University of Tripoli

Faculty of Engineering
Aeronautical Engineering Department

Longitudinal Stability Analysis of Aircraft: A Python-

based Simulation Tool

By
Ahmed Kabbot Mohammed Oun
022180056 022122280

Supervised By
Mr. Munsef Badi

A Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement of

Bachelor of Science Degree in Aeronautical Engineering

Tripoli -Libya
Fall (2024)

2
 Acknowledgments

We extend our sincere gratitude to our supervisor, Mr. Munsef Badi, for

his invaluable guidance and expertise in Aeronautical Engineering. We

thank the Department of Aeronautical Engineering at the University of

Tripoli for fostering an inspiring academic environment. Special thanks

to our colleagues for their constructive discussions. We deeply appreci-

ate our families and friends for their unwavering encouragement. Finally,

we acknowledge all who contributed, directly or indirectly, to the suc-

cess of this project.

3
 Abstract

In this project, a Python-based Windows native simulation program was

developed to analyze the longitudinal dynamics and stability of the Boe-
ing 747-400.
Particular focus was on conducting a sensitivity analysis of key basic
physical, dimensional and aerodynamic parameters. Their effect on the
dynamic stability and eigenvalues was investigated.
Through this analysis, interesting results were obtained that highlighted
the varying influence of different parameters on longitudinal motion pat-
terns, revealing the significant role of speed and wing area in determin-
ing stability characteristics.
A major aim was to understand how slight variations in operational para-
meters (Speed, Altitude, Mass, wing area, C m ) affect the aircraft’s longit-
α

udinal stability.
The interactive and easy to use program developed successfully provided
visualization of results and proved to be a very useful tool for the ana-
lysis of longitudinal modes (short-period and phugoid).
Additionally, such program could be used as a valuable educational tool
for aeronautical engineering students, with a focus on the “Flight Mech-
anics” course viz. AE411; helping students explore longitudinal stability
concepts interactively and practically. The program has been thoroughly
documented and stored in the department’s GitHub Repository to ensure
ease of use in educational settings and enables building upon it for fur-
ther studies.

4
 List of Symbol

Symbol Definition

ζ Damping Ratio (Used to describe how quickly oscillations decay)

ωn Natural Frequency (Frequency at which a system oscillates natur-

ally)
δe Elevator Deflection (Movement of the elevator control surface)

α Angle of Attack (Angle between the aircraft's chord line and on-
coming airflow)
θ Pitch Angle (Angle between the aircraft's longitudinal axis and
the horizon)
q Pitch Rate (Rate of change of the pitch angle)

u Perturbation in Forward Velocity (Small change in forward

speed)
α' Perturbation in Angle of Attack (Small change in angle of attack)

θ' Perturbation in Pitch Angle (Small change in pitch angle)

CX u
Stability Derivative (Partial derivative of X-force coefficient with
respect to u)
CX α
Stability Derivative (Partial derivative of X-force coefficient with
respect to α')
Cz q
Stability Derivative (Partial derivative of Z-force coefficient with
respect to q)
Cm α
Stability Derivative (Partial derivative of Pitching Moment coef-
ficient with respect to α')
I yy Moment of Inertia about the Y-axis (Resistance to rotation
around the pitch axis)

5
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgments........................................................................................................ii
Abstract.......................................................................................................................iii
List of Symbol.............................................................................................................iv
Table of Contents..........................................................................................................v
List of Figure.............................................................................................................viii
List of Tables...............................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER 1...............................................................................................................11
1 Introduction (Longitudinal Dynamics)...............................................................12
1.1 Goals And Objectives of This Project............................................................12
1.2 Overview of Aircraft Dynamics.....................................................................12
1.3 Sensitivity of Stability....................................................................................14
1.4 Importance of Longitudinal Dynamics Analysis............................................14
1.5 Key Concepts in Longitudinal Dynamics.......................................................15
1) Stability and Control Derivatives.....................................................................15
1.6 Modes of Longitudinal Motion.......................................................................16
1.7 Challenges in Stability Analysis.....................................................................17
1.8 Role of Computational Tools in Stability Analysis........................................17
1.9 Applications of Longitudinal Dynamics Analysis..........................................18
1) Aircraft Design..........................................................................................................18
2) Control System Design..........................................................................................18
3) Safety and Performance Optimization...........................................................18
4) Pilot Training and Simulation............................................................................18
1.10 Methodology...................................................................................................19
CHAPTER 2...............................................................................................................20
2 Background theory & Software Tools................................................................21
2.1 Sensitivity Analysis of Stability Derivatives..................................................21
2.2 Derivation of the Equations of Motion...........................................................21
1) Force Equation Along the X-Axis:.....................................................................21
2) Force Equation Along the Z-Axis:.....................................................................22
3) Moment Equation About the Y-Axis:..............................................................22

6
2.3 Assumptions and Simplifications...................................................................23
2.4 Linearization of the Equations........................................................................23
2.5 Matrix Form of the Equations.........................................................................24
2.6 Solving the Equations.....................................................................................24
2.7 Calculation of the Stability Derivatives for the Aircraft [Case study]...........25
2.8 Software Tools Utilized in This Project.........................................................28
CHAPTER 3...............................................................................................................30
3 Simulation & Software Implementation.............................................................31
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................31
3.2 Software Architecture and Design..................................................................31
1) Overall Program Structure..................................................................................31
2) Description of Key Modules................................................................................32
3) Stability Derivatives Calculation Module......................................................33
4) System Matrix and Transfer Function Generation Modules................33
5) Modal Analysis Module (analyze_modes function):................................33
6) Graphical User Interface Module......................................................................34
3.3 Implementation of Key Modules....................................................................39
1) Units Module (Units class) Implementation................................................39
2) Stability Derivatives Calculation Module......................................................40
3.4 The Nonzero Solution of the Longitudinal Equations....................................41
3.5 Transfer Functions for the Elevator Displacement.........................................44
3.6 Transient Response of the Aircraft.................................................................46
CHAPTER 4...............................................................................................................49
4 Sensitivity Analysis of Longitudinal Stability Parameters.................................50
4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................50
4.2 Experiment Methodology...............................................................................50
4.3 Presentation and Discussion of Results..........................................................51
4.4 Impact of Flight Parameter Variations on Aircraft Dynamic Stability...........54
4.5 Summary of Comparative Analysis and Integrated Results...........................62
4.6 Validation of Simulation Results....................................................................63
CHAPTER 5...............................................................................................................64
5 Conclusion and Further Work............................................................................65
5.1 Conclusion......................................................................................................65

7
5.2 Further Work..................................................................................................66
References...................................................................................................................67

8
 List of Figure
Figure 1.2-1 Primary flight axes.................................................................................13
Figure 1.5-1 Longitudinal Dynamics of an Aircraft...................................................16
Figure 3.2-1Graphical User Interface (GUI)..............................................................34
Figure 3.2-2 Title Bar and Units.................................................................................35
Figure 3.2-3 Fundamental Parameters Section...........................................................36
Figure 3.2-4 Parameter Adjustment Section...............................................................36
Figure 3.2-5 Simulation and Matrix Buttons Section.................................................37
Figure 3.2-6 Derived Parameters Section...................................................................37
Figure 3.2-7 Plot Options Section..............................................................................38
Figure 3.2-8 Modal Analysis Section.........................................................................38
Figure 3.2-9 Plot Area................................................................................................39
Figure 3.3-1 (Units class) Implementation.................................................................39
Figure 3.3-2 Constant Implementation.......................................................................40
Figure 3.3-3 Stability Derivatives Calculation function.............................................41
Figure 3.4-1 Matrix Implementation..........................................................................42
Figure 3.4-2 Implementation of [ ωn , ξ , τ 1/2 ].......................................................44
Figure 3.5-1 Magnitude plot for u(s)δe(s)................................................................45
Figure 3.5-2 Magnitude plot for α ' (s)δe(s )..............................................................45
Figure 3.5-3 Magnitude plot for θ(s)δe(s)................................................................46
Figure 3.6-1 Transient response of the aircraft for u..................................................46
Figure 3.6-2 Transient response of the aircraft for α ..................................................47
Figure 3.6-3 Transient response of the aircraft for θ..................................................47
Figure 3.6-4 Transient response of the aircraft for θ..................................................48

9
 List of Tables

2.7-1 Stability Characteristics of the Aircraft.............................................................25

Table 2.7-2 Additional Coefficients for the Aircraft..................................................26
Table 2.7-3 The Values in Coefficients Matrix A......................................................28
Table 4.3-1 Results of the simulation experiments....................................................52

10
 List of Equations

Equation 2.2.1.........................................................................................26
Equation 2.2.2.........................................................................................26
Equation 2.2.3.........................................................................................27
Equation 2.3.1.........................................................................................28
Equation 2.5.1.........................................................................................29
Equation 3.4.1.........................................................................................46
Equation 3.4.2.........................................................................................46
Equation 3.4.3.........................................................................................47
Equation 3.4.4.........................................................................................47
Equation 3.4.5.........................................................................................48
Equation 3.4.6.........................................................................................48
Equation 3.5.1.........................................................................................49
Equation 3.5.2.........................................................................................49
Equation 3.5.3.........................................................................................49

11
CHAPTER 1

13
 1 Introduction (Longitudinal Dynamics)

1.1 Overview of Aircraft Dynamics.

Stability analysis is a critical component of aircraft design. It involves

determining whether the aircraft will return to its equilibrium state after
being subjected to a disturbance. The two primary types of stability are
static stability and dynamic stability.

