flyovers, under pass.

69
The map above shows the location's five main intersections along with their associated
numbers. There is a roundabout in place at intersection one, however it was badly planned.
Since of its excessive height, which poses a major risk, and because vehicle users don't
always use this facility properly, accidents may result. This roundabout will be upgraded
to improve safety. Additionally, a roundabout will be installed at intersection two and five.
For intersection three and four, a three-leg intersection will be used.

70
 Chapter 15: Pavement Design
With a traffic class of T2 and a subgrade strength of S6, we obtain a surface-dressed road
with a base course of thickness of 175mm by tracing from the TRL CBR Charts.
Surface Dressing Design
This particular form of bituminous surfacing involves applying a very thin coating of a
liquid bituminous binder (called a "tack coat"), either a cutback or an emulsified asphalt,
to a prepped pavement surface before spreading single-sized quarry aggregates on top of
it.
 Surface dressing's primary goals aren't to increase the road's structural strength or
ride quality, but rather to seal the road surface against water.
 Prevent disintegration of surface
 Prevent the occurrence of a non-skid wearing surface.
Double seal, a type of surface dressing is recommended due to the following advantages;
 It is robust and normally recommended for new roads
 It maximizes durability and minimizes the frequency of maintenance and resealing
operation.
In surface dressing, the road will have to be primed first before the main seal is later used.

Importance of Priming
 Coats and bonds fine dust particles to the surface of the base layer.
 Plugs capillary pores in the surface of the base course to waterproof it.
 Penetrates and strengthens the surface of the base by increasing cohesion.
 Provides a thin coat on the base to provide better adhesion between the base and
subsequent bituminous surfacing

Selection of Binder
The choice of bitumen chosen was based on these factors;
 They must be strong enough to resist traffic forces and hold the chippings at the
highest prevailing temperatures.
 They must be capable of ‘wetting’ the surface in a continuous film.

71
  They must also remain flexible at the lowest temperature, neither cracking nor
becoming brittle enough to allow traffic to ‘pick-off’ the chippings
 They must also resist premature weathering and hardening.

Primer Seal
Unlike a typical primed foundation that is coated with sand or quarry dust, a primer seal
offers a riding surface for traffic for a longer length of time. For the following reasons, a
primer seal structure often outperforms a primed surface:
 Traffic is able to use the primer seal the same day and for a much longer period
without significant surface deterioration.
 The construction results in less disruption to traffic.
 The seal can last up to 24 months and is suitable for situations where placement of
the main seal is expected to be delayed considerably.
 When the final seal coat is placed, a surfacing intermediate between a single seal
and a double seal is obtained. This leads to an enhanced surface integrity which
improves durability of the chip seal as a whole

The primer binder to use is an AC-10 (or 85-100 pen grade) with a 16-20% kerosene cutter
and the size of chippings for the primer seal to be selected is 10mm.

Main Seal
The primer seal serves as the foundation for the primary surface dressing seal.
While the primary seal uses 10mm aggregates, the primer seal uses 14mm aggregates.
It is specified to use a more viscous bituminous binder as the tack coat for the primary seal.
It will be done using a cationic fast setting emulsion grade CRS-70 with 70% AC-10 base
bitumen.

72
 Chapter 16: Parking Design
A parking lot for the commercial area would be designed in a manner in which a diver can
easily maneuver into parking spaces. Each parking stall will have a width of 3m and a
length of 6m. There are various angles in which parking stalls can be aligned and they are;
30 degrees, 45 degrees, 60 degrees and 90 degrees. For the commercial area the parking
lot will have stalls aligned parallel to each other and have an alignment of 90 degrees. This
was chosen because:
 It handles the most vehicles per square meter of pavement
 It handles more vehicles per linear meter
 It allows for a flexible layout
 It reduces the cases for cars getting blocked to them when cars tightly parked
together
Pavement Structure for the Parking Lot
Instead of using flexible pavement, interlocking concrete paver blocks will be employed to
build the parking lot. This is because when flexible pavements are utilized to construct
parking zones, rutting or fatigue failure may develop when the cars remain or park at a
certain position for a longer length of time, impacting the pavement.
The benefits of both flexible pavements and concrete materials are combined in an
interlocking concrete block pavement system. The main benefits are as follows:
 High abrasion and skid resistance of surfacing.
 Block units suffer no damage from petroleum products.
 There is no effect from high temperatures. o No curing time required as with
concrete (rigid) pavements.
 Once installed, pavement is immediately ready for traffic use.

Interlocked pavements have numerous advantages which include,

 Paving of container terminals at ports and harbors.
 Paving of road sections subjected to static or slow-moving traffic.
 Paving of courtyards.
 Paving of driveways.

73
  Paving of pedestrian walkways.

Block Characteristics
Paving blocks may be made in a variety of thicknesses, with the 80mm size being the most
popular. Blocks may be made in any shape, from rectangular to hexagonal, dented, and
other proprietary shapes; there is no restriction on this. The interlock and stability of the
pavement improve as a block form becomes more complicated.
The block under examination has the following dimensions:
 Length = 200mm
 Breadth =100mm
 Height = 100mm

The 90⁰ Herringbone pattern layout will be applied in the pavement construction process.

Handicap Parking
Disabled parking space is a special parking space allocated for disabled people or people
with chronic health issues. For this facility the disabled parking spaces will be provided.
Marked parking spaces will be provided for disabled parking.

Parking Signs and Markings

Good markings are a very important feature for parking lots. The parking area will be well
marked to clearly designate spaces and direct the traffic flow. Wight lines will be used to
separate the parking lots and yellow lines to designate handicap parking spaces.

74
 Chapter 17: Environmental Impact Assessment
Description of Project
The Environmental Impact Assessment of the development of the roads and accesses inside
the new commercial area at Central University Miotso Campus is the subject of this report.
Interior routes have been used for the design of the roadways. The roads that will be built
for the commercial area will be built, and various construction vehicles, including graders,
trucks, watering tankers, and others, will utilize the roads while they are being built.

Environmental Impact Assessment

17.2.1 Impact on Quality of Air
According to site observations, the development activity will have a negative impact on
the area's air quality. This will take the form of dust produced by traffic, which will partially
contaminate the air near the road corridor. Construction-related activities including site
clearing and earthworks will contaminate the air. The supply of cement, sand, and
aggregate for the building project will have an impact on the local air quality. Earthmoving
equipment, such as tipper trucks, graders, bulldozers, pay loaders, and others, release
noxious fumes or gases into the air that contaminate the air in the surrounding region. These
gases include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons, and other dangerous gases.
This type of pollution often varies with the size of the machine's engine. The local
population's health might be seriously impacted by this. Respiratory tract illnesses are
expected to affect the majority of inhabitants.

17.2.2 Impact on Soil and Land

Bulldozers and excavators, as well as other powerful earthmoving machinery, are used in
the grading and road construction processes. These will consolidate and break up soil
lumps in addition to exposing the soils. Rainwater percolation into the naturally occurring
drainage pattern can be decreased by doing this as well as coating the soil surface with
bitumen and other petroleum-based products.

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17.2.3 Noise and vibration
People who live close to the construction site may be affected by the noise and vibration
produced by large equipment like bulldozers, graders, rollers, and tipper trucks. The locals
may experience problems as a result of this. By limiting site operations to the daytime
hours rather than operating overnight, this can be reduced. The project's workers may
potentially be harmed by the noise and vibration pollution. Workers can use earplugs to
assist decrease the amount of noise that gets into their ears, lowering the danger.
17.2.4 Health and Safety of General Public
For both the area's residents and employees, many health and safety precautions must be
taken. Providing protective clothes like safety boots, goggles, nasal masks, hand gloves,
and building hoardings to bar non-workers from the site are a few examples of these safety
precautions. Additionally, warning signs can be built in strategic locations to alert people
to potential dangers. Additionally, a safety officer must be appointed on site to regularly
educate or brief personnel.

