UNIT – III Engineering Physics

UNIT-III MAGNETIC, DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Magnetic permeability – Magnetization – Origin of magnetic moment – Classification of Magnetic materials – Dia,
Para, Ferro, anti Ferro and Ferri-magnetism – Hysteresis curve.

1. Magnetic field (H): The region around the magnet up to which its influence is experienced by another
magnet is called magnetic field.
2. Magnetic flux (  ): The total number of magnetic lines of forces passing normally through a surface is
known as magnetic flux.

Units - Weber

3. Magnetic flux density (B) or Magnetic induction: The number of magnetic lines of forces passing
through unit area of surface is known as magnetic field induction.


B
A

w
Units: 2
 1Tesla
m

4. Magnetic field intensity or intensity of magnetic field (H): The force experienced by a unit North Pole
placed at a point in the magnetic field is called magnetic intensity.

If ‘F’ is a force experienced by a north pole placed at a point in the magnetic field and ‘m’ is the pole
strength of magnet then,

F
H
m

Units- Amp/meter

5. Permeability: (  ) The magnetic flux density ‘B’ is directly proportional to the magnetic field intensity ‘H’

B H

B=  H

Where  is proportionality constant and is known as permeability of the medium

B

H

B W / m2

H A/ m

B w
=
H Am

‘  ’ is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction ‘B’ to magnetic field intensity ‘H’

(or)
 UNIT – III Engineering Physics

The measure of the degree of which the magnetic lines of forces can penetrate into the medium is called as the
permeability of the medium.

The magnetic flux density in vacuum is B  H

B   H

Where ‘  ’ is permeability of free space.

  4 107 H / m

6. Relative permeability: It is the ratio of permeability of medium to the permeability of free space or vacuum


r      r 


7. Intensity of Magnetization or Magnetization (I): The magnetic moment per unit volume of the material is
called the intensity of magnetization. If M is the magnetic moment and V is the volume of the magnet then
the intensity of magnetization is

M
I
V

8. Magnetic Susceptibility: The intensity of magnetization produced in a material is directly

proportional to the magnetizing field H, that is

I
IH or I=χH or 
H

It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization to the magnetic field intensity. It has no units.

Relation between B, H, and I

When a magnetic material is placed in a uniform magnetic field of intensity H, two types of magnetic
induction lines can pass through it.

i. Due to magnetizing field, Bo   o H

ii. Due to the magnetization of the material by induction, B I   o I

The total flux density B will be given by

B  Bo  B I
B  o H  o I
B   o (H  I)

Relation between µr and χ

We know that B   O  r H & B   O (I  H)

 O  r H =  O (I  H)
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

 r =(H+ I)/H   r =1+ χ

Origin of magnetic moment:

The magnetic properties of solids originate from the motion of electrons. These electrons circulate about the
nucleus in definite orbits and also spinning about their own axes. These moving electrons cause the magnetic
moments and the atom behaves as tiny magnet. So, the magnetic moment in an atom is due to

1. Orbital magnetic moment of the electrons

2. Spin magnetic moment of the electrons

3. Spin magnetic moment of the nucleus

1. Orbital magnetic moment of electrons: consider an electron of charge ‘e’ and mass ‘m’ revolving around
the nucleus in an orbit of radius ‘r’ with an angular velocity  as shown in figure. The circumference of the
orbit is 2 r and the area of the orbit is л r2 .

The linear velocity of the electron, v  r

Dis tan ce 2r 2r 2

The time period of the orbit, T    
velocity v r 

e e
The current in the orbit, i  
T 2

The magnetic moment of the electron = current  area

o  i  A

e
=  r2
2

e r 2
o 
2

We know that the angular momentum of the electron, L  mvr  m r 2 

e
Therefore, o   L
2m

the negative sign indicates that the magnetic moment and the angular momentum of the electron are oppositely
directed.

According to the modern atomic theory, the angular momentum of the electron is

ml h
L ; where ml is magnetic orbital quantum number and it has( 2l+1) values and
2
ml = -l….to +l values; ‘h’ is Planck’s constant.

e ml h
Substituting L, the orbital magnetic moment ,  o   
2m 2
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

eh
o    ml
4m

 o    B ml

eh
where  B  is an atomic unit of magnetic moment called the Bohr magneton.
4m

Here e is the charge of electron  1.602 1019 C,

m is the mass of the electron  9.109  1031 kg
h is the Planck’s constant  6.625 1034 J  sec .
Substituting these values we get,  B  9.2731024 ampere  meter2 . This represents the magnetic moment
of elementary permanent magnetic dipole.