Static Stability: Refers to the initial tendency of the aircraft to return to

equilibrium after a disturbance.
 Positive Static Stability: If the initial tendency is to return to the
original equilibrium condition.
 Neutral Static Stability: If the aircraft tends to remain in the new
attitude after the disturbance, neither returning nor moving away.
 Negative Static Stability: If the initial tendency is to move fur-
ther away from the original equilibrium condition.
 Note: Most conventional aircraft are designed with positive (posi-
tive) static stability.

Dynamic Stability: Refers to the long-term behavior of the aircraft after

a disturbance.
 Positive Dynamic Stability: If oscillations (movements back and
forth) around the equilibrium position gradually decrease in ampli-
tude over time and eventually cease.
 Neutral Dynamic Stability: If oscillations around the equilibrium
position continue at a constant amplitude.
 Negative Dynamic Stability: If the amplitude of oscillations
around the equilibrium position increases over time, potentially
leading to loss of control if not corrected.
 Note: An aircraft can be statically stable but dynamically unstable
(where oscillations increase after the initial return). The goal is
typically to achieve positive dynamic stability.

14
The aircraft's stability is divided into three main aspects, as shown in the
figure below:

1. Longitudinal Stability and Control:

Focuses on the pitch or angle-of-attack degree of freedom—how
the airplane responds when its nose moves up or down.

2. Lateral Stability and Control:

Concerns the rolling degree of freedom—how the airplane man-
ages tilting to the side.

3. Directional Stability and Control:

Relates to the yawing or weathercock degree of freedom—how
the airplane keeps its nose aligned in the desired direction.

Figure 1-1 Primary flight axes

These three aspects are fundamental for ensuring that the aircraft re-
mains balanced and responsive during flight. However, this project will
focus exclusively on longitudinal stability.

Understanding an aircraft's response to atmospheric disturbances is cru-

cial to flight dynamics, going far beyond a simple engineering detail. In
this project, we explore the longitudinal stability of a commercial aircraft
that played a major role in the global air travel. —the Boeing 747-400.

15
Longitudinal dynamics concern the aircraft’s motion along its pitch axis
(including pitch angle, angle of attack, and forward velocity), and they
are critical for ensuring safe, efficient, and comfortable flight.

Aircraft motion in the longitudinal plane plays a crucial role in ensuring

safe and efficient operations. This motion includes translational and rota-
tional dynamics that directly impact the aircraft’s performance, stability,
and ability to achieve desired flight paths. Pilots and automated control
systems rely on understanding these dynamics to maintain optimal flight
conditions and respond effectively to changes in the flight environment.

1.2 Sensitivity of Stability to changes in Parameters

Stability is a key factor in aircraft dynamics, ensuring the aircraft main-

tains or returns to equilibrium after disturbances. Sensitivity analysis ex-
amines how small changes in parameters—such as mass distribution,
aerodynamic coefficients, and control surface deflections—affect stabil-
ity.
Variations in factors like the center of gravity (CG) and moment of iner-
tia can significantly impact stability margins. A highly sensitive system
may become unstable with minor changes, posing challenges in aircraft
design. Sensitivity analysis examines the sensitivity of longitudinal and
lateral stability to enhance aircraft performance and control reliability.

1.3 Importance of Longitudinal Dynamics Analysis

16
Analyzing aircraft longitudinal dynamics is critically important for sev-
eral reasons related to control, performance, and safety. Its significance
can be summarized in the following points:
1. Primary Control of Altitude and Speed: Longitudinal dynamics
deals with the aircraft's motion about its lateral axis (or pitch axis).
This is the primary axis used to control the aircraft's pitch angle,
which in turn affects the Angle of Attack (AoA) and consequently
the lift force. This directly influences the aircraft's altitude and
speed. Understanding these dynamics allows designers to deter-
mine how the aircraft will respond to pilot inputs via the elevator
control.
2. Performance: Many aspects of aircraft performance depend di-
rectly on longitudinal dynamics:
o Rate of Climb: Dependent on the excess energy resulting
from the difference between thrust and drag at a given AoA
and speed, all of which are tied to longitudinal dynamics.
o Maximum Speed: Determined where drag is minimized for
a given power output, requiring a precise understanding of
how the aircraft is longitudinally stable at high speeds.
o Stall Speed: Occurs at a critical AoA. Longitudinal dynam-
ics analysis is essential to understand the aircraft's behavior
near stall, how to design for adequate warning, and how to
ensure recoverability.
3. Safety:
o Longitudinal Stability: The analysis ensures the aircraft
has sufficient tendency to return to its original attitude after
a disturbance in pitch or speed, preventing increasing oscil-

17
 lations (like the Phugoid or Short-Period modes) that could
lead to loss of control.
o Recovery from Unusual Attitudes: Understanding longi-
tudinal dynamics aids in designing the necessary procedures
and aircraft responses for recovering from unusual or dan-
gerous flight attitudes (such as steep dives).
4. Handling Qualities: Longitudinal dynamics significantly impacts
how the aircraft "feels" and its response to pilot inputs. An aircraft
with well-designed longitudinal dynamics is easy and comfortable
to fly, responding predictably to pitch control inputs. This reduces
pilot fatigue and increases control precision.
5. Design of Automatic Control Systems (Autopilot and Flight
Control Systems): The design of autopilots and digital flight con-
trol systems (Fly-by-Wire) relies heavily on accurate models of
the aircraft's longitudinal dynamics. These systems must be able to
predict and effectively respond to the aircraft's behavior to main-
tain the desired path and altitude.
6. Optimization of Aerodynamic and Structural Design: Longitu-
dinal dynamics analysis guides designers in determining the opti-
mal size and shape of the main wing and horizontal tail, as well as
the optimal location of the Center of Gravity (CG) and engines, to
achieve the required balance between stability, control, and perfor-
mance.

1.4 Key Concepts in Longitudinal Dynamics

18
1) Stability and Control Derivatives

Aircraft stability is determined by aerodynamic forces and moments act-

ing on the aircraft. Stability and control derivatives quantify the sensitiv-
ity of these forces and moments to changes in state variables, such as
angle of attack θ and control surface deflections δe . These derivatives
form the foundation for mathematical models of aircraft dynamics.

Figure 1-2 Longitudinal Dynamics of an Aircraft

Stability derivatives, which are essentially the first-order coefficients in

a Taylor series expansion of the aerodynamic forces and moments, repre-
sent how aerodynamic forces and moments change with small perturba-
tions in state variables such as velocity, angle of attack, and pitch
rate within a linearized model.
Control derivatives, on the other hand, describe how control surface de-
flections (e.g., elevator movements) and trust affect these forces and mo-
ments. Together, they enable a detailed mathematical representation of
an aircraft’s dynamic response. The values of these derivatives should be

19
validated against data from similar aircraft or established sources to en-
sure their reasonableness.

20
1.5 Modes of Longitudinal Motion

The longitudinal motion of an aircraft is characterized by two primary

modes derived from the eigenvalues:

1.1.1 Short Period Mode: A fast, oscillatory motion primarily in-

volving pitch angle and angle of attack. This mode reflects the im-
mediate reaction of the aircraft to pitch control inputs and is crit-
ical for pilot handling qualities.