Risk Management
Measures should be taken to control these hazards in order to create a risk-free or low-risk
environment when building the road.
Any project's implementation phase, where the immediate environment may be harmed or
enhanced, is its most crucial stage. The contractor's choice of building technique will
determine how the environment turns out. Due to the negative effect discovered during the
environmental assessment, efforts must be taken to guarantee that any issues are resolved
or appropriately controlled. Concerningly, the detected negative effects are largely
connected to the project's building period and the actions of the contractor. Environmental
management is necessary to guarantee the effective implementation of the recommended
solutions.
The easiest way to manage these effects is to include appropriate terms in the contract
agreements that provide the supervisor authority over the actions that can have negative
effects. The seamless execution of the mitigation recommendations will be ensured by
strict enforcement of these measures. The price of the mitigating measures is included in
the total contract price and is not left out. Payments for the project are measured and made,

76
but those for mitigation expenses won't be made until the contract's implementation
requirements have been met. In this regard, the contract agreement should include bonds
and assurances, such as contractor-provided performance bonds.

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 Chapter 18: Bill of Quantities

CESS ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTITY RATE AMOUNT (GHc )

M4 (GHc)
CODE

E224 Excavation for cutting of soil m3 2607.242 100 260724.2

BEDDING SAND
Filling to a thickness of m3 128.75 150 19312.5
0.025m with imported soil,
above the granular base

E645 SUB-BASE MATERIAL

Laying and compacting
m3 540.75 100 54075
Granular sub-base material
to depth of 105mm for
parking facility

R 118
BASE MATERIAL
m3 1545.25 50 77262.5
Laying and compacting
Granular base material to a
depth of 175mm for flexible
pavement.

R118 m3 515 50 15450

BASE MATERIAL
Laying and compacting
Granular base material to a
depth of 100mm for parking
facility
pcs 257500 1.65 424875

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R114

PAVEMENT BLOCKS
Laying Pavement blocks of
thickness = 80mm, for pcs 88.3 150 13245
parking facility.

m3 353.2 50 17660
PAVING OF SIDEWALK
Bedding sand:25mm thick
R118
m3 166600 1.65 274890
Filling and compacting of
base material 100 mm thick.

Provide pavement blocks for

pedestrian sidewalk

ROAD MARKINGS
R824.1 Continuous reflective white m 883 100 88300
lines 120mm wide with
applied Balotini (L2A).

TOTAL GHC 1,245,794.2

PROJECT COST ESTIMATE = GHC 1,245,794.2

79
 WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING REPORT

80
 Chapter 20: INTRODUCTION
Brief Information on the Existing Water Supply of the Study Area:
Major source: The main source of the water supply is from GWCL (Ghana Water
Company limited) and some dug wells.
Process: Ghana Water Company will serve as the major source of our water that will be
serve our structure whiles the dug wells will be stored for future purpose.
The water supply from GWCL pumps directly into the tanks, after that there is an automatic
pump which also pumps the water to various allocations of the structure. A situation where
there is no water supply from GWCL, stored water from the dug wells will supply water to
the structure system by the help of pumps.

Preliminary Investigation for the Water Supply Scheme

A reconnaissance survey of the area where the scheme is to serve was done by the group.
In order for the scheme to be successful and serve its purpose there was a need for some
investigations to be done.
The following investigations were conducted:
I. Source of water supply: the group identified a source of water from the area
which is an underground water source.
II. Population to be served: The group manage to get the overall population to
be serve by the scheme, which about 1,543 people in the study area.
III. Per head water supply: It was found out that, average water use per head in the
study area is at least 80 liters of water each day.
IV. Sanitary survey of the area: We ensured that the source of water supply was
located at a place where there is no pollution to the source.
V. Topography of the area: The topography of the study area was analyzed by the
group in order to select a good location for the source.
VI. Development of the Institution: An analysis was carried out by the group to know
how fast the study area is developing in terms of population as well as the chances
and challenges that the scheme may face in the future.

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VII. Quality of water: an investigation pertaining the quality of the source was taken
into consideration.

Water Supply Project Drawings

After the preliminary investigations of the area where the scheme is to be situated, the
following drawings were made and analyzed:
- Contour plans
Contour plans of the area to be served by the project is prepared and positions of mains,
valves, branches were clearly marked.
- Detailed drawing
Detailed longitudinal sections of the mains and branches was prepared. Sizes of the pipe
lines, and their depth below the ground were also clearly marked out.
- Site plans
Site plan which shows the location of the scheme and the area to be served by the scheme
was obtained.
- Topographical map
Topographical features of the area such as roads, source of supply and drain are all shown
on this map.

Water Demand
This chapter describes the method of determining the water volumes needed by the
proposed water supply scheme project to supply the population it intends to.
A. GENERAL

 Service levels to be implemented

 Size of the institution
 Standard of living of the people
 Quality and quantity of water available in the area
 Water tariffs that need to be shouldered by the consumers
 Habits and manners of water usage by the people

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 B. Design Period
In commercial water supply scheme models, the design period normally involving
decades within which the initial capital outlay and succeeding outlays for expansion
and rehabilitation can be rationally recovered. For small water utilities, including
those owned by the local governments, such large outlays are not available and
cannot be matched by the rural population’s capacity to pay. For these reasons, the
design period or in this project is set at 20 years. In setting the design period, what
was taken into account in terms of the financing package and the potential
consumers’ capability and willingness to pay the amounts needed to support
repayment.

Design Population
The design population is the targeted number of people that the project will serve.

Water Consumption
Water consumption served by scheme were classified into Domestic Use, Commercial Use
and Institutional Use. In our community, water consumption is generally limited to
domestic uses as well as institution and commercial uses, i.e., drinking, cooking, cleaning,
washing and bathing.
STAFF
Estimated population = 396 persons
Average water consumption (p.c.p.d) = 70 liters/cap/day
Total water consumption = 70 x 396 = 27720 liters/day

OTHER HOSTELS
Estimated population = 1852 persons
Average water consumption (pcpd) = 70/litres/cap/day
Total water consumption = 70 x 1852 = litres/day
Total water consumption for Institutions = 129640 litres/day
NON-RESIDENT STUDENTS
Total population ₌ 4448

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Average water consumption (pcpd) ₌ 70/litres/day
Total water consumption = 70 x 4448= 311360litres/day
Total water consumption for Institutions
=311360 litres/day

FLOATING
Total population ₌ 960
Average water consumption (pcpd) ₌ 70/litres/day
Total water consumption ₌70 x 960= litres/day
Total water consumption
=67200litres/day

SOURCES TOTAL POPULATION WATER DEMAND

(LITERS/DAY)
STAFF 396 2217600

OTHER HOSTELS 1852 129640

NON-RESIDENT 4448 311360

STUDENTS

FLOATING 960 67200

TOTAL =7656 TOTAL=2725800

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 Water Demand
This describes the method of determining the water volumes needed by the proposed water
supply scheme project to supply the intended population. The water demand is a
summation of all the consumptions given in the preceding sections and will determine the
capacity needed from the source.
Demand in the Next Decade Current Population
P2022 = P2012(1+G) ^n
The population decade ago was 4000
Estimated total population is 7656
Gr = 0.067

Population in the next decade

P2032= p2022(1+Gr) ^n
Current Population = 14643.54
Population increase =14643.54– 7656 = 6987.54
The percentage increase (%) = x 100 = 91.27%
Therefore, the water demand of the 91.27%= x 2725800= 2487837.66 liters/day
Total water demand of the structure in the next decade =2725800 + 2487837.66 =
5213637.66 liters/day

Existing Sources of Water Supply to the Structure

 Ghana Water Company limited which supplies about 60% of water demand
to the study area.