2. Spin magnetic moment of the electrons:

The magnetic moment associated with the spin motion of electron is called spin magnetic moment.

e e 1
s   s   ( )
m m 2

eh
s     B
4 m

 The spin magnetic moment is mainly due to unpaired electrons.

 The spin magnetic moment is larger than orbital magnetic moment.
s e
  is called spin gyromagnetic ratio.
s m

3. Spin magnetic moment of the nucleus:

The magnetic moment produced by spin of the nucleus is known as nuclear magnetic moment

eh
N  where mp is mass of proton.
4 m p

 μN is called the nuclear magneton which is very small and is neglected. Its value is 5.05 x10-27 amp-m2.

The net magnetic moment of a atom is μ = μo + μs + μN

μ = μo + μs ( μN is very small value, so it is neglected)

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

Magnetic materials are classified on the basis of their behavior in external magnetic fields and they are

1. Dia magnetic materials.

2. Para magnetic materials.
3. Ferro magnetic materials.
4. Anti ferro magnetic materials.
5. Ferri magnetic materials.
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

PROPERTIES OF DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:

Def: The substances which are weakly magnetized in opposite direction to the applied magnetic field.

1. Diamagnetic materials do not contain permanent dipoles.

2. In these materials, the net magnetic moment is zero because different orientation of different electron
orbits in an atom
3. When an external field is applied, the induced magnetic moment is in opposite direction to the applied

field, i.e., I and H are anti parallel. Hence diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields.
4.
I  -H  I    dia H
I
  dia  -
H

Diamagnetic susceptibility is negative

5. Relative permeability  r of diamagnetic materials is less than unity since
 r  1   dia   r  1 (  dia is negative)
6. Diamagnetic susceptibility  dia is independent of temperature.
7. Examples of diamagnetic materials are hydrogen, air, water, majority of metals like gold, silver, bismuth.

PROPERTIES OF PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Def: The substances which are feebly magnetized in the same direction of the applied magnetic field.

1. Paramagnetic materials contain permanent dipoles.

2. Magnetic moments arising from orbital motion of electrons cause
paramagnetism.
3. In the absence of external magnetic field, there is no net
magnetization due to randomly oriented magnetic moments of the
dipoles.
4. When an external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic moment of the dipoles tend to orient in the field
direction resulting the small net magnetization I parallel to the field H .
I
 I   para H   para 
H

5. Paramagnetic susceptibility is small and positive .(is of the order of 106 )

6. Relative permeability  r is slightly greater than one ( µr >1) Since
 r  1   para .
7. Paramagnetic susceptibility  para is strongly temperature dependent.
1 C
 para    para  Curie’s law.
T T
8. Examples of paramagnetic materials are aluminum, calcium, chromium, manganese, platinum, titanium etc.
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

PROPERTIES OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Def: The substances which are strongly magnetized in the same direction of the applied magnetic field.

1. Ferromagnetic materials posses permanent magnetic dipoles

which are aligned parallel in a particular direction even in the
absence of the applied magnetic field i.e., they exhibit
spontaneous magnetization.

2. Ferromagnetic susceptibility is very large (  ferro

is of the order

of 106 ).

3. Relative permeability  r is very much greater than unity and is of the

order of 103 .

4. Every ferromagnetic material has a characteristic temperature T c

called Curie temperature.

 ferro

C
T  Tc
for T  T C ----- Curie Weiss law

Below T c , the material exhibits spontaneous magnetization and

when the temperature is above T c , the ferromagnetic material
becomes paramagnetic.

5. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit anisotropy i.e., they are high directional.

6. Hysteresis is an important characteristic of Ferromagnetic material.

7. Examples of ferromagnetic substances are iron, cobalt, nickel, Fe2O3, etc.

PROPERTIES OF ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. Antiferromagnetic materials are crystalline materials having small positive value of susceptibility () of the
order of 10-3 to 10-5 .
2. The variation of susceptibility with temperature obeys modified
Curie Weiss law
af = T/( T+TN) for T > TN

3. The material is antiferromagnetic below ‘Neel’ temperature TN.

When T > TN, the material becomes Paramagnetic.