1.1.2 Phugoid Mode: A slower, oscillatory motion involving changes

in altitude and forward velocity. This mode describes the coupling
between pitch angle and speed and has a significant impact on en-
ergy efficiency and long-term stability.

Understanding these modes is essential for designing control systems

and ensuring stability. Each mode contributes uniquely to the aircraft’s
overall behavior, and their interplay determines the effectiveness of pitch
control strategies.

1.6 Challenges in Stability Analysis

Even with all the progress we've made in computational methods, stabil-
ity analysis presents significant challenges. There are a lot of factors at
play, like nonlinearities, unsteady aerodynamics, and the flexibility of
structures, which can really complicate things. On top of that, real-world
issues such as turbulence and gusts bring in uncertainties that we need to
consider during the design process. Tackling these challenges calls for a
mix of solid theoretical knowledge, hands-on experimental data, and cut-
ting-edge simulation techniques.

21
1.7 Role of Computational Tools in Stability Analysis

Modern computational tools like MATLAB, Python, and Mathematica

play a crucial role in analyzing aircraft longitudinal dynamics. These
tools enable engineers to solve complex equations, simulate aircraft be-
havior, and visualize results. In this project, Python scripts were created
to calculate stability derivatives, solve the equations of motion, and plot
time and frequency responses.

1.8 Applications of Longitudinal Dynamics Analysis

1) Aircraft Design
Longitudinal dynamics analysis is integral to the design of stable
and controllable aircraft. By understanding the effects of aerody-
namic parameters and control inputs, engineers can optimize the
design for desired performance characteristics. This analysis en-
sures that aircraft meet stringent stability and handling require-
ments, reducing the risk of instability or poor performance during
critical flight phases.

2) Control System Design

Modern aircraft rely on advanced control systems to maintain stabil-

ity and achieve precise maneuvers. Longitudinal dynamics ana-
lysis provides the foundation for designing these systems, ensuring
they respond effectively to pilot commands and external disturb-
ances. Control system design benefits from detailed insights into
the dynamics of pitch control and stability augmentation.

22
3) Safety and Performance Optimization

By identifying potential instability issues and evaluating system re-

sponse, longitudinal dynamics analysis contributes to the safety and
performance of aircraft. It helps engineers predict and mitigate ad-
verse behaviors, such as pilot-induced oscillations or dynamic in-
stability. This ensures that aircraft operate reliably under a wide
range of flight conditions.

4) Pilot Training and Simulation

Pilots undergo extensive training to understand and manage aircraft

dynamics. Simulators that incorporate longitudinal dynamics mod-
els provide realistic training scenarios, enabling pilots to practice
handling short-period oscillations and phugoid responses. These
simulations enhance pilot proficiency and confidence in managing
complex flight situations.

1.9 Methodology

A systematic methodology was employed in this project to simulate the

longitudinal stability of the Boeing 747-400 aircraft. We began by deriv-
ing the linearized equations of motion necessary to characterize the air-
craft's longitudinal dynamics.

Subsequently, a simulation program was developed utilizing Python,

with the aim of creating a user-friendly graphical interface for easy ac-
cess. A significant portion of the effort then focused on parameterization
and the precise calculation of the stability derivatives pertinent to the
Boeing 747-400.

In a dedicated case study, we altered several operational parameters—

specifically velocity, altitude, mass, Cma, and Wing Area—while main-
taining all other parameters constant. Simulations performed with these
variations consistently showed that the aircraft's primary longitudinal
motion modes are the short period and the phugoid.

23
Finally, the developed program underwent thorough documentation. This
comprehensive documentation was provided to ensure the tool's effect-
iveness as an educational resource for both students and engineers en-
gaged in aeronautical engineering.

1.10 Goals And Objectives of This Project

This project aims to develop a software interface on the Windows system

using Python, targeted at students of Aeronautical Engineering (AE411 -
Aircraft Flight II) It involves a simplified simulation of the sensitivity
analysis of stability parameter of a Boeing 747-400 aircraft, focusing
solely on the longitudinal axis. The source code is provided as open-
source to allow for future development, including the possibility of
adding stability analysis for the lateral axis. Additionally, explanatory
comments are included in the code to help users understand the functions
and deepen their learning experience.
Assumptions:
 The focus is on longitudinal stability only.
 The study addresses small perturbations from the aircraft's equilib-
rium state.
 A linearized model is used, decoupled from the lateral dynamics.

24
CHAPTER 2

25
 2 Background theory & Software Tools

2.1 Sensitivity Analysis of Stability Derivatives

Sensitivity analysis involves studying how changes in input parameters

affect the stability derivatives and, consequently, the aircraft's dynamic
behavior. For example, variations in altitude, airspeed, or angle of attack
can significantly impact the stability derivatives. Understanding these
sensitivities is essential for designing robust aircraft that can operate
safely under a wide range of conditions.

2.2 Derivation of the Equations of Motion

In the analysis of linear, time-invariant (LTI) systems, the transfer func-

tion is a fundamental concept. It is a mathematical representation, typic-
ally defined in the Laplace domain, that describes how a system trans-
forms an input signal into an output signal. Specifically, it is defined as
the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (Y(s)) to the Laplace
transform of the input (U(s)), assuming all initial conditions are zero:
G(s) = Y(s) / U(s). The transfer function provides a concise way to char-
acterize the system's dynamic behavior, allowing engineers to analyze
properties such as stability, frequency response, and transient response
using algebraic methods rather than directly solving differential equa-
tions.
in order to obtain the transfer function of the aircraft, it is first necessary
to obtain the equations of motion for the aircraft. The equations of mo-
tion are derived by applying Newton's Second Law, which relates the
summation of external forces and moments to the linear and angular ac-
celerations of the system. For longitudinal dynamics, the forces and mo-
ments are expressed along the X-axis (forward direction), Z-axis (ver-

26
tical direction), and about the Y-axis (pitch axis). The resulting equations
are:

1) Force Equation Along the X-Axis:

The force equation along the X-axis is derived by considering the bal-
ance of forces in the forward direction, including aerodynamic forces
such as drag and thrust. The equation is given by:

mUu−C Z u+[(−C X u)+(−C X α ')+(−C X θ)]=C F

U U α q xα

Equation 2.2.1
Where:
 m : Mass of the aircraft

𝑈 : Forward velocity of the aircraft

 u : is the perturbation in forward velocity

 C Z , C X , C X , and C X are stability derivatives representing the change in
U U α q

aerodynamic forces with respect to changes in velocity, angle of attack, and

 𝜃 : Pitch angle of the aircraft

pitch rate.

 𝛼 : Angle of attack

2) Force Equation Along the Z-Axis:

The force equation along the Z-axis is derived similarly, focusing on the
vertical forces, including lift and weight. The equation is given by

−C Z u+[mU −C Z q−C Z q]α '−C W (sin ⁡θ)θ=C F

U α q zα

Equation 2.2.2
Where:
 C Z and C Z are stability derivatives representing the change in aerodynamic
α q

forces with respect to changes in the angle of attack and pitch rate.

 𝑞 : Pitch rate (rate of rotation about the Y-axis)

 C W : Weight coefficient

27
3) Moment Equation About the Y-Axis:
The moment equation about the Y-axis is derived using Newton's
Second Law for rotational motion, which states that the sum of moments
equals the moment of inertia multiplied by the angular acceleration. The
equation considers the aerodynamic moments acting on the aircraft, such
as those caused by the angle of attack and control surface deflections
(e.g., elevator). The equation is given by

−C m u+[−C m q−Cm q ]α ' +[ I y q 2−C m q]θ=C m

u α q q a

Equation 2.2.3
Where:
C m , C m , C m : are stability derivatives representing the change in aerody-
u a q

namic moments with respect to changes in velocity, angle of attack, and pitch
rate.
I y : Moment of inertia around the Y-axis

2.3 Assumptions and Simplifications

To simplify the derivation of the equations of motion, several assump-

tions are made. These assumptions ensure that the analysis remains tract-
able while maintaining sufficient accuracy for practical applications:

1. Symmetry Assumption: The aircraft is symmetric about the X-Z

plane, meaning that lateral-directional dynamics can be neglected.
2. Constant Mass: The mass of the aircraft is assumed constant
throughout the analysis, ignoring fuel consumption or payload
changes.
3. Rigid Body Dynamics: Structural deformations of the aircraft are
ignored, treating it as a rigid body.
4. Inertial Reference Frame: The Earth is treated as an inertial refer-
ence frame, neglecting its rotation and curvature.