From our research and visit to the various existing sources of water we had the approximate
quantity of water each supply to the community. Which are shown in the table below

85
 Figure 23: Sources of Water and Estimated Quantity Supplied
SOURCES QUANTITY OF WATER SUPPLIED
(liters/ day)

Ghana Water Company 3128182.596

TOTAL 3128182.596

Determination of Deficit
According to our analysis above, it was noticed that the total water demand of the structure
is not met since the total water which serves the entire community from the two different
existing sources of water supply do not meet the total demand of the community for its
daily usage.
Now the deficit is estimated as follows:
Deficit = Total demand of water of the structure – the total quantity of water supplied to
the structure.
= 5213637.66 – 3128182.596= 2085455.064 liters/day

Firefighting
5% of the deficit is required to be used in firefighting within the community
=x 2085455.064 = 104272.75 liters/day
Adding up = 2085455.064 + 104272.75 = 2189727.817 litres/day
Non-Revenue Water
5% of the total water to be supplied to the community is said to be lost in pipe lines due to
defective pipe joints, pipe bends, cracked or broken pipes, loose valves, fittings and some
water is also lost due to unauthorized and illegal connections.
Total water to be lost = x 2189727.817 = 109486.391 liters
Adding up = 2189727.817+ 109486.391 = 2299214.208 liters/day
Total deficit to be supplied to the community = 2299214.208 liters/day
Total water to be supplied = 2299.21

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 Demand Variations and Demand Factors
The demand varies within the day and also within the year. This demand variation is
dependent on the consumption pattern of the locality.
1. Average daily demand: The average of the daily water requirement spread in
a year
ADD = 5213637.66 /365 = 14283.938 liters/day.
2. Peak hour demand: The highest hourly demand in a day.
PHD = 2.5 x Average daily demand = 2.5 x 14283.938 = 35709.85 liters/day.

Table 5: Table of demand variations

Source Identification for the Scheme

The group decided to use underground source for this scheme, due to this, proper sanitary
survey of the area where the scheme is to be located was surveyed properly. Ground water
is approximately 30% of all fresh water on earth. The source was identified taking into
consideration the following issues
1. The regions that have low pollution potential
2. Low recharge capability
3. A favorable location for the utility and its consumers

In order to develop the source, there is need for drilling of borehole to bring the water
to the surface for treatment and subsequently distributing to the consumers.

87
 Development of the Underground Source
After the area has been identified, the next step is to develop the underground source. A
drill method was used using a drilling machine to bring the water to the surface for
treatment, storage and distribution. An intake site was also taken into consideration.
Groundwater quality reflects substances that are dissolved or suspended in the water.
Suspended material is not transported far in most subsurface water, but it is usually
filtered out.
In general, groundwater flow is very slow and depends on the permeability (water
transmitting ability) of the subsurface materials, as wells as the hydraulic gradient (slope
of the water-table or pressure gradient for artesian conditions).
The rate of groundwater flow is usually measured in feet (or meters) per day or feet (or
meters) per year. In some situations where flow is slow it is measured in inches (or
centimeters) per year.
Groundwater usually contains higher concentrations of natural dissolved materials than
surface water. The materials dissolved in the water usually reflect the composition and
solubility of the earth materials (soil or rock) that the groundwater is in contact with and
time that it has been in the subsurface. A number of the activities of man pose threats to
water quality and some of these activities include:

Landfill solid waste disposal

Liquid waste disposal basins
 Septic waste infiltration systems

 Highway deicing with chemicals (e.g. salt)

 Gasoline service stations

 Petroleum bulk storage facilities

 Underground storage tanks

 Many industrial activities

 Urban storm water infiltration

88
 Rainfall Harvesting
Climate
The location of the area for construction happens to be one of the hottest and driest part of
the country. The maximum temperature is 40 degrees Celsius. Temperatures are however
subjected to occasional and minimal moderating influences along the coast and altitude
influences affected by the Akwapim range in the northeast.
Rainfall is generally very low with most of the rains being very erratic in coming mostly
between September and November. The mean annual rainfall increases from 762.5
milliliters in the coast to 12,220 milliliters in the northern parts of the district

89
 Chapter 20: CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
Based on the geological formation of the area, it required the use of the following
equipment listed below;
 Rotary drilling rid
 Mud pump
 Air compressor

Process of Drilling
Once the survey is completed, we then proceeded on the drilling process. The drilling
process involves the mobilizing and setting up the equipment at the site. We deploy the use
of hydraulic rotary rid with hammer bit and water drill. The equipment’s were used to dig
our borehole during drilling. Based on the geological formation, different methods of
drilling were applied. Our equipment drills an air compressor which allows us to penetrate
through both dirt/soil and hard rock underneath until we reach the determine depth, where
there is enough water in the aquifer to feed, charge and recharge the borehole. The depth
of the borehole was decided with respect to the quantity of the water required. The
discharge of the various aquifers composing the borehole depends on the materials of
which they are formed. From our survey and observations, our borehole wad dug to about
50m deep to supply our needs. After the required depth was acquired, then pipe was
inserted in the borehole, it consists of strainer and blind section. A strainer was perforated
which is provided with an arrangement such that only water will be admitted to the inside
of the pipe. The pumping was then started; it was done gradually to avoid sticking of fine
sand particle on the external surface of the strainer. The strainer was then cleaned through
perforation by allowing water from a high tank under pressure or by blowing air under
pressure.

Well Yield Test

We used a drawdown and recovery test where the well is pumped for a determined period
of time. The volume of water pumped and the water level in the well was monitored every
10minutes.

90
Once the pumping has stopped the recovery of the well, or rising water level was also
monitored for the same period of time. Using this data and applying certain calculations
we came out with exact the capacity of the well.

Pumping Test and Discharge Measure

Pumping test was carried out to determine the amount of water that can take from the
borehole and the effects on the aquifer and neighboring well supplies as results of pumping,
pumping rate at the end of the test and water color recorded. The test will also contribute
to the selection of the type of pump to be used. The yield of a borehole can be determined
by observing pumping test duration of about 24hours and also know the static level ends.
Thus, the aquifer can be recharged faster.

Testing pump of a borehole is normally carried out to meet two main objectives;
1. To establish borehole potential. To estimate the sustainable yield and hydraulic
performance of borehole for water supplies.
2. To establish aquifer potential. To assess the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer,
discharge of water from the borehole was stable.

91
 Chapter 21: BOREHOLE PUMPIMG TEST
Sampling of the Water Test
With this sampling method, we collected sample of clean water to conduct chemical and
bacteriological test to know the quality of water found in the borehole water.

Observation
Based on the pumping test analysis graph plotted, the depth of drawdown against duration
of pumping, it was observed that, the drawdown remains stable at this stage, where the rate
of recharge of the borehole is equal to the rate of redrawing water from the borehole. It can
conclude that the aquifer has a high yield and tendency of producing enough water for the
population.

Mechanization of the Borehole

After the pumping test, the appropriate device was installed on the borehole to pump the
water through laid pipe into overhead storage tank for distribution.

Plain Development Casing

All the boreholes were lined completely with high impact resistance PVC plastic casing
and screen.
The casings were new stock and had screwed flush joints. The PVC of all plain and screen
casing has inner diameter of 125mm and wall thickness of 6mm.

Grouting
Grouting refers to the injection of pumpable materials into a structure to change its physical
characteristics. It is one of the effective ways groundwater can be controlled during building
construction works.

This was done to prevent flowing along the borehole.

92
 Gravel Pack
After the installation of the PVC, gravels where been placed in the annular area between
the casing and screen are to prevent fine materials from entering. The gravels were placed
within the annular when measured accurately to ensure adequate volume before it was
grouted.

Borehole Development
There were done to achieve sand free water at the highest possible hygiene condition. This
process continued until one litre of water is collected over a minute period from the total
discharge. The sample was clear and visible sand free.

Design Period of Water Pump

A design period is a period for which a water supply scheme is designed to serve it purpose.
The facilities of the water pump should be able to last for at least a period of one decade.
Submersible pump was used to pump the water to the treatment plant and was selected
based on the design scheme and the bearing capacity(pressure) of the pump that is require
to give the maximum flow of water and the average flow expected during transmission
period. All adequate provision was made for future improvement. The total installed
pumping capacity will exceed the maximum flow expected to be pumped.

93
 Chapter 22: TREATMENT, STORAGE AND
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
Conveyance of Water to Treatment Plant
Water quality (Anaerobic, soft, corrosive with Iron and Manganese). Ground water could
be extracted using a dug well or a tube well. To lift water a manual pump or an electric
pump can be used. If the water is without O2 (Anaerobic) it is essential to have a spray
aerator to increase the oxygen content in water. The aerator could be used to remove
dissolved CO2 (Softness). In addition, ground water may contain Iron and Manganese and
these can be removed by addition of potassium per manganate. Also using an aerator these
Irons can be oxidized to form precipitates so that they could be collected/trap in filters. If
the water contains Iron and Manganese, it is possible to have spray aerator followed with
a rapid filter.
Pipes were laid to convey the water from the source to the treatment plant. Since the source
was from underground however, it was clean, cool and free from bacteria so the necessary
treatment was to remove hardness of iron and manganese.