4. In the absence of external magnetic field, the net magnetization in
these materials is zero due to antiparallel alignment of
neighboring dipoles with equal magnetic moments.

5. An antiferromagnetic crystal may be considered to be consisting of two interpenetrating sub lattices

spontaneously magnetized in opposite directions with equal magnitudes.
 UNIT – III Engineering Physics

6. Most of the antiferromagnetic materials are ionic compounds.

7. Examples of antiferromagnetic materials are MnS, Cr2O3, NiCr,
NiO, FeCl2 etc.

PROPERTIES OF FERRI MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. Ferrimagnetism is referred to as uncompensated antiferromagnetism.

2. In these materials, the neighboring magnetic moments are different magnitudes and oriented antiparallel
which makes the net magnetization non zero.
3. A Ferrimagnetic crystal may be considered to be consisting of two interpenetrating sub lattices
spontaneously magnetized in opposite directions having different
magnitudes.

4.  ferri

C
T  TN
for T  TN

5. The Ferrimagnetic materials behave like Ferromagnetic materials below

the Neel temperature and are Paramagnetic above the Neel temperature.
6. Examples are complex Oxides as XOFe2O3, where X is a metal,
Fe2O4,NiFe2O4, PbFe2O9, BaFe12O19 etc.

Hysteresis Loop:

 A typical property of ferromagnetic material is hysteresis.

 Hysteresis may be defined as the lag of magnetization behind the variations of the magnetic field.
 It gives the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density(B) and the magnetizing field(H),often
referred as the B-H loop or I-H loop.

Consider an unmagnetised ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetizing field. When the material is
slowly magnetized and the magnetic flux density (B) increases with increase of magnetizing field (H) initially
through OA & reaches saturation at A. When H is decreased, B decreases but it does not comes to zero at
H=0.The residual flux density (B) set up in the material represented by OB is called Retentivity .To bring B to
zero, opposite magnetizing field is applied. This magnetizing field represented by OC is called Coercivity.
After reaching the saturation level D, when the magnetizing field is reversing, the curve closes to the point A,
completing a cycle. The loop OABCDEFA is called hysteresis loop as shown in above fig.

 The process of magnetization and demagnetization by changing H is an irreversible process as illustrated

by the hysteresis loop.
 UNIT – III Engineering Physics

 The area of the loop gives the loss of energy due to the cycle of magnetization and demagnetization and is
dissipated in the form of heat.
 The retentivity and coercivity of the hysteresis loop are the characteristics of different ferromagnetic
materials.

From the hysteresis loop, the following properties of a magnetic material can be determined.

i) Retentivity: It is the property of magnetic material in which the magnetic flux density remained even after
the applied field is reduced to zero.

ii) Residual flux density ( Br): The magnetic flux density remained inside the material when the applied field
is reduced from saturation to zero is called residual flux density.

iii) Coercivity: It is the property of magnetic material in which the residual magnetic flux density becomes
zero at certain value of reverse magnetic field applied to the material.

iv) Coercive field (Hc): The amount of reverse magnetic field applied to the magnetic material to make the
residual magnetic flux density zero is called coercive field.

Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials:

On the basis of Hysteresis, the magnetic materials can be divided into 2 classes:

1) Soft magnetic materials 2) Hard magnetic materials.

Soft magnetic materials:

Magnetic materials which are easily magnetized and demagnetized are known as soft magnetic materials .They
are also called as permeable materials.

Properties of soft-magnetic materials:

i) They are easily magnetized and demagnetized.

ii) They have small hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis loop area.
iii) These materials have large values of Permeability and susceptibility.
iv) Coercivity and retentivity are small.

Hard magnetic materials: The magnetic materials which cannot easily magnetized and demagnetized are
called hard magnetic materials

Properties of hard magnetic materials:

i) They cannot easily magnetized and demagnetized.

ii) These materials have large hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis loop area.
iii) These materials have small values of permeability and susceptibility.
iv) Coercivity and retentivity are large.