28
 5. Small Perturbations: Deviations from equilibrium flight conditions
are assumed to be small, allowing for linearization of the equa-
tions.
6. Quasi-Steady Flow: Aerodynamic forces and moments are as-
sumed to respond instantaneously to changes in flight conditions.

Then the related force term and moment term are handled, the lon-
gitudinal equations of motion for the aircraft are written as;

( mUSqδ u −C u )+(
XU
−c
2U
C −C α )+
[
Xαδ
−c
2U Xα
'
]
C θδ−C (cos ⁡θ)θ =C Xq W Fx α

u ) + [( C ) α δ−C α ]+ [( C ) θδ−C (sin ⁡θ)θ ]=C

mU c −mU c
−( C Z
' '
− Z αδ −
Zα Zq W Fz
U
Sq 2 U Sq 2U α

( )( )
c ' ' Iy c
(−C m u ) + − 2 U C
u
α δ−C m α + α
SqC
θδδ − C θδ =C m
2U m q a
mαδ

Equation 2.3.4

2.4 Linearization of the Equations

To simplify the analysis, the nonlinear equations of motion are linearized

using small perturbation theory. This involves approximating the equa-
tions around a trim condition, where the aircraft is in steady, level flight.
The linearized equations are then transformed into the Laplace domain
using the Laplace Transform, which converts differential equations into
algebraic equations.

2.5 Matrix Form of the Equations

The general form of equation in the Laplace domain is:

A(s) * x(s) = B * u(s)

A(s): is the coefficient matrix (the 3x3 matrix shown), dependent on 's'

29
and system parameters.

x(s): is the system state vector in the Laplace domain, containing [u(s),
α(s), θ(s)] (perturbation velocity, angle of attack, pitch angle).

The right side ([0, CZse, CMse]) represents the input or external effects
(B * u(s)).

The linearized equations of motion can be written in matrix form as:

( )( ) ( )
( s−X u−X T )
u
− Xα g cos θ u (S ) 0
−Z u ( s ( U−Z ά )−Z α ) (−( Z q+ U ) s +g sin θ ) α´( S ) = C Z δe

−( M u+ M T ) −( M ά s+ M α + M T ) ( s 2−M q s ) θ (S ) CM δe
u α

Equation 2.5.5
Where:

 s : is the Laplace variable.

 Xu, Zu, and Mu are stability derivatives.

 θ is the pitch angle.

 α is the angle of attack.

 u is the perturbation in forward velocity.

2.6 Solving the Equations

The transient solution of the equations is obtained by solving the homo-

geneous equations (with no external inputs). The determinant of the
coefficient matrix is set to zero to find the characteristic equation:

30
det(A)=0

The roots of this equation represent the natural frequencies and damping
ratios of the aircraft's dynamic modes.

2.7 Calculation of the Stability Derivatives for the Aircraft [Case study]

The selected aircraft Boeing 747-400 is flying in straight level flight at

6096 m with a velocity of 205.2 m/s and the compressibility effects are
neglected. For this aircraft the values [1] are given like in the table be-
low.

2.7-1 Stability Characteristics of the Aircraft

Aircraft 747-400
Parameters
Altitude (m) 6,096
Mach 0.650
True Speed (m/s) 205.2
Dynamic Pressure (N/m²) 13,740
Weight (N) 2.83 × 10⁶
Wing Area - S - (m²) 511
Wing Span - b - (m) 59.74
Wing Chord – c - (m) 8.32
C.G (x c) 0.25
Trim AOA (deg) 2.5
I xxs ¿ kg·m²) 2.47 × 10⁶
I yys ¿kg·m²) 4.49 × 10⁶

31
 I zzs ¿kg·m²) 6.74 × 10⁶
I xzs ¿kg·m²) −5.49 ×10
4

Longitudinal Derivatives
X u (1/s) -0.0059
X α ( m/ s2 ) 4.87
Zu (1/s) -0.1104
Z α ( m/ s2 ) -107.7
M u (1/ ft . s ) 0
2
M α (1/s ) -1.3028
M α (1 /s) ' -0.1057
M q (1/ s) -0.5417
X δ ( m/ s2 )
e
0.0000
Z δ ( m/ s2 )
e
-7.79
2
M δ (1/ s )
e
-1.69366

Before calculations, some additional coefficients must be found; here be-

low table contains the coefficients from Roskam J., Aircraft Flight Dy-
namics and Automatic Flight Controls [2]. Furthermore, they are
based on computer models rather than wind-tunnel tests or other real-
word observations, and use stability axes.

Table 2.7-2 Additional Coefficients for the Aircraft

S 511.97 m² C Du 0
ć 8.32 m CD α 0.2
b 59.74 m C TXu -0.055
h 6296 m CLo 0.21
M 0.65 C Lu 0.13

32
 U1 205.2 m/s CLα 4.4
q́ 13754.6 CLα 7
N/m²
'

CG 0.25 % Ć C Lq 6.6
α1 2.5 deg C mo 0
W 2.83 × 10⁶ N C mu 0.013
I xx 2.47 × 10⁶ Cmα -1
kg·m²
l yy 4.49 × 10⁶ Cmα -4
kg·m²
'

I zz 6.74 × 10⁶ C mq -20.5

kg·m²
I xz 1.32 × 10⁵ kg·m² C mTu 0
CL1 0.4 C mT α 0

C D1 0.025 C DDe 0
C TX1 0.025 C LDe 0.32
C m1 0 C mDe -1.3
C MT1 0 C Dih 0
C Do 0.0164 C lih 0.7
C mih -2.7

For low cruise condition, stability derivatives are calculated by the help
of MATHEMATICA and solved for transfer functions, damping ratio
and natural frequency for nonzero solution also both for short period and

33
phugoid approximation.
To obtain nonzero solution, the values in coefficients matrix A are calcu-
lated as in the below table;

Table 2.7-3 The Values in Coefficients Matrix A

Xu -0.005930 Zδ e −7.786

XT u -0.005930 Mu 0.0000251658

Xα 4.87 MT u 0

Xδ e 0 Mα -1.30281

Zu -0.110314 MT α 0

Zα -107.7 M αδ -0.105696

Z ά -11.3338 Mq -0.541693

Zq -10.6862 Mδ e -1.69366

Base Eigenvalues

2.8 Software Tools Utilized in This Project

MATHEMATICA

MATHEMATICA is a powerful computational software used for sym-

bolic and numerical calculations. It provides advanced tools for solving
mathematical equations, performing data analysis, and visualizing com-

34
plex functions. The software is widely used in engineering and scientific
research due to its efficiency in handling algebraic manipulations and
differential equations. In this study, MATHEMATICA is utilized to
compute the stability derivatives of the aircraft, which are essential para-
meters in analyzing its dynamic stability. Stability derivatives are calcu-
lated by the help of MATHEMATICA to ensure accurate and efficient
evaluation of aerodynamic and flight dynamics properties.

Python

Python is a versatile and widely used programming language known for

its simplicity and efficiency. It supports various libraries and frameworks
for numerical computations, data analysis, and machine learning, making
it a popular choice in engineering and scientific applications. Python's
extensive ecosystem allows users to perform complex simulations, auto-
mate processes, and visualize data effectively. In this project, Python is
utilized for data processing and numerical computations related to air-
craft stability analysis. Its ability to integrate with other tools and librar-
ies enhances the accuracy and efficiency of calculations.

VS Code

Visual Studio Code (VS Code) is a powerful and lightweight Integrated

Development Environment (IDE) developed by Microsoft. It provides
extensive support for multiple programming languages, including Py-
thon, and offers features such as source code editing and debugging, ver-
sion control, and extensions that enhance development productivity. In
this study, VS Code is used as the primary development environment for
writing and executing Python scripts. Its flexibility and integration cap-
abilities enable efficient code management and seamless execution of
computational tasks related to the project.

35
CHAPTER 3

36
 3 Simulation & Software Implementation

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes how a Python-based program was developed to

simulate an aircraft’s longitudinal stability, starting from the theoretical
background and moving all the way to practical implementation.

The program is designed as a Windows-native application, ensuring

compatibility and efficiency on desktop environments.