Storage of Treated Water

After the treatment to add oxygen and to remove hardness of iron and manganese from the
water, the water was then transported through pipes to the storage plant that is an overhead
tank. At this stage water is stored for some time and then distributed to the various places.

94
 Distribution of Water
After the treatment and the storage of the water, the water will then be distributed to various
places within the structure through the large arterial mains, distribution mains and other
minor mains with valves and hydrants.
From the survey of the community, it was identified that the area where the scheme is to
be situated is in the form of a rectangle.
The distribution system used was the grid-iron system. This system is suitable for cities
with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in rectangles.
After complete treatment of water, it becomes necessary to distribute it to the various
sections in the structure by means of a network distribution

Requirements of a Good Distribution System

●The water should reach every consumer with the required pressure head.
●The system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate.
●It should be able to transport sufficient quantity of water during emergency
such as fire –fighting.
● The pipe lines as far as possible should not be laid below or near sewer lines.
●The quantity of pipes laid should be good and it should not easily burst.
●It should be water tight and the water losses due to leakages should be minimum as
possible.

Accessories of Distribution System

The distribution system consists of;

 Valves: such as sluice valves for controlling the flow in pipe, drain valves are
placed at low point to drain off water from pipe for carrying out any repairs, air
valves are placed at all high points, so as to remove air from the pipe during
filling in operation.
 Hydrants: It’s for providing access to mains for water during fire outbreak and
may sometimes use for withdrawing water for filling the municipal water
tankers.

95
  Meter: For measuring the flow through pipes over a given period of time.
 Pumps: Submersible motor pump 2AP was used for pumping water into the
distribution system.
 Service connection (pipes): For connecting to individual homes and offices.

The figure below shows the distribution system used, i.e. Grid-iron system

Figure 24: Distribution system used, i.e. Grid-iron system

Advantages: water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.

96
 Chapter 23: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
(EIA)
The EIA evaluates the environmental impact expected at various stages of the water supply
scheme and offers a useful basics for planners, consultants, constructors, and design and
construction engineers to formulate and select the most desirable stages for different phases
of the water supply scheme process. To achieve the best results, EIA should be performed
as part of the water supply scheme process. The EIA processes consist of the following
basic stages;
 Identification and quantification of possible positive and negative impacts resulting
from the proposed water supply scheme.
 Recommendation of measures to reduce or offset the negative Impacts of the
proposed project with the aim of achieving the minimum level of environmental
degradation.
 Monitoring of the level of enforcement and degree of effectiveness of the
recommended environmental protection measures during the project
implementation phase and performing post-construction, auditing and evaluation
of the degree of effectiveness of the implemented environmental protection
measures.
The table below shows some activities and its impacts on the environment;

Activities Adverse impact on environment

Land acquisition and site preparation  Removal of top soil

 Loss of vegetation cover
 Accelerated erosion

Drilling process  Noise pollution

 Air pollution resulting from
fumes from machine

97
DRAINAGE ENGINEERING
REPORT

98
 Chapter 24: INTRODUCTION
In the design of roads and community infrastructure, the diversity of drainage problems are
broad and it includes the design of pavement drainage, cross culverts, storm-water drainage
structures among others. In order to ensure the sustainability of investments, it is imperative
that comprehensive climatic, hydrologic and hydraulic studies are undertaken in tandem
with studies and design of the roadway layout and community infrastructure. These will
improve the efficient usage of the facilities, reduce flood related accident and longevity of
the infrastructure in addition to environmental concerns.

Task Objective
The main objective of the studies and design will be to:
a. Carry out detail analysis of catchment run-off characteristics and features
b. Design efficient conveying systems to convey the design peak discharges to
appropriate outfalls
c. Study and provide solutions to sub-surface drainage problems, drainage impedance,
and flood prone areas among others.

Existing Drainage Structure

The project site has an existing natural earth drainage system that connects to a culvert that
channels the water from the bare field, beneath the road and unto the main rectangular drain
that collect water from the facilities and also an open rectangular storm drain that transports
the water to the nearest outlet.
The dimension for the existing rectangular drain is 500mm x 300mm.
The dimension for the existing storm drain is 1000mm x 500mm.
The dimension for the existing earth drain is irregular.

99
Figure 25: Existing natural earth drain

Figure 26: Existing rectangular drain

100
Figure 27: Existing Stormwater drain

The project site is prone to flooding due to:

 Poor road networks
 Presence of stagnant water within earth drains.
 Settlement of soil in drainage systems.

Culverts have their design flow rate reduced due to excessive settlement of silt in the inlets
and outlets.
Concrete drainage system does not show any structural defect while the earth drainage
systems are exposed to erosion making it irregular in shape.

101
 Land Use and Vegetation
Land use and vegetation cover are essential for the estimation of run-off coefficient. The
catchment area is largely non-residential activities with large areas unpaved. However, the
project site and its immediate environs are presently undeveloped with intended purpose
of developing large section into pave surface finished. The future land-use type will give
rise to high surface run-off coefficient that translates into high run-off at hydraulically short
duration and therefore have to be accounted for in the design. Vegetation type is mainly
grass with few shrubs at the marshy areas of the site.

Rainfall Analysis
Estimation of runoff from the tributary catchment reaching various inlets of the drain is
important as well as the storm-water. This can be estimated with the use of Intensity
Duration Frequency (IDF) curves for the design period.
Rainfall Characteristics:
 The depth of the rainfall.
 The intensity duration of the rainfall.
 The area of rainfall occurrence.
 The average recurrence interval.

INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY CURVE
For the design of hydraulic structures like culverts and drains, Intensity-Duration-
Frequency (IDF) curves have been proven to be particularly useful in estimating design
flow. IDF curves display how much rain is projected to fall during a specified period of
time. The intensities of a given duration at necessary return times are derived from the
curves and used to project peak flows. Based on the localized 24hours maximum rainfall,
a technique which allows synthesis of IDF estimates from the 24 hours rainfall was
employed using the following relation:
Rt = ( )
and Rt = ( )
∗ ∗ ∗
( . ) ( . )

Rt = rainfall at duration t (mm)

RD= daily rainfall in (mm)
t = duration of rainfall (hrs)

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It = Intensity at time t (mm/hr)
b, n = coefficient and exponent vary in value with geographic location
A published value of 14 stations in Ghana gave b=0.6 and n=0.86 to 1.03, based on the
calibration of the Accra Meteorological Agency station data, a value n=0.96 was used for
the analysis. The result of the analysis of the rainfall intensity-duration-frequency used for
the hydrological analysis is shown in the table below:

Table 6: Summary of result of rainfall depth -duration-frequency relation

The Intensity– Duration- Frequency curve developed from the analysis of the 50 years
rainfall data for the project catchment is shown in the figure below:

Figure 28: Intensity-Duration-Frequency curve for Accra Meteorological station

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 IMPORTANCE OF THE IDF CURVE
 It allows for estimating for the return periods of an observed rainfall.

 It is also used to estimate for the intensity of the rainfall observed.

Classification of Road Drainage

The construction of the Central University road can be classified as a low volume road.
Low volume roads are roads that carry a daily traffic of less than 450 commercial vehicles
per day. The drainage of low volume roads, can be classified into four different parts
namely:
(i) Surface drainage: Surface drainage is the removal of surface runoff from a
road and its surroundings after a rainstorm.
(ii) Subsurface drainage: In order to drain water that is infiltrating from nearby
areas, the road surface, or the subgrade, as well as to lower the groundwater
level, subsurface drainage is used. Intercepting subsurface drains are used if
damp areas in the subgrade are found as a result of seepage through permeable
strata beneath an impermeable layer.
(iii) Slope drainage: The drainage of surface runoff from slope surfaces is known
as slope drainage. Measures must be taken to stop slope erosion or instability,
which can be brought on by subsurface water seeping up the slope's surface or
by surface water on cut slopes, fill slopes, and natural slopes.
(iv) Drainage of retaining structures: Drainage of retaining structures is done to
get rid of water that has been gathered behind retaining walls. Weep holes are
typically installed in the wall to do this. In order to ensure that precipitation is
effectively shed off the road's surface, drainage is also needed for bridge decks.