Objective type questions

1. Materials without permanent magnetic dipoles are

a) Paramagnetic b) ferromagnetic c) ferromagnetic d) diamagnetic

2. Diamagnetic susceptibility is
a) Large, negative b) small, positive c) small, negative d) large, positive

3. The unit of magnetic field intensity is

a) Am-1 b) Hm-1 c) Wbm-2 d) no units
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

4. One Bohr magneton equals

a) 9.27x10-2 A.m2 b) 9.1x10-31 A.m2 c) 9.27x10-16 A.m2 d) 9.27x10-24 A.m2

5. The temperature at which of antiferromagnetics turn into paramagnetics is called

a) Curie-Weiss temperature b) Curie temperature
c) Debye temperature d) Neel temperature

6. The transition temperature from the ferromagnetic to the paramagnetic state is named after
a) Curie b) Curie-weiss c) Neel d) Debye

7. The area of hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic material gives

a) the coercive force b) the remenant flux density

c) the intensity of magnetization of the mater d) the energy that is consumed in one cycle
 
8. The potential energy of a dipole with a dipole moment  placed in a magnetic induction is B
       
a)  μ  B b) μ  B c)  μ / B d)  μ . B

9. Spontaneous magnetization is present in

a) diamagnets b) paramagnets c) ferromagnets d) Antiferromagnets

10. The ferromagnetic Curie temperature of iron is

a) 631 K b) 922 K c) 142 K d) 1043 K

11. A conductor carrying current i produce a magnetic field H around it. The field is given by Ampere’s law:
  i
 .d l  i . If the path of integration is a circle of radius r, H 
H
2πr
.
12. Above Curie temperature, the ferromagnetic material exhibits curve in the form of
a) B-H loop b) a straight line c) exponentially increasing magnetization

d) exponentially decreasing curve

M
13. Magnetic susceptibility χm is (i.e., magnetization per unit applied magnetic field).
H
14. χm is dimensionless quantity

15. χ dia is small and negative; it is independent of temperature

16. Diamagnetic materials have no permanent magnetic dipoles

17. Relative permeability μr = 1 + χm

M μ - μ0
18. Magnetic susceptibility χm = ; χm = (μr -1) ; χm =
H μ0

Subjective Questions:

1. Explain magnetic flux density B, magnetic field intensity H, and magnetization M. How are they related to
each other?
2. Define magnetic susceptibility and permeability and obtain the relation between them.
3. Classify magnetic materials and explain their properties.
4. What is Ferro magnetic hysteresis? Explain retentivity and coercivity.
5. Describe the sailent features of ferromagnetic materials.
6. Explain the properties of antiferro and ferromagnetic materials.
7. Give an account of the origin of atomic magnetism. Find the magnetic dipole moments due to
Orbital and spin motion of electrons.
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

8. Define magnetization and show that B = μ0 (H+M).

DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES

Introduction – Dielectric constant – Electronic, ionic and orientational polarization – internal fields –
Clausius – Mossotti equation – Dielectric loss, Breakdown and Strength.

Introduction: Dielectrics are insulating materials. In dielectrics, all the electrons are bound to their parent
molecules and there are no free charges. Even with normal voltage or thermal energy electrons are not
released. Dielectrics are non metallic materials of high specific resistance and have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.

Definitions:

i) Dielectric constant εr

The Dielectric characteristics of a material are determined by the dielectric constant or relative permittivity ε r
of that material. Dielectric constant is the ratio between the permittivity of the medium and the permittivity of
the free space.


r 
0

Since it is a ratio of same quantity, εr has no unit. It is the measure of polarization in the dielectric material.

ii) Electric polarization

Let us consider an atom placed inside an electric field. The centre of positive charge is displaced along the
applied field direction while the centre of negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction. Thus a dipole
is produced. When a dielectric material is placed inside an electric field such dipoles are created in all the
atoms inside. This process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along the field direction is called
polarization in dielectrics.

iii) Polarizability α

When the strength of the electric field E is increased the strength of the induced dipole µ also
increases. Thus the induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity of the electric field
i.e. µ = αE

where α, the constant of proportionality is called polarizability.