The program calculates how an airplane reacts to control inputs—espe-

cially elevator deflection—using a combination of powerful Python lib-
raries like SymPy, NumPy, Matplotlib, and SciPy. Additionally, a user-
friendly graphical interface is built using Tkinter and ttkthemes. Each
design choice and module are explained in detail, and the chapter
demonstrates how the program’s accuracy is confirmed by comparing its
results with established research data.

For more details, you can access the project on the Aerospace Engineer-
ing Department page on GitHub through the following link:

https://github.com/AeroGitAdmin/SimBscProject

3.2 Software Architecture and Design

1) Overall Program Structure

The software is designed with a modular architecture to enhance main-

tainability, readability, and scalability. It primarily follows an object-ori-
ented approach, encapsulating functionalities within classes and func-
tions. The core structure consists of distinct modules responsible for:

 Units Management (Units module/class): Handling unit con-

versions between Imperial and SI systems, ensuring consistent cal-
culations and user input/output.

37
  Stability Derivatives Calculation: Computing the dimensional
stability derivatives based on aircraft parameters and flight condi-
tions, implemented in the code by the function (calculate_longit-
udinal_stability_derivatives function).
 System Matrix and Transfer Function Generation: Implemen-
ted in the function
(build_s_domain_matrix_full, build_transfer_functions_full func-
tions): Constructing the system's state-space representation in the
Laplace domain and deriving transfer functions for analysis.
 Modal Analysis (analyze_modes function): Determining the
system's poles and analyzing the longitudinal modes (Phugoid and
Short Period).
 Graphical User Interface (LongitudinalDynamic-
sApp class): Providing an interactive interface for parameter input,
simulation execution, and results visualization.

2) Description of Key Modules

Units Module (Units class): This class is central to managing unit con-
sistency throughout the program. It defines conversion factors between
Imperial and SI units for relevant physical quantities like length, mass,
area, inertia, force, pressure, and velocity. It also stores important phys-
ical constants in Imperial units (used for internal calculations) and
provides static methods for unit conversion. This ensures that while the
user interface displays values in SI units, the underlying calculations can
be performed in Imperial units, aligning with common aerospace engin-
eering practices and data availability.

38
3) Stability Derivatives Calculation Module

(calculate_longitudinal_stability_derivatives function): This function is

the core computational engine of the simulation. It takes a dictionary of
fundamental aircraft parameters (in Imperial units internally) as input
and calculates the dimensional longitudinal stability derivatives. It im-
plements the equations derived from aerodynamic theory and aircraft dy-
namics, considering factors like air density (calculated based on alti-
tude), dynamic pressure, wing geometry, and aerodynamic coefficients.
The function returns a dictionary containing the derived stability derivat-
ives, along with intermediate values like air density and dynamic pres-
sure, for use in subsequent calculations.

4) System Matrix and Transfer Function Generation Modules

(build_s_domain_matrix_full, build_transfer_functions_full functions):

These modules utilize the SymPy library to perform symbolic manipula-
tions. The matrix function constructs the symbolic system matrix (A_s)
in the Laplace domain (s-domain), based on the stability derivatives cal-
culated previously. This matrix represents the linearized longitudinal dy-
namics of the aircraft. The transfer function’s function then uses this
symbolic matrix to derive the transfer functions from elevator deflection
(δe) to the output variables: change in airspeed (u), angle of attack (α'),
and pitch angle (θ). These transfer functions are crucial for frequency do-
main and time domain analysis using SciPy.

5) Modal Analysis Module (analyze_modes function):

This module analyzes the system's stability characteristics by examining

the poles of the system. It takes the symbolic system matrix (A_s) and
calculates its determinant, which represents the characteristic equation of
the system. Using SymPy's numerical root-finding capabilities, it de-

39
termines the roots of this equation, which are the system's poles. These
poles are then sorted and analyzed to extract mode characteristics like
natural frequency (ωn), damping ratio (ζ), and time to half amplitude
(τ_half) for the Phugoid and Short Period modes.

6) Graphical User Interface Module

The GUI module, built using Tkinter and styled with ttkthemes,
provides a user-friendly interface to interact with the simulation. It com-
prises several key components:
 (LongitudinalDynamicsApp class): The Graphical User Interface (GUI)
module is the primary interface for user interaction with the longitudinal
flight dynamics simulation program. This module was developed using the
Tkinter library in Python, with ttkthemes applied for a modern look. The
design of the GUI aims to provide a practical means for users to explore and
analyze aircraft behavior in longitudinal motion. The interface allows the user
to control the simulation by adjusting parameters, running calculations, and
viewing results visually. The interface consists of several main sections, or-
ganized to provide distinct functions and facilitate access to information.

Figure 6-3Graphical User Interface (GUI)

40
  Title Bar and Units: Basic Information and Unit System Options

At the top of the window appears the title bar "Longitudinal Dynamics - Elevator
Displacement," which clarifies the program's function. Below the bar, there is the
"Units Display" section that allows the user to choose the unit system used to display
values. Radio buttons are available to switch the display between the International
System of Units (SI Units Display) and the Imperial Units Display. Values displayed
in the interface are automatically updated when the unit system is changed.

Figure 6-4 Title Bar and Units

 Fundamental Parameters Section: Input and Modification of Simulation

Properties

The "Fundamental Parameters" section is located in the upper-left part of the win-
dow. This section provides an interface for inputting and modifying the basic proper-
ties of the aircraft and flight conditions. The section contains a set of spinbox input
fields arranged in three columns. Each spinbox is dedicated to a fundamental para-
meter, such as mass, velocity, altitude, and others. The parameter name and unit are
displayed next to each spinbox. This section allows the user to customize simulation
properties and define different flight scenarios.

41
 Figure 6-5 Fundamental Parameters Section

 Parameter Adjustment Section: Tools for Changing Parameters System-

atically

The "Parameter Adjustment" section is located below the Fundamental Parameters

section. This section provides tools for systematically adjusting parameter values.
The tools include a dropdown list "Select Parameter:" containing a list of funda-
mental parameters. After selecting a parameter, three control buttons are available:
"Increase +10%" to increase the value by 10%, "Decrease -10%" to decrease the
value by 10%, and "Reset" to restore the value to the default setting. These tools en-
able the exploration of the effect of parameter changes in a systematic manner.

Figure 6-6 Parameter Adjustment Section

42
  Simulation and Matrix Buttons Section: Control of Main Operations

The "Simulation and Matrix Buttons" section is located below the Parameter Adjust-
ment section. This section provides buttons to control the main computational opera-
tions. The buttons include: "Show Transfer Function" to open a window displaying
transfer functions, "Show A Matrix" to open a window displaying the system matrix
(A-Matrix), and "Run Simulation" to run the simulation and display the results.

Figure 6-7 Simulation and Matrix Buttons Section

 Derived Parameters Section: Display of Calculated Values

The "Derived Parameters" section is located below the Simulation and Matrix But-
tons section. This section displays a set of labels arranged in three columns. Each la-
bel displays the value of a derived parameter calculated by the program, such as air
density, dynamic pressure, and stability derivatives. The values of these parameters
are automatically updated after calculations are performed.

Figure 6-8 Derived Parameters Section

43
44
  Plot Options Section: Customizing the Visual Display of Results

The "Plot Options" section is located below the Model Choice section. This section
provides options for customizing the visual display of results. The options include
three radio buttons to select the plot type: "Time Response," "Step Response," and
"Frequency Response." In addition, the "Show:" section includes three checkboxes to
select the variables to be plotted: "u," "alpha," and "theta."

Figure 6-9 Plot Options Section

 Modal Analysis Section: Summary of Dynamic Mode Characteristics

The "Modal Analysis" section is located at the bottom of the left part of the window.
This section is divided into two sub-frames: "Short Period Mode" and "Phugoid
Mode." Each sub-frame displays a summary of the corresponding dynamic mode's
characteristics, including the natural frequency, damping ratio, and roots.

Figure 6-10 Modal Analysis Section

 Plot Area: Displaying Interactive Graphs

The plot area occupies the right part of the window. This area displays interactive
graphs resulting from the simulation, based on the options selected in the "Plot Op-

45
tions" section. The graphs allow for visualizing aircraft dynamic behavior and ana-
lyzing results visually.

Figure 6-11 Plot Area

3.3 Implementation of Key Modules

1) Units Module (Units class) Implementation

The Units class is implemented as a static class containing constants and

static methods for unit conversion. For instance, the conversion from feet
to meters and vice versa is handled by the following constants and meth-
ods:

46
 Figure 1-12 (Units class) Implementation

Similar constants and methods are defined for other unit conversions, en-
suring consistent and accurate unit handling throughout the program.
The class also defines important physical constants like GRAVITY
and GAS CONSTANT in Imperial units, which are used in internal cal-
culations.

