Chapter Six

Magnetic Materials
History

• Magnetic force is one of the oldest physical phenomena that human knows.
• The story of magnetism and magnetic materials begins with minerals called ‘Magnetite
(Fe3O4).
• Hematite (Fe2O3) the first magnetic minerals known to man.
• Its power of attracting iron was known for centuries before Christ.
• Magnetic ores were found in Magnesia, the name of a region of the ancient Middle East,
in what is now Turkey and the word ‘magnet’ owes its origin to this fact.

Definition

• Magnetism, the phenomenon by which materials assert an attractive or repulsive force or

influence on other materials.
• Magnetism is a force that arises due to the motion of electric charges.
• All materials without exception are magnetic some are strongly magnetic and some are
very weakly magnetic.
• By, magnetic, it is meant, the ability of a material to respond to an external magnetic field,
or in other words, the degree to which a material can be magnetized.
• Nowadays, magnetic materials have greatly influenced our daily lives.
• Many of our modern technological devices rely on magnetism and magnetic materials;
these include electric motors, electrical power generators and transformers.
• Magnetic materials have found wide use for storing information as magnetic recording
tapes, computer disks and credit cards.

Some Terminologies in Magnetism

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Magnetic Field

• The space around a magnet, where magnetic force can be felt, is called a magnetic field.
• This field can be represented by drawing lines, called magnetic lines of forces.
• A line of force in a magnetic field is a line, straight or curved, the tangent to which at any
point gives the direction of the magnetic field, at that point.
• Magnetic field can be produced by different sources.
• Produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic currents in wires, or microscopic
currents associated with electrons in atomic orbits.
• Magnetic field sources are essentially dipolar in nature, having a north and south magnetic
pole. The SI unit for magnetic field is the Tesla.
• A smaller magnetic field unit is the Gauss (1 Tesla = 10,000 Gauss).
• The interaction of magnetic field with charge leads to many practical applications.

Intensity of magnetization: It is magnetic moment per unit volume.

Magnetic Field Strength or Magnetic Field Intensity (H)

• Magnetic field intensity (H): Magneto motive force per unit length of the magnetic circuit.
It is also called magnetic field strength or magnetizing force. (A-turns/m).
• It is the externally applied magnetic field.
• H describes field outside the material.
• Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field is the force experienced by a unit
North Pole placed at a given point in a magnetic field. Its unit is A/m.

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 • If the magnetic field is generated by means of a cylindrical coil (or solenoid) consisting of
N closely spaced turns, having a length L, and carrying a current of magnitude I, then
H = NI/L

Magnetic induction (or) Magnetic flux density (B)

• Magnetic flux density (B): Magnetic flux per unit area at right angles to the direction of
flux. (Wb/𝑚2).
• Magnetic induction or magnetic flux density in any material is the number of magnetic
lines of force passing normally through unit area. The units are w/m2 or Tesla.
• B represents the magnitude of the internal field strength within a substance that is subjected
to an H field. Mathematically B can be represented as
B = ɸ/A ɸ is the magnetic flux and A is area

Magnetic permeability (μ)

• The ability of a material to conduct magnetic flux through it. (H/m).
• Permeability describes the nature of the material i.e.; it is a material property.
• It is the ease with which the material allows magnetic lines of force to pass through it or
the degree to which magnetic field can penetrate a given medium is called its permeability.
• Mathematically permeability is equal to the ratio of the magnetic induction B inside the
material to the applied magnetics intensity H. Its units are H/m.
µ = B/H
• The value of permeability of free space or μo = 4π x 10-7 H/m.

Relative Permeability (μr)

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 • Relative permeability: The ratio of flux density produced in a material to the flux density
produced in vacuum by the same magnetizing force.
• It is defined as the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space
i.e. μr = µ/ μo
• The magnetic field strength and flux density are related according to B = µ H.
• The above equation for vacuum can be written as Bo = µo H.

Magnetic flux (Φ):

• The total no of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field (unit-Weber).

Magnetization

• Magnetization: The process of converting a nonmagnetic material to a magnetic material.