For this drainage system, we would be focused on constructing the proposed drains as
subsurface drains in order to collect water from upstream into the storm drain.
Therefore, the material to be used for this drain is concrete. This is because, our client
clearly stated, the want for a self-cleansing drain which can only be achieved by a
concrete drain. Also, compared to the earth drain, concrete drains are incredibly
durable. They won’t buckle or wear and are resistant to corrosion. In the field of

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 sustainability, it’s imperative to use a product for water transport that doesn’t rust.
Concrete piping is impervious to most elements, even with regular exposure over time.

Design Criteria

A road drainage system must satisfy two main criteria if it is to be effective throughout its
design life:

1. It must allow for a minimum of disturbance of the natural drainage pattern.

2. It must drain surface and subsurface water away from the roadway and dissipate it
in a way that prevents excessive collection of water in unstable areas and
subsequent downstream erosion.

Design Standards
The Design standards used for the hydrologic studies and sizing of the hydraulic structures
are those approved by both Ghana Highway Authority (GHA) and Department of Urban
Roads (DUR), such as the Road Design guide and Highway Drainage design manual.

Types of Drains
1. Side drains: Side drains collect water from slopes and direct it either beneath the
road or away from the road into the natural drainage system of the surrounding area.
They may also be used to remove water from subsurface drainage that is located
beneath the road and dispose of it in the storm drain. Drains may be U-shaped,
trapezoidal, or V-shaped, as illustrated in the figure below. V-shaped drains have a
lesser capacity and are more likely to erode, therefore it's best to use them only in
situations where other forms of drains aren't appropriate.
By properly determining the grades of its side slopes, the trapezoidal shape can
hold a lot of water while also resisting erosion. Although the rectangular drain takes
up less room, it needs to be lined with concrete, rock, brick, or stone masonry to
keep its shape.

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 Figure 29: Types of drains
2. Mitre drains: Mitre drains are sometimes known as turn-outs or off-shoots. They
are made to transfer water from the side drain into the local environment's natural
drainage system. Similar to side drains, mitre drains have a similar construction.
Mitre drains must have a minimum width of 0.60 m and a cross-section with at least
the same capacity as a side drain. They ought to have a greater longitudinal slope
than the side drains, if at all practicable.
3. Catch water drains: Catch water drains are typically located on the road's uphill
side or on a cut slope. Their purpose is to divert surface runoff from the hillsides to
the natural drains on the gentler slopes, preventing erosion that would result from
allowing the runoff to overflow onto the road or cut surfaces.
4. Cross drainage structures: Culverts act as conduits that move runoff water from
one side to the other beneath the road surface. Culverts can be used to transport
surface runoff in the side drains at intersections or property entrances (access
culverts). There are different types of cross culverts:
- A box culvert: This is a reinforced concrete cross-culvert with a rectangular
opening comprising a base slab, side walls and top slab designed to accommodate
higher flows of water than normally possible with a pipe culvert.
- Relief culvert: This is designed to allow water from the side drains to safely cross
under the roadway into the natural drainage of the surrounding environment. Relief
culverts may have a circular, rectangular or U-shaped opening.
- Access Culvert: This is designed to allow water from the side drains to pass safely
under the road at junctions and side access points.
- Drift (Ford): This is a low-level structure designed to allow water from the drains
and/or natural watercourse to safely cross over the road at bed

For the design of the drainage, we will be incorporating the U- drain for the designing to
minimize the space it takes by the side of the road. The width of the road is 6.5m as
designed by the road engineer. Also, to channel the water coming from the commercial

106
area, underneath the road and into the storm drain, we would be using an access culvert
because the drain passes through the junction of the hostel.
For the access culverts, a minimum diameter of 600 mm pipe culvert may be used.
However, a 700 mm (high) x 900 mm (wide) U-culvert is preferred as it is easier to clean.
The most important aspect in the design of access culverts is the frequency along the road
alignment and the slope of the culvert, which should be a minimum of 2% to ensure self-
cleaning.

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 Chapter 25: HYDROLOGY
Hydrological studies are done to attain the designed project life cycle (road network and
structural integrity), important steps are recommended in ensuring that all part of the
project are maintained in excellent drainage condition.

Design Flood Estimation and Flood Modeling.

25.1.1 Estimation of Peak Flow
Estimation of the peak flow (maximum discharge) is critical to the proper sizing of the
drainage structures. The methodologies available in determining the peak flows are based
on the availability of data, and the extent of the catchment area. The most commonly used
methods and tools include:
1. Field Observations:
i. direct observation of erosion and debris
ii. history and local knowledge
iii. Replicating successful past practice.
2. The deterministic method

1. Field Observations Method

This method is appropriate in situations where data on rainfall and topographic maps are
not readily available. The method requires informative observations of the site conditions
as well as to carry out field surveys of the existing drainage structures by a geodetic
engineer in addition to the drainage engineer. There are three field observation methods as
follows:
(i) Direct observation of erosion and debris
Flood waters usually carry debris. Some of this can be left trapped around trees, existing
structures and other vegetation near the watercourse. This debris leaves a visible water
mark on the structures and trees which can normally be taken as the high food level.
Erosion at existing drainage structures gives an indication of the actual cross-sectional area
of the watercourse, which can be equated to the cross-sectional area of the opening of the
new drainage structure.

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(ii) History and local knowledge
Historical data on, and local information about, high food levels at drainage crossing point
can be very useful in deriving or validating the estimation of maximum flows. Interviews
with local inhabitants within the vicinity of the crossing point is necessary to establish the
history of flood levels as an aid to determining peak discharges at the different locations.
(iii) Replicating successful practice
A study the performance of existing drainage structures at the upstream and downstream
ends of the crossing point is to be done. If the roadway at such locations has not experienced
any overtopping over the years following heavy upstream downpours, this is an indication
of the successful performance of the drainage structures. It can thus be assumed that the
parameters (catchment area, runoff coefficient, rainfall intensity) used in the design of the
drainage structures are valid and can be adopted in sizing the new structures.

2. Deterministic Approach

In terms of a general approach, deterministic method shall be used. The deterministic

method is based on fundamental concepts which strive to model the physical aspect of the
rainfall-runoff process. It can either be conceptual, where each element of the run-off
process is accounted for or may be empirical where the relationship between rainfall and
runoff is quantified based on measured data and experience of the designer.
Given the extensive experience in the area of the design of drainage systems, we propose
the use of a range of computerized deterministic methods such as the following:
• Rational Method
• Modified Rational Method
• WinTs 20 Model

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 The Rational Formula
For small catchments, the rational formula is the most commonly used approach for
estimating peak flows. The maximum discharge is given by
Q = 0.278CIA Where,
Q = Maximum Discharge or Peak Flow, (m3/s)
C = Runoff Coefficient
I = Rainfall Intensity, (mm/hr)
A = Catchment Area, (km2)
This formula is based on a series of theoretical simplifications needed to justify this implied
direct linear relationship between rainfall and runoff. These include assumptions that:
 The peak flow at the inlet of the cross-drainage structure is reached at the moment
that the entire watershed is contributing to that flow. This is known as the Time of
Concentration (tc)
 The Rainfall Intensity associated with a storm varies with the applicable tc, but is
otherwise uniform over time.
 The Runoff Coefficient as estimated for a specific catchment is independent of
other variables such as the moisture content of the soil, and the rainfall intensity
and duration.

None of these assumptions holds strictly true, and the application of the method to large
catchments can result in significant over-estimation of peak flows. Nevertheless, they are
sufficiently valid to allow the rational method to be used for catchments of up to 0.8 km 2.

The Modified Rational Formula

For when 0.8Km2 < A ≤ 25 km2, we use the modified rational formula, which is
Q=0.278FCIA where F is the area reduction factor which is dimensionless. An area
reduction factor is used based on localized point rainfall. It helps convert localized rainfall
into spatial distribution. When A ≤ 0.8 km2, F=1, and when A>0.8 km2 , F decreases.