Polarizability is defined as induced dipole moment per unit electric field.

iv) Polarization vector p

The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called polarization vector . If P is the
average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of molecules per unit volume the polarization vector

P  N
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

The dipole moment per unit volume of the solid is the sum of all the individual dipole moments within that
volume and is called the polarization of the solid.

v) Electric flux density (or) Electric displacement D: The electric flux density or electric displacement D at
a point in a material is given by

D   o r E

Where E is the electric field strength,  o permittivity of free space (vacuum) and  r is the relative dielectric
constant or relative permittivity of the material.

Relation between and :

The polarization measures the additional flux density arising from the presence of the material as compared to
free space, it has the same units as D and is related to it as

D   o r E

D   o r E   o E   o E

D   o E   o E ( r  1)

D  oE  P

D  oE  P
D   o r E
 o E  P   o r E
P   o  r  1E

Electric flux density D is similar to magnetic induction B in magnetism

vi) Electric susceptibility 

The polarization vector is proportional to the total electric flux density E and is in the same direction of E.
Therefore the polarization vector can be written as

P  oeE where  e   r  1

Where  e is the electric susceptibility.

P    1E
e   o r
 oE oE
 e   r  1

TYPES OF POLARIZATION

1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientational polarization

Electronic polarization The displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the (negatively) electrons of
an atom in opposite directions, on application of an electric field, result in electronic polarization.
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

The Induced dipole moment is proportional to the applied electric field strength and is given by

µαE

µ= αe E

Where αe is the electronic polarizability. This electronic polarizability is independent of temperature.

Calculation of electronic polarizability: αe

Consider a classical model of an atom, the nucleus of chare Ze is surrounded by an electron cloud of charge –
Ze distributed in a sphere of radius R

The charge density  is given by

 Ze  3  Ze 
   
4 3
R 4  R 3 
3

When the external field of intensity E is applied, the nucleus

and the electrons experience Lorentz forces of magnitude ZeE
in opposite direction. Then coulomb force develops between
them, which tends to oppose the displacement. When these
forces are equal and opposite at equilibrium position. Let x be
the displacement between the nucleus and the electron cloud.

Since nucleus is much heavier than the electron cloud it is

assumed that only the electron cloud is displaced when the
external field is applied.

Lorentz force   ZeE

1
Coulomb force = Ze   charge enclosed in the sphere of radius ‘x’
4 0 x 2

4 3
The charge enclosed  x 
3

4   3  Ze 
 x3   3 
3  4  R 

 Zex3

R3

Ze   Zex3  Z 2e2 x
Hence the Coulomb force is    
40 x 2  R 3  40 R 3

At equilibrium position FL = FC
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

Z 2e 2 x
 ZeE  
40 R 3
Zex
E
40 R 3
40 R 3 E
x
Ze

Thus the displacement of the electron cloud is proportional to the applied field.

Induced electric dipole moment is given by

Ze 40 R 3 E
e  Zex 
Ze

e  40 R 3 E
e   e E

Where  e  4 0 R 3 is called electronic polarizability.

The dipole moment per unit volume is called electronic polarization.

Pe  N e  N e E

Where N is the number of atoms/ m3

We know that Pe   0 E ( r  1)  N e E

 0 ( r  1)
Hence e 
N

Calculation of Ionic polarizability : αi

The ionic polarization is due to the displacement of Cations and anions in opposite directions on the
application of the electric field in an ionic solid.

Suppose an electric field is applied in the +ve X direction. The positive ions move to the right by X1 and the
negative ions move to the left by X2.

Assuming that each unit cell has one cation and one anion, the resultant dipole moment per unit cell due to
ionic displacement is given by

µ = е ( x 1 + x2 )
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

If β1 and β2 are restoring force constants of cation and anion and ‘F’ is the force due to the applied field, then

F = β1x1 = β2 x2

Hence x1 = F /β1

Restoring force constants depend upon the mass of the ion and angular frequency of the molecule in which
ions are present.

Then x1 = eE / mω₀²

x2 = eE/ M ω₀²

Where m is the mass of the anion and M is the mass of the cation.

.˙. x1 + x2 = eE/ mω₀² (1/M + 1/m)

and µ = е ( x1 + x2 ) = e²E/ ω₀² (1/M + 1/m)

αі = µ/E = e²/ ω₀² (1/M + 1/m)

Thus the ionic polarizability αі is inversely proportional to the square of the natural frequency of the ionic
molecule.