• Magnetization refers to the process of converting a non-magnetic sample into a magnetic
sample.
• The Intensity of magnetization (M or I) is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume in
a material. Its unit is A/m.
• It is totally depending on the nature of material. Magnetization of a material is proportional to
the magnetic field intensity applied i.e., M is proportional to H.

Magnetic susceptibility (χ)

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• Magnetic Susceptibility is the ratio of intensity of magnetization produced in the sample to the
magnetic field intensity which produces magnetization. It has no units.
• Susceptibility describes the nature of the material i.e.; it is a material property.
• It the ease with which a magnetic material can be magnetized by the magnetizing force.
• The magnetic susceptibility of a material is the ratio of intensity of magnetization (M) inside
the material to the magnetizing field (H).
χ = M/H

• The first term on the right side of the above equation is due to the external field and the second
term is due to the magnetization. Thus, the magnetic induction (B) in a solid is

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6.1 Macroscopic characterization of magnetic Materials
The macroscopic magnetic properties of materials are a consequence of magnetic moments
associated with individual electrons. The fundamental reason for the response of a material to an
external magnetic field is that the atoms possess magnetic moments. That is, atom acts like a tiny
magnet. The magnetic properties of solids originate due to the motion of electrons. There are two
types of electron motions: orbital and spin motion. There are three sources that contribute to
atomic magnetic moment:

• Orbital magnetic moment: Magnetic moment due to the moment of electrons in orbits around
the nucleus, i.e., due to orbital angular momentum.
• Spin magnetic moment due to electron: Magnetic moment due to spin of the electrons, i.e.,
due to spin angular momentum of electron.
• Spin magnetic moment due to nucleus (Nuclear magnetic moment): Magnetic moment due
to spin of the nucleus, i.e., due to spin angular momentum of nucleus.

The contribution due to spin angular moment of the nucleus i.e., nuclear magnetic moment is very
small (the magnitude of nuclear magnetic moment is 10-3 times that of electronic magnetic
moment) and so their interaction with the external field is masked by the interaction of the
electronic magnetic moment so, it is always neglected.

6.2 Magnetic dipole moment

Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic materials, which, in some respects, are analogous
to electric dipoles. Magnetic dipoles may be thought of as small bar magnets composed of north
and south poles instead of positive and negative electric charges. Magnetic dipoles are influenced
by magnetic fields in a manner similar to the way in which electric dipoles are affected by electric
fields. Within a magnetic field, the force of the field itself exerts a torque that tends to orient the
dipoles with the field. A familiar example is the way in which a magnetic compass needle lines up
with the earth’s magnetic field.

Classification of magnetic materials

• Diamagnetic–materials which lack permanent dipoles are called diamagnetic.

• Paramagnetic–if the permanent dipoles do not interact among themselves, the material is
paramagnetic.

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• Ferromagnetic–if the interaction among permanent dipoles is strong such that all the dipoles
line up in parallel, the material is ferromagnetic.
• Antiferromagnetic–if the permanent dipoles line up in anti-parallel direction, the material is
antiferromagnetic.
• Ferrimagnetic–anti parallel with un equal magnitude.

Diamagnetic Materials

• No permanent dipoles are present so net magnetic moment is zero.

• Dipoles are induced in the material in presence of external magnetic field.

• The magnetization becomes zero on removal of the external field.

• Magnetic dipoles in these substances tend to align in opposition to the applied field.

• Hence, they produce an internal magnetic field that opposes the applied field and the substance
tends to repel the external field around it.

• This reduces the magnetic induction in the specimen.

• Magnetic susceptibility is small and negative.

• Relative permeability is less than one.

• It is present in all materials, but since it is so weak it can be observed only when other types of
magnetism are totally absent.

• Ex: Gold, water, mercury, B, Si, P, S, ions like Na+, Cl-and their salts, di atoms like H2, N2,

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They repel the magnetic lines of force. The existence of this behavior in a diamagnetic material is
shown.

Paramagnetic Materials

• If the orbitals are not completely filled or spins are not balanced, an overall small magnetic
moment may exist.

• The magnetic dipoles tend to align along the applied magnetic field and thus re in force the
applied magnetic field.

• Such materials get feebly magnetized in the presence of a magnetic field i.e. The material allows
few magnetic lines of force to pass through it.