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 WinTs 20 Model
For A ≥ 25km2, a unit hydrograph or a software is used. The catchment area can be found
using a map. The area of interest is traced using a line of divide which is not meant to cross
any water body or intersect with any other catchment area. Also, while looking for the
discharge of the river, it is important to note the time of concentration. This helps us
determine how fast our drainage is going to be drained and to get the intensity.
To get this value, the Bransby-Williams method for time concentration is used. T c =
.
. .
where Tc= time of concentration in hours, L is the mainstream length in km, A is

the catchment area in km2, S is the mainstream slope in m/km. The mainstream slope can
∆
also be calculated by S = . ΔH is the change in elevation and L is the length. The run-

off coefficient, C, is estimated based on the topography, the soil type, the land use and the
vegetation cover in the catchment area. C is always between 0 and 1 where 0 will happen
if there environment is unsaturated while 1 will happen if the environment has highly
impermeable soil.

Table 7: Runoff coefficient

Surface description Runoff Coefficient, C
Concrete or Asphalt Surface Treatment 0.9-1.0
Bituminous macadam and double 0.7 – 0.9
bituminous
Gravel surface road and shoulder 0.3 – 0.6
Residential area - city 0.3 – 0.6
Residential area – town 0.2 – 0.5
Rocky surface 0.7 – 0.9
Rare clay surface 0.7 – 0.9
Forest land (sandy to clay) 0.3 – 0.5
Flat cultivated areas (not flooded) 0.3 – 0.5
Steep or rolling grassed areas 0.5 – 0.7
Flooded or wet paddies 0.7- 0.8

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 Chapter 26: HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS
Design of Culverts
Culverts are designed to be large enough to convey the design peak discharge without
damage to the road embankment or flooding the immediate surroundings of the culvert
especially within the urban areas. This can be achieved in practice by limiting the height
of the flood on the upstream side of the culvert. The required size of the culvert is found
by calculating the area required to permit a flow that will maintain the upstream headwater
below the allowable or critical level. The tail-water is often taken to be either the design
discharge level before the road embankment is built or the top of the culvert, whichever is
the larger The carrying capacity of all the existing culvert and propose will be tested based
on the inlet control method of culvert analysis since the culvert lengths are not expected to
be than 20m, with headwater/culvert height ratio, Hw/h 1.0 applied to limit the flood to the
depth of the hydraulic structure.
Where the culverts are more than 20m in length, the culvert hydraulic software HY-8 shall
be used for the outlet control methods and recommend optimal design method.

Inlet Control method

The carrying capacities of the culvert both existing and proposed with length up to 20m
will be determined using the inlet control relation as follows:

Q=Ah0.5 * ( *( ) )

Where
Q= carry capacity (m³/s)
A= Full cross-section area of culvert (m²)
Hw-headwater (m)
h= internal height of culvert (m)
m and k = regression culvert coefficient (-)

The inlet control relation above has been computerized with culvert coefficients derived
from Inlet control culvert analysis monographs and the resultant relations are as shown in
the table below.

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Hydraulic analysis is carried out to estimate the size of drainage structure that will allow
the calculated peak or maximum flow for particular catchments to pass.

Design Standards for Culverts

26.2.1 Minimum and Maximum Velocities in Culverts
The velocity of flow in a culvert is generally higher than that in the equivalent natural
channel. High velocities are particularly critical just downstream from the culvert outlet,
where the erosion potential from the energy in the water must always be considered in
culvert design. Low flow velocities give rise to the risk of siltation, particularly where no
measures are in place to trap sediment before the water enters the culvert.
Table 8: Minimum and maximum velocities in culverts
All Culverts Velocities, m/s Remarks
Minimum 1.0 Check against siltation/sedimentation
Maximum 3.0 Check against erosion

26.2.2 Freeboard
Freeboard is the height difference between the top food water level and the culvert soft
(its top inside edge). This space is needed to allow twigs, small branches and other floating
debris to pass through. The minimum required freeboard for culverts varies with culvert
size and is summarized in the table below:
Table 9: Freeboard for culverts
Size of Culvert Freeboard, m Freeboard, m
Minor Culverts: Spans ≤ 2.0 m 0.30
Major Culverts: Spans > 2.0 m 0.60

Selection of Culvert Material

In selecting material for the construction of culverts, we considered: cost; durability; skills
and experience in their use; as well as the risk of theft. In the Ghana, culverts are either
designed with corrugated metal or concrete. We will be choosing to use concrete culvert
instead of corrugated metals because corrugated metal culverts are imported, while cement

113
for manufacturing of culverts is obtained locally which helps us reduce cost and also,
although corrugated metal can be used for a range of purposes, it can be easily stolen.

Design of Side Drain

The capacity of a side drain is estimated using the Manning’s formula. The important
dimensions needed are the depth and width. Using the geometry of the cross section of
drains, the relationship for depth and width can be established. The invert of side drains
shall not be less than 300 mm below the shoulder break point. The width of the drains
depends on the road class, the expected runoff, and conditions of the subgrade material.
The side and back slopes are determined by soil conditions and cost of construction, as
detailed in Part A of this Manual. In designing the drain, consideration must be given to
the limiting values of velocity to prevent erosion siltation or ponds in the drain. Side drain
slopes should not be less than 1 in 200 or 0.5% in order to prevent ponding or silting.

Manual approach
The flow capacities of side drains can be determined from the expression:
Q = VA
Where,
Q = Discharge in m3/s
V = Mean Velocity in m/s
A = Flow Area in m2
The mean velocity “V” is obtained from the Manning’s Equation;

V = 𝑅 𝑆 , where V = Mean Velocity in m/s,

R = Hydraulic Radius in meter,

S = Water surface Slope in m/m,
n = Manning’s Roughness Coefficient,
But, R= A/P, where A = Flow Area (m2),
P= Wetted Perimeter in meter

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Figure 30: a U-drain
 Wetted Perimeter, P = B + 2C (the face of the channel that is covered with water as
shown above.
 Hydraulic Radius, “R” is a shape factor that depends on the channel, river or culvert
dimensions and the shape of the flow.
 Manning’s Roughness Coefficient, “n” is based on field observations, survey data
and engineering judgment and should be applied over a sufficient distance to
establish uniform flow.
 Water Surface Slope, “S” represents the loss in head by a drop in the gradient.
 Mean Velocity, “V”. Mean velocities ‘V’ for different surfaces as shown in the
table below:

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 Table 10: Mean velocity of flow
Surface Type Mean Velocity of Flow(m/s)
Cement concrete 0.6 – 3.0
Asphalt concrete 0.6 – 1.5
Stone or block pitching 0. 6 – 1.8
Hard gravel or clay coarse grained soil 0. 6 – 1.0
Gravelly sandy soil 0.3 – 0.6
Sand or sandy soil with a considerable 0.2 – 0.3
large clay content
Sand or silt 0.1 – 0.2

In general, it is considered appropriate to adopt a minimum gradient of 1% new hydraulic

cross structures to induce self-cleansing velocities within the culvert where level
differences or terrain may not allow.

Design Standard for Closed Drains

The sizing of the roadside drains will be achieved by iterative solution of manning's
equation and the continuity equation.
We opted to use a closed drain with precast slabs while creating drain inlets to prevent
students from throwing litter while dealing with the issue of flooding.
26.5.1 Dimensions of Drains
The minimum and maximum dimensions for drains and the required freeboard are
summarized in the tables below.
Table 11: Minimum and maximum dimensions of drains
Type of drainage structure Min. width (m) Side slope (H:V)
Closed– square - lined 0.3 1:1 – 1:2
Closed– square - unlined 0.3 1:3 – 1:5

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 Table 12: Freeboard for drains
Type of drainage structure Freeboard, m
Closed 0.30

Carrying Capacity and Flow Velocity

The roughness coefficients to be applied for the calculation of carrying capacity of drains
are summarized in table below

Table 13: Carrying capacity of drains (Manning’s roughness

coefficient)
Material in the drain Roughness coefficient
Concrete lined channel 0.013 – 0.015
Sandcrete block 0.015 – 0.020
Masonry 0.017 – 0.030
Earth (new) 0.018 – 0.030
Earth (existing) 0.022 – 0.060
Since we are going to use concrete drain and culvert, we are also going to use a roughness
coefficient of 0.013 – 0.015.