Calculation of Orientational polarizability : αo

The Orientational polarization is a characteristic of Polar Dielectrics. When an electric field is applied
on molecules which posses permanent dipole moment, they tend to align themselves in the direction of
applied electric field. The polarization due to such alignment is called Orientational polarization.

Diagram:

The potential energy of the dipole U = -μ.E = -μE cosθ

According to Boltzmann statistics, the probability of finding a dipole within the solid angle 0 to π or d is
proportional to the Boltzmann factor
U
 E cos 
f ( )  e KT  f ( )  e KT

The average moment contribution per dipole lying within the solid angle can be determined by integrating
from parallel alignment = 0 to antiparallel alignment = π
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

  E cos 

 e x
KT
d
 o
 E cos 

e
o
KT
d

Where  x   cos  , d  2 sin d ,

  E cos 
  cos e KT
 2 sin  d
 o
  E cos 

e
o
KT
 2 sin  d

E
Let a , t  cos  , dt   sin d .
KT
1
  te at dt
 1
1

e
at
dt
1

By simplifying above integration, we get

 2E

3KT

 2
The Orientational polarizability,  o  
E 3KT

The total polarization

P  Pe  Pi  Po

The total polarizability

  e  i  o

e2  1 1  2
  4 o R 3    
 02  M m  3KT

The total polarization;

 e2  1 1   2 
P  NE  NE 4o R  2    
3

 0  M m  3KT 

This is known as Langevin-Debye equation

Internal Field or Local Field in Dielectric Solid (Lorentz Method):

UNIT – III Engineering Physics

Def: The electric field at an atom site is called Internal field or local field.

Let a dielectric be placed between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and let there be an imaginary spherical
cavity around the atom A inside the dielectric as shown in fig.

Diagram

It is assumed that the radius of cavity is large compared to the radius of atom.The internal field at the atom site
A can be considered as

Ei  E1  E2  E3  E4

Where E1 is electric field intensity at A due to the charge density on the plates.
E 2 is electric field intensity at A due to the charge density induced on the two sides of dielectric.
E 3 is electric field intensity at A due to the dipoles inside the cavity.
E 4 is electric field intensity at A due to the polarizations charges on the surface of the cavity.

Field E1 : E1 is electric field intensity at A due to the charge density on the plates without dielectric.

From the electric displacement we know that

D   0 E1
D
E1 
0
D  P  0E
P  0E P
 E1  E
0 0

Field E2 : E2 is electric field intensity at A due to the charge density induced on the two sides of dielectric.

D   0 E2  P

Here D=0 ( D is not due to induced electric field)

P
E2  
0
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

Field E3 : E3 is electric field intensity at A due to the dipoles inside the cavity. We are assuming a cubic
structure of dielectric so E 3 =0 because of symmetry.

Field E4 : E4 is electric field intensity at A due to the polarization charges on the surface of the cavity and it
was calculated by Lorentz as given below

Diagram:

If dA is the surface area of the sphere of radius r lying between 

and  +d 

Where  is the direction with reference to the direction of applied

field.

Then dA = circumference of the ring x thickness

dA  2 ( PQ )(QR )

PQ
From the triangle PQA sin   PQ  r sin 
r

QR
(from arc AQR) d  QR  rd
r

Hence dA  2 r sin  r d  2 r 2 sin  d

The charge dq on the surface dA is equal to the normal component of the polarization multiplied by the surface
area.

 dq  P cos dA  P(2r 2 sin  cos d )

The field due to this charge at A is denoted by d E 4 in the direction  =0 is

dF dq cos P cos 2 r 2 sin  d cos

dE4   
q 4 0 r 2 4 0 r 2
P
 cos2  sin  d
2 0

Thus the total field E 4 due to the charges on the surface of the entire cavity is obtained by integrating

P
E 4   dE4   cos2  sin  d
2 0 0

P
 
2 0 0
cos2  d ( cos )


 P  cos3  
  
2 0  3  0


P
 1  1  P
6 0 3 0
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

Thus the internal field or local field in dielectric

Ei  E1  E2  E3  E4
P P P
Ei  E   0
0 0 3 0
P
Ei  E 
3 0

This is the expression for internal field or local field.

Clausius – Mosotti relation:

Clausius –Mosotti equation relates the dielectric constant and the Polarizability inside the dielectric.