Figure 1-13 Constant Implementation

2) Stability Derivatives Calculation Module

 (calculate_longitudinal_stability_derivatives function):
This function translates the theoretical equations for longitudinal
stability derivatives into Python code. The Roskam J. [2],
provides specific values and parameters for the Boeing 747-400

47
 aircraft, which are highly relevant to our simulation, Referencing
Aircraft Parameters from Table 2.1 and 2.2.

Figure 2-14 Stability Derivatives Calculation function

3.4 The Nonzero Solution of the Longitudinal Equations

θ (s ) −1.68971(0.0119211+ s)(0.486136 +s )
=
δ e ( s) ( 0.00465356+ 0.00453985 s + s2 ) ( 1.5423+1.16507 s+ s 2 )

Equation 3.4.6

The nonzero solution of longitudinal equations of motion in matrix form

is:

48
 ( )( ) ( )
( s−X u−X T )
u
− Xα g cos θ u´(S ) 0
−Z u ( s ( U−Z ά )−Z α ) (−( Z q+ U ) s +g sin θ ) α´( S ) = C Z δe

−( M u+ M T ) −( M ά s+ M α + M T ) ( S 2−M q s ) θ (S ) CM δe
u α

Equation 3.4.7

Which is represented in Python code as follows:

Figure 2-15 Matrix Implementation

The nonzero solution of longitudinal equations of motion is:

( )( ) ( )
0.00652392 −15.96582 32.174 u´( S ) 0
0.110314 355.2394+ 684.334 s −662.314 s α´( S) = −25.5453
2
−0.0000251658 1.302818+0.105696196 s 0.541693 s+ s δe( s ) −1.69366

Equation 3.4.8

49
The lonely nonzero solution of these simultaneous equations requires
that the determinant of the coefficients be zero;

( )
0.00652392 s −15.96582 32.174
A= 0.110314 355.2394+ 684.334 s −662.314 s
2
−0.0000251658 1.302818+ 0.105696196 s 0.541693 s + s

Equation 3.4.9

Expanding this determinant of the following quadratic equation is ob-

tained:
684.334 ( 0.00465358+0.09453985 s+ s 2) ( 1.54231+1.16507 s +s 2 ) ¿ 0

Equation 3.4.10

A common way to write these kinds of quadratic equations is to indicate

to natural frequency and the damping ratio as:

( s 2+2 ξ p ωnp s +ω 2np)( s 2 +2 ξ s ωns s+ ω2ns )=0

Equation 3.4.11

According to the equation (3.4.6) Short period oscillations' natural fre-

quency and damping ratio are found as:

ω ns=1,2419 rad /sec

ξ s=0,469071 }short period oscillation

ω np=0,068217 rad / sec

ξ p =0,033275 }
phugoid oscillation

50
Furthermore, for short period and phugoid mode one half amplitudes are:

For Short Period Mode: τ 1 /2 =1,71663 sec .

For Phugoid Mode : τ 1/ 2=440 , 53 sec .=7,3421 min.

The previous calculations for deriving the natural frequency and damp-
ing ratio were implemented in Python code using the NumPy library,
based on the poles as follows:

Figure 2-16 Implementation of [ ω n , ξ , τ 1 /2 ]

3.5 Transfer Functions for the Elevator Displacement

Taking the Laplace Transform of the longitudinal linearized equations

with nonzero initial conditions yields:

'
u (s)
 The calculation of transfer function of δ ( s) :
e

u' (s) −0.595983(−47.7053+ s)(0.93987356+ s)

=
δ e (s) ( 0.00465356+0.00453985 s+ s 2 )( 1.5423+1.16507 s+ s2 )

Equation 3.5.12

51
 α ' (s )
 The calculation of transfer function of δ (s) :
e

α ' (s ) −0.0373287 (44.4533+ s) ( 0.0053117 +0.00640441 s +s 2 )

=
δ e ( s) ( 0.00465356+0.00453985 s+ s 2 )( 1.5423+1.16507 s+ s2 )

Equation 3.5.13

θ (s)
 The calculation of transfer function of δ ( s) ;
e

θ (s) −1.68971(0.0119211+ s)(0.486136+ s)

=
δ e ( s) ( 0.00465356+0.00453985 s+ s 2 )( 1.5423+1.16507 s+ s2 )

Equation 3.5.14

u (s)
Figure 2-17 Magnitude plot for δ ( s)
e
transfer function versus ω for s= j ω

52
 '
α (s )
Figure 2-18 Magnitude plot for δ ( s)
e
transfer function versus ω for s= j ω

θ (s)
Figure 2-19 Magnitude plot for δ ( s)
e
transfer function versus ω for s= j ω

53
3.6 Transient Response of the Aircraft

Figure 2-20 Transient response of the aircraft for ú

Figure 2-21 Transient response of the aircraft for ά

54
Figure 2-22 Transient response of the aircraft for θ

Figure 2-23 Transient response of the aircraft for θ́

55
CHAPTER 4

56
 4 Sensitivity Analysis of Longitud-
inal Stability Parameters
4.1 Introduction

Longitudinal stability is a critical aspect of aircraft design and safe operation. It dictates
how an aircraft responds to disturbances in the longitudinal plane (such as changes in
speed or angle of attack) and its ability to return to a stable flight condition. This type of
stability is influenced by several design and operational parameters, including velocity,
altitude, mass, and the pitching moment coefficient derivative with respect to angle of
attack (C m α ).

This chapter aims to analyse the sensitivity of the longitudinal stability of a Boeing 747
to minor variations in key parameters. A series of simulation experiments were conduc-
ted using a longitudinal stability simulation program developed as part of this project.
Each selected parameter was varied by ±10% from its initial value, while keeping the
other parameters constant. The resulting changes in the characteristics of the two
primary longitudinal motion modes, the Short Period mode and the Phugoid mode, were
recorded.

This study is of significant importance for several reasons:

 Verification of the Simulation Model: By comparing the simulated results

with the expected aircraft behaviour based on aerodynamic theories, we can
verify the accuracy of the simulation model used.
 Understanding Parameter Influence on Stability: This study helps understand
how each parameter individually affects longitudinal stability characteristics,
contributing to the improvement of aircraft design and control systems.
 Identification of Critical Parameters: Through sensitivity analysis, we can
identify the parameters that have the most significant impact on stability. This
information is essential for design, operation, and maintenance processes.
 Comprehensive Program Documentation: This chapter represents a funda-
mental part of the simulation program's documentation, demonstrating the pro-
gram's capabilities and providing practical examples of its use.

57
4.2 Experiment Methodology

To achieve the objectives of this chapter, the following methodology was followed:

1. Parameter Selection: Four key parameters were chosen for the study:
o Velocity: Velocity was varied by ±10% of the initial value.

o Altitude: Altitude was varied by ±10% of the initial value.

o Mass: Mass was varied by ±10% of the initial value.

o C m α : The pitching moment coefficient derivative with respect to angle

of attack was varied by ±10% of the initial value.

2. Initial Parameter Values: The initial parameter values for the Boeing 747, as
shown in the program screenshot, were used. These values represent a reference
flight condition for the aircraft.

3. Simulation Execution: For each variable parameter, three simulations were

conducted:
o Initial State: Using the initial values of all parameters.
o Parameter Increase by +10% (+10%): With the remaining parameters
held at their initial values.
o Parameter Decrease by -10% (-10%): With the remaining parameters
held at their initial values.

4. Data Recording: For each simulation, the characteristics of the longitudinal

motion modes were recorded:
o Short Period Mode:
 Natural Frequency (ωn) [rad/s]
 Damping Ratio (ζ)
 Real Root [1/s]
 Imaginary Root [rad/s]
o Phugoid Mode:
 Natural Frequency (ωn) [rad/s]
 Damping Ratio (ζ)
 Real Root [1/s]
 Imaginary Root [rad/s]

5. Results Analysis: The results were organized in a table (as shown in the
provided image) and the changes in mode characteristics for each variable para-
meter were compared. These changes were analyzed to understand the sensitiv-
ity of longitudinal stability to the different parameters.