The maximum and minimum permitted flow velocities in drains are summarized in the
table below:
Table 14: Flow velocities in drains
Drainage Structure Minimum, m/s Maximum, m/s
Open earth drains (no 0.3 0.6
lining)
Stone or block masonry 0.6 1.8
Plain/reinforced concrete 0.6 3.0
Dry compacted gravel or 0.6 1.0
clay

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 Design of U-drain, Inlets and Culverts
The hydraulic analysis for the these structures will be carried out by modeling all these
propose hydraulic structures together as one unit in order to observe the conveyance
behavior among the structures as they convey the peak discharges. To achieve this
modeling objective. Autodesk civil 3D-Storm and Sanitary analysis software will be used.
This is an advance, powerful and comprehensive modeling package for analyzing and
designing urban drainage systems, storm-water sewers and sanitary sewers and has one
great advantage than other softwares by modeling all the drainage systems as one hydraulic
unit and automatically creates plan, profile drawings and reports. The software makes use
of sub-area, links and node systems
The output from the hydrological and drainage study and design will be input in to the road
layouts profiles and intersections designs drawings

118
WASTE ENGINEERING
REPORT

119
 Chapter 27: INTRODUCTION
Waste in general terms is defined as unwanted as it is obviously undesirable. It is
nevertheless an inevitable and inherent product of social, economic and cultural life. The
indiscriminate disposal of waste, both liquid and solid, adversely affects the immediate
human environment by degrading the natural phenomena hence, exerting health risk to
exposed population. Health risks may be carried through different vehicles including flies,
dogs, rodent and others that scavenge on the waste. Waste management is therefore needed
to minimize the impact of waste on human lives and environment. Waste management is
the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its disposal. This
includes the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste. Therefore, the aim of
this project is to develop a sustainable and effective waste management system for the
commercial area to be built on the Central University.

Objectives of Design
 The design of a solid waste collection system that includes storage and an effective
pickup route system.
 The design of a typical septic tank for wastewater management.
 The design of an appropriate sewage disposal system in liaises with the drainage
engineer.

Design Scope
The project is to ensure a sustainable and effective waste management system for both solid
and liquid waste from the commercial area. It will be made up of the design of:
 Septic tank
 Sewage system
 Solid waste collection system with necessary collection and disposal information.

Deliverables
1. Design of an Integrated Waste Management System
2. A plan for implementation for WMS for the Commercial Area:

120
 Design specifications
 Design standards
 Selection of equipment and materials
 Project Schedule

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 Chapter 28: METHODOLOGY
The possible waste production volumes will be estimated and identified including the type
of waste that will be produced on site as a result of its operation. The design of the waste
management system for the commercial area will be based on one conceptual alternative;
 Waste management plan based on the project focus of the commercial area
and the design population.

Project Focus
The scope of the commercial area comprises of the following facilities:
 Shops
 Offices
 Washrooms

Data Collection:
Data was collected through;
 Reconnaissance Survey
 Consultation with the various facilities management
 Survey of the existing disposal sites on campus

Reconnaissance Survey
Reconnaissance study was made in order to:
 Examine the existing conditions on the site.
 Find out possible problems that will arise during design and construction of project.
 Determine the possible alternatives for the Waste Management plan and design.

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 Existing Dump Sites
Various visits determined that there are 3 major existing dump sites on campus and method
of solid waste treatment is open dumping ground and incineration.
Table 15: Existing dump sites and distance from commercial area

DUMP SITES DISTANCE FROM COMMERCIAL AREA

A 350m

B 450m

C 400m

Figure 31: Existing dump sites

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Figure 32: Dump site A

Figure 33: Dump site B

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Figure 34: Dump site C

125
 Chapter 29: Solid and Liquid Waste Management
Solid and Liquid Waste Generation
Solid waste will be generated both during the construction as well as during the operation
phase. The solid waste expected to be generated during the construction phase will
comprise of excavated materials, used bags, broken bricks / blocks, concrete, MS rods,
tiles, wood and other resources. During the operation phase, possible waste materials to be
generated from the commercial area include:
Table 16: Possible SLWG

Type of Waste Description

Organic Waste Food waste

Garden Waste

Inorganic Waste E-Waste

Paper
Plastics
Glass
Cardboard
Metal
Wood

Chemical waste Light Oil

Black Wastewater

Solid Waste Handling and Separation, Storage and Processing at the Source
Waste handling and separation involves the activities associated with management of waste
until they are placed in storage container for collection. Handling also encompasses the
movement of loaded containers to the point of collection. Separation of waste components
is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source.

126
 Solid Waste Collection
The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid waste and
recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the
location where the collection vehicle is emptied. Strategic points in the commercial area
will be selected for the positioning of waste bins

29.3.1 Solid Waste Collection Systems

A collection system is “defined as a combination of technology and human labor”. The
system shall consist of:
 The Collection method
 The Container system
 Vehicles
 Personnel

Solid waste storage

This is a step where the solid waste is disposed at a single area prior to collection. This step
prevents offending aesthetic tastes, attraction of vectors and excessive odor. Storage
devices shall be convenient and facilitate safe, efficient collection, processing and disposal.

127
29.4.1 Solid Waste Storage equipment
The following storage equipment shall be required for the solid waste management:

Figure 35: Recycler waste bin

Figure 36: Compartment Recycle bin

128
Figure 37: Common waste bin

Figure 38: Waste Skip

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 Transfer and Transport of Solid Waste
This element involves two steps:
 The transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport
equipment.
 The subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to a processing
or disposal site.

Disposal and Treatment of Solid Waste

An engineered facility shall be established for the containment of all solid waste generated
from the commercial area and other facilities. An engineered collection centre will also be
established to further treat the solid waste generated.
Dump site B is selected as the best site for the establishment of the engineered collection
centre for the following reasons:
 Pest Control is at the minimum
 Good soil properties
 Land relief is gentle and undulating
 Site is out of public sight
 Easy Access

Design Options and Specifications for Solid Waste Management

The following design options for the solid waste management shall be considered for the
design:
 Segregation of solid waste at generation points
 Segregation of solid waste at collection point
 Transfer and transport of solid waste from generation point to disposal point
 Solid waste treatment methods:
 Incineration
 Composting of organic waste
 Waste collection by service provider

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 Chapter 30: Liquid Waste Management
The liquid waste generated at the site consists of black water, grey water and storm water.
Black water is any type of liquid waste from toilets and urinals whereas grey water is
defined as water without any inputs from toilets, corresponding to wastewater from
bathing, showering, hand washing, laundry and kitchen sinks.
Collection and Transfer
Black water, grey water and storm water will be collected from generation points and
transferred to the discharge points. A system will be adopted for the sewage design between
the various alternatives:
 Combined sewage system: the same sewer is intended to carry the black water,
grey water as well as the surface and the Stormwater flow.
 Separate sewage system: different sewers will carry the grey water, black water,
and surface water and Stormwater flow.

Separate sewage system will be adopted for the sewage system design based on the
following factors:
 Uneven rainfall or heavy rainfall for a short duration.
 Stormwater can be discharged safely into nearby water bodies without any needed
treatment.
 Limited sewage overflow.
 Less load on the treatment unit.

Transport and Storage

Sewage will be transferred through pipes to the storage and discharge points. A septic tank
will be established to contain the black water from the toilets and urinals of the commercial
area whiles the grey water will be discharged into the drains as well as the storm water.
30.2.1 Transport and Storage equipment
Liquid waste will be collected through pipes and fittings into storage containers.