The dipole moment of an atom inside the dielectric is

=

If there are ‘N’ molecules or atoms per unit volume, then polarization, P=N eEi

⇒ P=

We know that

⇒ P

The above relation is known as Clausius –Mosotti equation.

Dielectric loss

When a dielectric is subjected to the alternating electric field, a certain amount of the electrical energy is
dissipated in the form of heat which is called dielectric loss.

At low frequencies, the dielectric loss is mainly due to dc resistivity and at high frequencies; it is due to dipole
rotations.

On the application of alternating electric field, the dielectric constant becomes complex and can be written as

* = ' - i''

where the real part (') represents the static dielectric constant and the imaginary part ('') represents the
dielectric loss and both are frequency dependent.
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

Dielectric loss is measured in terms of tangent of phase angle (δ) between ' and '' and is given by

Tanδ = ''/'

Dielectric Breakdown

A dielectric material loses its resistivity and permits very large current to flow through it when it is subjected
to a very high electric field, this phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.Different types of dielectric
breakdown are:

a) Intrinsic breakdown
b) Thermal breakdown
c) Discharge breakdown
d) Electrochemical breakdown
e) Defect breakdown.

Intrinsic breakdown

Intrinsic breakdown is due to the excitation of electrons into the conduction band across the energy gap under
the conditions of the excessive voltage.

Thermal breakdown

Thermal breakdown is due to the attainment of an excessive temperature in the dielectric.

Discharge breakdown

If the dielectric gaseous materials are subjected to high voltages, they are easily ionized and produce a large
ionization current causing dielectric breakdown called discharge breakdown.

Electrochemical breakdown

If the temperature of the dielectric material increases, the mobility of ions increases. This increases the leakage
current resulting in the damage of the dielectric called electrochemical breakdown.

Defect breakdown

In general, some dielectric materials may have surface defects like cracks, pores etc. Moisture and other
impurities can get filled up at these places leading to breakdown called defect breakdown.

Dielectric Strength

Dielectric strength is the maximum electric field that the dielectric material can withstand without suffering
electrical breakdown or It is also defined as the breakdown voltage per unit thickness of the dielectric material.

1) Mica has one of the highest dielectric strengths and widely used for insulation purposes.
2) The dielectric strength is the prominent feature in the capacitor design.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. Calculate the electronic polarizability of an argon atom.

Given : ε r  1.0024 and N  2.7  10 25 atoms/m 3

UNIT – III Engineering Physics

Solution: Electronic polarization is given by Pe  N α e E  ε 0 ε r  1 E

ε 0 ε r  1 8.8510-12 0.0024
 αe   F.m 2
N 2.7 10 25

8.85  10 12  2.4  10 3

  7.86  10  40 F.m 2
2.7  10 25

2. A solid elemental dielectric with density 3x1028 atoms/m3 shows an electronic polarizability of 10-40
F.m2 . Assuming the internal electric field to be Lorentz field, calculate the dielectric constant of the
material.

Pe  Nα e E  ε 0 ε r  1E
Solution :

Nα e Nα e
ε r 1  or εr  1
or Nα e  ε 0 ε r  1 or ε0 ε0

Given: N  3 1028 atom/m3 , αe  1040 F.m 2 , ε 0  8.851012 F/m

3  10 28  10 40
 εr  1  1.339.
8.85  10 12

3. NaCl is subjected to an electric field of 1000 V/m and the resulting polarization is 4.3  10 8 C/m 2 .
Calculate relative permittivity of NaCl.

Pi
Solution: Pi  ε 0 ε r  1E or ε r  1 
ε0E

4.3 108
εr  1  4.8
8.851012 1000

4. The radius of helium atom is 0.55. Calculate the electronic polarizability of helium and its relative
permittivity. The number of helium atoms per unit volume is 2.7  10 25 /m 3 .