58
4.3 Presentation and Discussion of Results

The table 4.3-4 summarizes the results of the simulation experiments for parameter
variations of ±10% and their impact on the characteristics of the longitudinal motion
mod

59
 Table 4.3-5 Results of the simulation experiments

Velocity Altitude Mass Cmα Wing area (S)

Initial
(Mode) (Characteristic) State
+10% -10% +10% -10% +10% -10% +10% -10% +10% -10%

natural frequencies
1.2411 1.3191 1.1663 1.2086 1.2732 1.2541 1.2252 1.2908 1.1893 1.2867 1.1909
(ωn) [rad/s]

0.4542 0.4850
damping ratio (ζ) 0.4681 0.4063 0.5462 0.4788 0.4583 0.4841 0.4483 0.4501 0.4886
Short
Period
-0.5845 -0.5776
Root (Real) [1/s] -0.581 -0.5360 -0.6370 -0.5787 -0.5835 -0.6071 -0.5492 -0.5810 -0.5811

+¿−¿ ¿ ¿ 1 +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿
Root (Imaginary) ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
[rad/s] .0967i 1.2053i 0.9770i 1.0611i 1.1316i 1.0973i 1.0952i 1.1527i 1.0377i 1.1463 1.0414i

natural frequencies 0.0687 0.0677

0.0682 0.0698 0.0662 0.0657 0.0707 0.0677 0.0687 0.0686 0.0677
(ωn) [rad/s]

0.0393 0.0269
damping ratio (ζ) 0.0334 0.0396 0.0261 0.0318 0.0348 0.0292 0.0384 0.0340 0.0327

Phugoid
-0.0027 -0.0018
Root (Real) [1/s] -0.0023 -0.0028 -0.0017 -0.0021 -0.0025 -0.0020 -0.0026 -0.0023 -0.0022

+¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿

Root (Imaginary) ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿ +¿−¿ ¿ ¿
[rad/s] 0.0681i 0.0697i 0.0662i 0.0657i 0.0707i 0.0677i 0.0687 0.0685i 0.0677i ¿ ¿

60
 0.0686 0.0677i

Figure 4-24 Heatmap of Stability Derivatives

61
4.4 Impact of Flight Parameter Variations on Aircraft Dynamic Sta-

bility

This project examines the effects of variations in key flight parameters—

velocity, altitude, mass, static stability, and wing area—on the dynamic
behavior of an aircraft. The analysis focuses on two primary modes: the
short period mode (which governs rapid pitch oscillations) and the phugoid
mode (which involves long-term speed–altitude exchanges). The changes
are
expressed in percentage terms for easier comparison.

1. Effect of Velocity Variation

 Increasing Velocity by 10%

 Short Period Mode:

o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased by approximately 6%
(from 1.2411 to 1.3191 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased by roughly 13% (from 0.4681
to 0.4063).
o Real Root: Became less negative (closer to zero) by about 7–
8%.
o Imaginary Root: Increased by approximately 10% (from
±1.0967i to ±1.2053i rad/s).
Interpretation:
These percentage changes indicate that a 10% increase in velocity results in
a faster response (higher natural frequency) with reduced damping. Con-
sequently, the oscillations may persist slightly longer despite the quicker
initial response.
 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased by around 2.4% (from
0.0682 to 0.0698 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by nearly 18.6% (from 0.0334
to 0.0396).

62
 o Real Root: Changed by approximately 22% in magnitude
(noting some inconsistencies in the original description, the re-
lative change is significant).
o Imaginary Root: Increased by about 2.4% (from ±0.0681i to
±0.0697i rad/s).
Interpretation:
In the phugoid mode, a velocity increase produces a slight uptick in fre-
quency along with a notable improvement in damping, contributing to en-
hanced long-term stability.

 Decreasing Velocity by 10%

 Short Period Mode:

o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by roughly 6% (from
1.2411 to 1.1663 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by about 16.7% (from 0.4681
to 0.5462).
o Real Root: Became more negative by nearly 9.6%.
o Imaginary Root: Decreased by approximately 11% (from
±1.0967i to ±0.9770i rad/s).
Interpretation:
Reducing velocity slows the short period response (lower frequency) and
increases damping, leading to a more stable response but with reduced agil-
ity.

 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by approximately 3%
(from 0.0682 to 0.0662 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased by around 22% (from 0.0334
to 0.0261).
o Real Root: Increased (i.e., became less negative) by roughly
26% in magnitude.
o Imaginary Root: Decreased by about 2.8%.

63
Interpretation:
A reduction in velocity causes a slight decrease in the phugoid frequency
along with a significant drop in damping, potentially leading to longer-last-
ing oscillations.

2. Effect of Altitude Variation

 Increasing Altitude by 10%

 Short Period Mode:

o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by about 2.6% (from
1.2411 to 1.2086 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by roughly 2.3% (from 0.4681
to 0.4788).
o Real Root: Minimal change (around 0.4%).
o Imaginary Root: Decreased by approximately 3.3%.
Interpretation:
A 10% altitude increase leads to a slight reduction in natural frequency and
a small improvement in damping, which may reduce responsiveness while
marginally enhancing the decay of short period oscillations.

 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by roughly 3.7% (from
0.0682 to 0.0657 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased by about 4.8%.
o Real Root: Changed by approximately 8.7%.
o Imaginary Root: Decreased by around 3.5%.
Interpretation:
The phugoid mode exhibits a minor drop in natural frequency and damp-
ing, suggesting a modest decrease in the long-term oscillatory response at
higher altitudes.

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  Decreasing Altitude by 10%

 Short Period Mode:

o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased by approximately 2.6%
(from 1.2411 to 1.2732 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased by about 2.1%.
o Real Root: Minimal change (around 0.4%).
o Imaginary Root: Increased by roughly 3.2%.
Interpretation:
Lower altitude produces a slightly faster short period response (higher fre-
quency) along with a small reduction in damping, likely due to increased
aerodynamic forces at lower altitudes.

 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased by nearly 3.7% (from
0.0682 to 0.0707 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by about 4.2%.
o Real Root: Became less negative by roughly 8.7%.
o Imaginary Root: Increased by approximately 3.8%.
Interpretation:
In the phugoid mode, decreased altitude results in a modest increase in both
frequency and damping, slightly enhancing long-term stability.

3. Effect of Mass Variation

 Increasing Mass by 10%

 Short Period Mode:

o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by roughly 1.3% (from
1.2411 to 1.2252 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by about 3.4%.
o Real Root: Became more negative by approximately 4.5%.

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 o Imaginary Root: Almost unchanged (≈0.05% difference).
Interpretation:
Increasing the mass slightly slows the short period response and improves
damping marginally due to the increased inertia.

 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased by about 0.7% (from
0.0682 to 0.0687 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased by roughly 12.6%.
o Real Root: Became less negative by about 13%.
o Imaginary Root: Increased very slightly (around 0.9%).
Interpretation:
For the phugoid mode, an increase in mass results in only minor changes in
frequency, but the damping decreases noticeably, suggesting a slight deteri-
oration in long-term stability.

 Decreasing Mass by 10%

 Short Period Mode:

o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased by approximately 1.05%
(from 1.2411 to 1.2541 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased by around 4.2%.
o Real Root: Became less negative by roughly 5.5%.
o Imaginary Root: Minimal change.
Interpretation:
Reducing mass enhances the agility of the aircraft, as evidenced by a small
increase in natural frequency and a modest reduction in damping for the
short period mode.

 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by about 0.7% (from
0.0682 to 0.0677 rad/s).

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 o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by nearly 15%.
o Real Root: Became more negative by approximately 13%.
o Imaginary Root: Minimal change.
Interpretation:
In the phugoid mode, a lower mass slightly reduces the frequency while
improving damping, which can enhance long-term stability.

4. Effect of C m α Variation (Static Stability)

Cmα is the derivative of the pitching moment coefficient with respect to the
angle of attack, and it is a primary indicator of static pitch stability. A
more negative Cmα indicates a more stable configuration. The following
analysis examines the impact of a ±10% change in Cmα.
 Increasing C m α by 10% (Making it More Negative)

 Short Period Mode:

o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased by approximately 4%
(from 1.2411 to 1.2908 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased by roughly 3.9% (from 0.4681
to 0.4501).
o Real Root: Remained virtually unchanged.
o Imaginary Root: Increased by about 5.1% (from ±1.0967i
rad/s to ±1.1527i rad/s).
Interpretation:
A 10% increase in the magnitude of Cmα (making it more negative) causes
a slight increase in the natural frequency of the short period mode. This in-
dicates that the aircraft will respond more quickly to pitch disturbances.
However, there is a small reduction in damping, which could lead to mar-
ginally longer oscillations.
 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased very slightly (by approx-
imately 0.6%, from 0.0682 to 0.0686 rad/s).