• The magnetization disappears as soon as the external field is removed.

• The magnetization (M) of such materials was discovered by Madam Curie and is dependent on
the external magnetic field (B) and temperature T as:

χ = 𝐶/𝑇 where, C = Curie Constant

• The orientation of magnetic dipoles depends on temperature and applied field.

• Relative permeability μr>1.

• Susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic field and depends on temperature.

• Susceptibility is small and positive.

• These materials are used in lasers.

• Ex: Liquid oxygen, sodium, platinum, salts of iron and nickel, rare earth oxides.

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Ferro Magnetic Materials

• They exhibit strongest magnetic behavior.

• Permanent dipoles are present which contributes a net magnetic moment.

• Possess spontaneous magnetization because of interaction between dipoles.

• Origin for magnetism in Ferromagnetic materials are due to Spin magnetic moment. All spins are
aligned parallel & in same direction.

• When placed in external magnetic field it strongly attracts magnetic lines of force.

• The domains re orient themselves to re in force the external field and produce a strong internal
magnetic field that is along the external field.

• Most of the domains continues to be aligned in the direction of the magnetic field even after
removal of external field.

• Thus, the magnetic field of these magnetic materials persists even when the external field
disappears.

• This property is used to produce Permanent magnets.

• Transition metals, iron, cobalt, nickel, neodymium and their alloys are usually highly ferro
magnetic and are used to make permanent magnets.

• Susceptibility is large and positive; it is given by Curie Weiss Law;

χ = 𝐶/𝑇−θ where, C is Curie constant & θ is Curie temperature.

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• When temperature is greater than Curie temperature then the material gets converted into
paramagnetic.

• They possess the property of Hysteresis.

Domain theory of ferromagnetic materials:

• A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material in which the magnetization is in a

uniform direction.
• Ferromagnetic materials tend to form magnetic domains.
• Each domain is magnetized in a different direction.
• Applying a field changes domain structure. Domains with magnetization in direction of field
grow. (Domain growth).
• Domain structure minimizes energy due to stray fields.

Domain theory of ferromagnetic materials:

• Domains with magnetization in the direction of field grow while other domains shrink.
• Applying very strong fields can saturate magnetization by creating single domain. (Domain
rotation).

Un-magnetized Magnetized by domain growth Magnetized by domain rotation

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Hysteresis:

• The property of Ferro Magnetic materials which gives the relation between Magnetization and
the strength of Magnetic field is called Hysteresis.
• The magnetization of the specimen increases from zero to higher values and attains its
maximum value at a point referred to as Saturation Magnetization.
• When we further increase Magnetic field H there is no further increment in Magnetic moment.
• When we decrease Magnetic field H to Zero, the Magnetization M attains point Q referred to
as Residual Magnetization, Mr.
• Further if we change the Magnetic field from zero to negative values, the Magnetization of
material becomes zero at a point R, where magnetic field Hc is referred as Coercivity of the
specimen.
• If we increase Magnetic field H in reverse direction Magnetization of material reaches its peak
value at a points S.
• The area of loop indicates the amount of energy wasted in one cycle of operation.
• Hysteresis loop-The loop traced out by magnetization in a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
materials the magnetic field is cycled.

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Anti Ferro Magnetic Materials

• The spin alignment is in antiparallel manner.

• Susceptibility is small and positive and it depends on temperature.

• Initially susceptibility increases with increase in temperature and beyond Neel temperature the
susceptibility decreases with temperature.

• The antiparallel alignment exists in material below a critical temperature known as Neel
temperature.

• At Neel temperature susceptibility is maximum.

• Susceptibility, χ = 𝐶/𝑇+θ

• Examples: Mn, Cr, FeO, MnO, Cr2O3 and salts of transition elements.

Ferri Magnetic Materials

• The spin alignment is antiparallel but have different magnitude.

• So, they possess net magnetic moment which produce a large magnetization even for a small
applied external field.

• It is also called ferrites.

• Susceptibility is very large and positive.

• Examples: ferrous ferrite, nickel ferrite.