Solution : The electronic polarizability of He atom is

 e  40 R3

 4 π  8.851012  0.551010   0.1851040 F.m 2

3

We know that

Pe  Nα e E  ε 0 ε r  1E or Nα e  ε 0 ε r  1

or ε r  1  N α e or ε r  1 
Nα e
ε0 ε0

2.7  10 25  0.185  10 40

 εr  1 = 1+ 0.000057=1.000057
8.85  10 12
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

Online Bits
1. The unit for permittivity of free space  0 is
1 1 1
(a) Hm (b) Fm (c) Cm (d) dimensionless

2. The unit for relative permittivity is

1 1 1
(a) Hm (b) Fm (c) Cm (d) dimensionless

3. Choose the correct relation

(a) E   0  r  1P (b) D   0  r  1E (c) P  ε 0 ε r  1E (d)  r    1

4. Choose the correct relation

(a)  e   0  1 (b)  e   r  1 (c) χ e  ε r  1 (d)  e   0   r 

5. Insertion of a dielectric material between the plates of a capacitor

(a) increases the capacitance (b) decreases the capacitance

(c) results in no change in capacitance (d)none of the these

6. In a capacitor of capacitance 10  F, the spacing between the two plates is completely filled with a
dielectric material of permittivity 10. The capacitance

(a) decreases to1  F (b) increases to20  F

(c) increases by 90  F (d) dose not change.

7. Electronic polarization

(a) decreases with increase of temperature (b) increases with temperature

(c) may increase or decrease with temperature (d) is independent of temperature.

8. Choose the correct relation for electronic polarization

 0  r  1 ε 0 ε r  1    1  r  0  1
(a)  e  (b) α e  (c)  e  r 0 (d)  e 
N N N N

9. Ionic polarization

(a) decreases with increase of temperature (b) increases with temperature

(c) may increase or decrease with temperature (d) is independent of temperature.

10. Choose the correct relation for ionic polarization

e2  1 1  e2  1 1 
(a) α i     (b)  i    
ω 0i2  M M   0i  M  M  
2 
UNIT – III Engineering Physics

e2 e2
(c)  i  M   M   (d)  i  M   M  
 02i  02i

11. Orientational polarization

(a) decreases with increase of temperature (b) increases with temperature

(c) may increase or decrease with temperature (d) is independent of temperature.

12. Choose the correct relation for Orientation polarizability

(a)  0   2 K BT (b)  0   2 K BT (c)  0  3K B T /  2 (d) α 0  μ 2 /3K B T

13. Space charge polarization

(a) decreases with increase of temperature (b) increases with temperature

(c) may increase or decrease with temperature (d) is independent of temperature.

14. Expression for internal field (Lorentz field) is given by

P P 3P 3P
(a)  i  E  (b) ε i  E  (c)  i  E  (d)  i  E 
3 0 3ε 0 0 3 0

15. At 102Hz frequency range

(a) only space charge polarization exist (b) only electronic polarization exits

(c) both ionic and orientation polarizations exist (d) all the polarization processes exist.

16. At ~ 1013Hz range

(a) electronic polarization alone is present

(b) ionic polarization exist in addition to electronic polarization

(c) orientational polarization occurs (d) Space charge polarization occurs.

17. Dielectric loss occurs when the dielectric is subjected to

(a) d.c. voltage (b) a.c. voltage (c) both d.c. and a.c. voltages (d) none of these

18. Clausius-Mosotti equation with usual meaning of notations can be written as

r  2  r  1 N e
(a)  N e (b) 
 r 1  r  2 3 0

ε r  1 Nα e  r  1 N 0
(c)  (d) 
ε r  2 3ε 0  r  2 3 0

19. At normal temperatures, the polarizations which are independent of temperature are

(a) electronic and ionic (b) ionic and dipolar

UNIT – III Engineering Physics

(c) dipolar and space charge (d) space charge na electrons

Subjective Questions:

1. Give the relation between E, D and P vectors. Mention the significance of each of these vectors.
2. Define dielectric constant, dielectric susceptibility, and polarizability. Give a relation between them.
3. Explain electronic polarizability, ionic polarizability, and dipolar polarizability with some examples.
4. What is meant by the local field in a dielectric? How it is calculated for a cubic structure?
5. Deduce Clausius-Mossotti relation and explain its significance.
 r| |
6. a) what is dielectric loss? Show that the dielectric loss is given by tan   .
 r|
b) What are the factors that contribute to dielectric loss? Explain each one of them.
7. Explain electronic polarizability. Derive an expression for it and discuss its frequency dependence.
8. Explain ‘’dielectric loss’’ and dielectric heating ".