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Figure 39: PVC pipe

Figure 40: PVC pipe fittings

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Storage containers:

Figure 41: Septic tank

Design Standards
The design, construction and operation of this project will adhere to the following standards
of Ghana:
 EPA Act, 1994 (Act 490)
 Environmental Assessment Regulations, 1999 (LI 1652)
 Pesticides Control and Management Act, 1996 (Act 528)

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 Chapter 31: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Major Findings of the EIA
An EIA was conducted and the major findings of the EIA study are presented below;
Environmental Impacts
31.2.1 Impact on Physical Resources
Construction of proposed project requires huge quantities of natural resources like sand,
sub grade and aggregate, and materials produced from natural resources like bricks, cement
and steel. The material shall be drawn from local sources, and the lead distances range from
5 – 150km. The impacts on physical resources of sand will be irreversible. The material
requirement of steel, cement etc. will be purchased from manufacturers with in state.
Hence, no major impacts on physical resources as regards the availability and procurement
of construction material are anticipated due to the project.
Impacts on Air Quality
Impacts on air quality during construction stage are likely to be due to operation of
construction yards, material transport on trucks and fugitive emissions from the
construction sites. The model results for occupation stage show slight increase in the air
quality and in worst concentrations are falling within the site, and the results are within the
prescribed limits.

Impacts on Noise Quality

Impacts on noise quality during construction stage will be significant. Hence the
construction near the habitation is proposed only during daytime. Construction workers
will be provided with protection equipment to guard against the noise impacts. Noise
mitigating measures will be suggested for construction equipment and DG sets.
Impact on Land use
There is no land acquisition for this project. The topography of the land being gentle and
undulating requires less cut and fill operations.

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 Impact on Ground Water Resources
Ground water shall be drawn during construction, and will be used to augment the supply
during non-monsoon season if necessary. Exploitation of ground water will have an impact
and the same shall be restricted to ensure resource conservation. This impact will be
marginal, as the ground water will not be drawn continuously.
Impact on Human Use Values
The dominant land use in the area is commercial, and expected commercial space will
increase the pressure on the residential localities. There is no additional requirement or
acquisition of land. The project authorities will provide road safety measures to reduce risk
of accidents on campus. The impact on Human use values is marginal.
Environmental Management Measures Proposed
A description of the various management measures during the various stages of the project
is provided in the following sections.

Pre-Construction Stage
During the design and preconstruction stage the management proposes to comply with the
regulations of town planning, explore the availability of sufficient resources, provide sink
bore wells after obtaining all necessary permissions from various statutory authorities.

Construction Stage
This will be the most crucial and active stage for the Environment Management Plan. In
addition to the monitoring of the construction activity itself to the pollution levels within
permissible limits, mitigation and enhancement measures for water resources will go on
simultaneously as the construction progresses. To facilitate implementation of the
enhancement and mitigation measures suggested, working drawings of the same would be
prepared after completion of detailed project report. The resource conservation by way of
identification of materials and construction debris recycle/disposal will be formulated.

Operation Stage
The environment management plan will be implemented by owner’s associations/societies,
where project authorities are coopted as members, and while the management plan related

135
to the utilities like roads, street lighting and common open spaces lies with the school
management. The management in operation stage will essentially entail maintenance of
sewage treatment plant, maintenance of utilities, and monitoring activity in the project site.
The measures adopted and/or to be adopted during different stages of the project have been
detailed in table below:

Table 17: Environmental Management Plan and Action Plan

Environmental Enhancement/Mitigation Management Action

Issues/Impacts Measures

PRE-CONSTRUCTION PHASE

The layout design shall be on  Provision for  Consultants for various

the basis of town planning disposal of storm activities are identified and
rules of water and treated mandate given to identify

NiPDA wastewater. environmentally sound

practices and resource
conservation measures.

CONSTRUCTION PHASE

Sewage transfer  Lead bearing piping  Project authorities and

to be avoided. plumbing consultant in
coordination with the
supervision consultant should
implement the same.

Sewage Treatment  Sewage to be treated  STP shall be provided by the

in STP and project authorities and
reused/disposed. ensured that the design of
STP is optimized to meet the
prescribed standards with
energy efficiency.

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Contamination of Soil  Vehicle washing  Subcontractors and Project
and machinery authorities should ensure.
washing to be  Designate the parking areas.
avoided in site.  Provision of garbage bin by
 Parking of vehicles project authorities and
and maintenance of arrangements to be for
vehicles to be disposal of the same
avoided on site.
 Disposal of solid
wastes by
construction camps
to be made in
garbage bins only.
 Accidental Leakage
and spillage of fuels
and other
construction
materials to be
controlled by
providing road signs
and covered trucks.

Construction debris  Construction debris  Provision of waste disposal

to be used for site for waste from
aggregate and or sub construction and storage
grade purpose in the yard.
case of RCC.  Supervision consultant in
 Recyclable metals to consultation with the
be collected and sold subcontractors.
to recyclers.  Inclusion of appropriate
 Avoidance of excess clauses in construction

137
 inventory of contracts; monitoring of
materials. compliance during
 Packing materials to construction and proper
be sent for administration of contracts.
reuse/recycling.
Hazardous waste
containers to be
returned to
seller/authorized
recyclers.

OCCUPATION STAGE

Sewage Management  All Sewage will be  Records of influent and

collected by treated effluent quality and
underground quantity should be
drainage system. maintained by the society,
and the treatment must be
ensured to meet the standards
prescribed by EPA (Act 490)

Solid Waste  Solid waste/garbage  The project authorities to

to be collected in make arrangements with the
green and blue school authorities.
dustbins. The green
bin to be filled with
Biodegradable
kitchen waste, while
the blue dustbin to
be filled with
recyclable waste
like glass, plastic,
papers etc.

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 The biodegradable
wastes to be
removed everyday
while the recyclable
wastes to be
removed once a
week.
 The dustbins along
the streets to be
emptied once a day.
 Solid waste/garbage
to be picked by the
authorized
personnel.
 Transporting the
garbage to
segregation point.
 Authorities shall
transport the wastes
to dump yard at the
designated location.
 The used oils,
batteries, and
transformer oils
should be sent to
authorized
recyclers.

139
 Chapter 32: Implementation Arrangements
The responsibility of implementing the mitigation measures lies with the project authority
during design and construction stages while the responsibility lies with the Central
University Management and NiPDA during occupation stage. All construction activities
taken up by the project authorities will be supervised by the Supervision Consultant (SC).
Implementation schedule will be worked for phase wise implementation of the mitigation
measures after completion of detailed designs. In the pre-construction phase of the project
the supervision consultants shall review the EMP to identify environmental and social
issues and arrive at a suitable strategy for implementation. The activities to be carried out
and the target dates will be worked out after completion of detailed designs.

140
 CHAPTER 33. COST ESTIMATE
CAPITAL EXPENDITURE (Non-Recurring)

Item Particulars Estimated Unit Price Total Cost

No. Quantity ($) ($)

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1 Construction of waste 2500 sq. ft. As discussed with contractor post

collection and treatment centre finalization of DPR, 200,000
(approximately)

2 No. of bins installed

2.1 Common dustbins of 240litres 23 56 1300

2.2 Dustbins of 15litres 36 10 360

2.3 Dustbins of 5litres 36 3 108

2.4 Compartment recycle bins of 15 200 3000

190litres

3 Transport Vehicles

3.1 Hydraulic dumper(double bin) 2 2700 54000

4 Storage containers

4.1 Skips of 7m3 3 3800 11400

4.2 Bio-digester of 600litres 2 250 500

5 Other SWM Activities, Lump Sum 450

Landscaping and (LS)
Beautification

6 Workers Uniforms, safety 20 500

equipment; hand gloves,
canvas shoes, first aid kits etc.

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7 Tools required (Shovel, 1set 200
Brooms, etc.)

Subtotal for SWM 280,000

LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT

8 Construction of septic tank and 7000

other plumbing works

Sub Total for Liquid Waste 7000

Management

Total Cost for Solid and Liquid Waste Management 287,000

The cost is an estimate and is subject to change as per quotations provided by vendors
before starting construction.

RECURRING COSTS

Item Particulars Estimated Unit Price Total Cost

No. Quantity ($) ($)

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1 Salary for the workers 20 85 1700

2 Safety tools and equipment LS 100 100

3 Stationaries and LS 25 25
monitoring tools

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4 Vehicle maintenance LS 37 37

TOTAL 1,800

143
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2010 population an housing censes (district analytical report)

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Appendices

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147