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 o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by about 1.8% (from 0.0334 to
0.0340).
o Real & Imaginary Roots: Only minimal changes observed.
Interpretation:
The phugoid mode shows only slight changes with increased Cmα, sug-
gesting that its long-term stability is not significantly influenced by vari-
ations in static pitch stability.

 Decreasing C m α by 10% (Making it Less Negative)

 Short Period Mode:

o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by approximately 4.2%
(from 1.2411 to 1.1893 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by roughly 4.4% (from 0.4681
to 0.4886).
o Real Root: Remained nearly unchanged.
o Imaginary Root: Decreased by about 5.4% (from ±1.0967i
rad/s to ±1.0377i rad/s).
Interpretation:
A 10% reduction in the magnitude of Cmα (making it less negative) results
in a lower natural frequency, indicating a slower short period response. The
slight increase in damping implies that the aircraft becomes less responsive
to pitch disturbances while benefiting from enhanced damping, albeit with
a less dynamic response.

 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by roughly 0.7% (from
0.0682 to 0.0677 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased marginally (from 0.0334 to
0.0327).
o Real & Imaginary Roots: Only minor changes are observed.
Interpretation:
The phugoid mode is minimally affected by a reduction in Cmα, confirm-

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ing that static pitch stability (as measured by Cmα) predominantly influ-
ences the faster short period oscillations rather than the long-term phugoid
dynamics.

5. Effect of Wing Area Variation

 Increasing Wing Area by 10%

 Short Period Mode:

o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased by roughly 3.7% (from
1.2411 to 1.2867 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased by about 3.0%.
o Real Root: Minimal change (≈0.6%).
o Imaginary Root: Increased by approximately 4.5%.
Interpretation:
Increasing wing area enhances the lift curve slope, which results in a higher
natural frequency in the short period mode with a slight decrease in damp-
ing.

 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Increased by about 0.7%.
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by roughly 17.7%.
o Real Root: Became more negative by approximately 17.4%.
o Imaginary Root: Minimal change (≈0.7%).
Interpretation:
A larger wing area markedly improves damping in the phugoid mode, pro-
moting quicker decay of long-term oscillations.

 Decreasing Wing Area by 10%

 Short Period Mode:

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 o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by approximately 4.1%
(from 1.2411 to 1.1909 rad/s).
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Increased by about 3.6%.
o Real Root: Minimal change (≈0.6%).
o Imaginary Root: Decreased by roughly 5.0%.
Interpretation:
Reducing the wing area leads to a lower natural frequency and a slight in-
crease in damping for the short period mode.

 Phugoid Mode:
o Natural Frequency (ωₙ): Decreased by about 0.7%.
o Damping Ratio (ζ): Decreased by approximately 19.5%.
o Real Root: Became less negative by roughly 21.7%.
o Imaginary Root: Decreased by around 0.6%.
Interpretation:
For the phugoid mode, a decrease in wing area significantly reduces damp-
ing, potentially resulting in prolonged long-term oscillations.

4.5 Summary of Comparative Analysis and Integrated Results

 Mode Sensitivity:
The short period mode is more sensitive to changes in velocity, alti-
tude, mass, and static stability. In contrast, the phugoid mode is not-
ably affected by wing area changes, particularly in terms of damping.
 Effect of Velocity:
An increase in velocity accelerates both modes, but while the short
period mode loses damping, the phugoid mode experiences im-
proved damping, thus enhancing long-term stability.
 Effect of Altitude:
A higher altitude slightly reduces the natural frequency with modest
effects on damping, mainly due to lower air density.

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  Effect of Mass:
Mass variations predominantly influence the short period mode—
greater mass reduces frequency and increases damping slightly,
while the phugoid mode shows minor changes.
 Effect of C m α Variation (Static Stability):
Adjustments to the C m α chiefly impact the short period mode, alter-
ing the aircraft’s responsiveness to pitch disturbances, with minimal
influence on the phugoid mode.
 Effect of Wing Area:
Wing area is a critical parameter. Increasing it significantly raises the
natural frequency and improves damping in the phugoid mode,
whereas decreasing it slows the short period response and substan-
tially degrades long-term damping.

4.6 Validation of Simulation Results

To establish the credibility of the simulation program and ensure its accur-
acy, a validation process was conducted by comparing its results with pub-
lished reference data. A research paper from Istanbul Technical University,
titled "Koşar K, Durmaz S and Jafarov E. (2007) Longitudinal dynamics
analysis of Boeing 747-400" [3] was used. This research paper was spe-
cifically chosen because it addresses the same aircraft (Boeing 747-400)
and employs a similar methodology for analyzing longitudinal dynamics.

The parameter values used in the research paper were extracted and entered
into the simulation program developed in this project. After running the
simulation, the obtained results (such as stability derivatives, oscillation
frequencies, and damping ratios) were compared with those published in
the research paper.

The comparison revealed good agreement between the results of the simu-
lation program and the reference results. This agreement strengthens con-
fidence in the accuracy of the program and its ability to simulate the longit-
udinal dynamic behavior of the Boeing 747-400 reliably.

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CHAPTER 5

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 5 Conclusion and Further Work

5.1 Conclusion

This section summarizes the main conclusions drawn from the investiga-
tion into aircraft longitudinal stability. It highlights the validated simula-
tion model, the capabilities of the developed interactive analysis pro-
gram, and the key findings from the parameter sensitivity analysis.

1. A case study was investigated for the simulation and was validated by setting
a baseline reference where its results were compared with the published res-
ults [3] , and found to demonstrate a high level of accuracy.
2. The developed program enables users to modify aircraft parameters and imme-
diately observe their effects on stability, making it a useful tool for both edu-
cational and research purposes.
3. After every change in one or more parameters – whether physical, dimen-
sional, aerodynamic or flight conditions - the stability derivatives are calcu-
lated and all eigen values are derived and hence the damping and natural fre-
quencies are immediately derived.
4. The time and frequency response are also calculated and the graphs and charts
plotted
5. Students could gain deeper insights into how stability can be improved or de-
graded based on various parameters.
6. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to assess the impact of minor variations
in velocity, altitude, mass, and aerodynamic derivatives on longitudinal sta-
bility.
7. The results highlighted the importance of these parameters in shaping the air-
craft’s dynamic response.
8. Sensitivity of phugoid and SPO to velocity and speed were as expected.
9. Sensitivity of phugoid to altitude and mass, however, were interesting.

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 5.2 Further Work

Based on the findings and developed tools from this project, several av-
enues for future research and development are identified. These sugges-
tions aim to expand the scope of the analysis, enhance model fidelity,
and improve the practical utility of the simulation.

1. Lateral-Directional Stability Analysis: This project primarily focused on lon-

gitudinal stability. A natural next step would be to develop a simulation for
lateral-directional stability, which involves roll, yaw, and sideslip motion.
This would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the aircraft’s full
dynamic behaviour.

2. Expansion to Nonlinear Models: The current study relies on linearized equa-

tions of motion. Future work could incorporate nonlinear aerodynamic ef-
fects, especially at high angles of attack and transonic speeds, where linear
models lose accuracy.

3. Experimental Validation: While the simulation results matched well with pub-
lished research, additional validation using flight test data would further en-
hance the credibility of the model.

4. Real-Time Simulation and User Interface: Enhancing the program by adding a

graphical user interface (GUI) with real-time parameter adjustments would
improve usability, making it accessible for students and engineers.

5. Integration with Control Systems: Stability analysis plays a key role in autopi-
lot and flight control system design. Future research could involve integrating
feedback control laws to evaluate how stability augmentation systems influ-
ence aircraft dynamics.

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TEReferences

[1] www.boeing.com

[2] Roskam J., Airplane Flight Dynamics and Automatic Controls,

Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corporation, 1979

[3] Koşar K, Durmaz S and Jafarov E. (2007) Longitudinal dynamics

analysis of Boeing 747-400

[4] Blakelock, J., H., Automatic Control of the Aircraft and Missiles,
John WileySons,1965

[5] www.aistudio.google.com

AI programming assistant Tool

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