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Comparison

Spins Alignment in Different Magnetic Materials

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• A periodic table showing the type of magnetic behavior of each element at room temperature.

6.2 Spontaneous magnetization and the Curie Weiss law

6.2.1 Spontaneous magnetization:
Spontaneous magnetization is magnetization that occurs in the state in which a magnetic body has
its atomic magnetic moments aligned without being affected by an external magnetic field. This is
magnetization that occurs in the state in which a magnetic body has its atomic magnetic moments
aligned without being affected by an external magnetic field. Normally magnetic bodies have a
magnetic domain structure and it is observed that spontaneous magnetization does not occur, but
spontaneous magnetization is measured in single crystals and other single domain states. For a
strongly magnetic body. Spontaneous magnetization is maximum at absolute zero degrees. As the
temperature rises, the magnetic moment of each atom decreases due to heat fluctuation and it
disappears at the curie temperature.

6.2.2 Cure Weiss law

• The Curie–Weiss law describes the magnetic susceptibility χ of ferromagnetic materials at

temperatures above the Curie point:

χ = 𝐶/𝑇−𝑇𝑐
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where, C = Material specific Curie constant, T= Absolute temperature, Tc= Curie temperature in
Kelvin.

• As temperature increases the magnetism of a ferromagnetic material decreases.

• The random thermal motion destroys the ordering of spins.

• For temperatures above the Curie temperature, the long-range order of spin is lost and only a
short-range order exists.

• Curie-Weiss Law Limitation;

o The Curie-Weiss law holds false in many materials.

o Instead, there is a critical behavior of the form. χ ∼1/(𝑇−𝑇𝑐) γ
o At temperature T ≫Tc, the expression of the law still holds true. But, 𝑇𝑐 will be replaced
by temperature (θ) higher than the Curie temperature.

6.3 Domain movement in external magnetic field

6.3.1 Magnetic Domains

The magnetic moments of atoms dictate the magnetic properties of a material. In ferromagnetic
materials, long range alignments of magnetic moments, called domains, contain magnetic
moments that all point in the same direction. However, if a material were to have all of its magnetic
moments pointed in the same direction, this would create a very large external magnetic field. This

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field is not energetically minimizing as it stores large amounts of magnetostatic energy in the field.
Thus, for the system to minimize its internal energy, it must minimize the external field produced.
To do this, the material creates different domains within itself to redirect the magnetic field. The
regions in-between these domains are known as domain walls. This magnetic domain theory for
ferromagnetic was first proposed by Pierre-Ernest Weiss in 1906. Interactions of a material's
exchange interaction, magneto crystalline anisotropy, and minimization of external magnetic field
determine the domain structure of a material.

6.4 Magnetic losses, Complex permeability

The term magnetic losses apply to the energy dissipation taking place in a material when exposed
to an alternate magnetic field. However, depending on the properties of the material, there can be
two (quite different) ways by which the energy dissipation can take place:

1. Eddy current losses: refers to the energy dissipated by free electrical charges (typically the
electrons in a metallic material). These charges are set in movement (by Faraday’s Law) under
alternate magnetic fields and produce electrical currents that dissipate energy by Ohm’s Law.

2. Magnetic losses: refer to the energy dissipated when the alternate magnetic field acts on a ferro-
or ferrimagnetic material, rotating its atomic magnetic moments and therefore making magnetic
work on the material. The work per cycle is numerically identical to the area within the magnetic
hysteresis loop in a B-H graph.

Therefore, when a magnetic material is subject to a time-varying external field H(t), the
mechanisms of energy dissipation taking place will depend on whether the material is metallic,
magnetic, or both.

Complex permeability?

6.5 Hard and soft magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are classified in terms of their magnetic properties and their uses. If a material
is easily magnetized and demagnetized then it is referred to as a soft magnetic material, whereas
if it is difficult to demagnetize then it is referred to as a hard (or permanent) magnetic material.
Materials in between hard and soft are almost exclusively used as recording media and have no
other general term to describe them. Other classifications for types of magnetic materials are
subsets of soft or hard materials, such as magneto strictive and magneto resistive materials.
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6.5.1 Hard magnetic materials

Properties:

• These magnetic materials cannot be easily magnetized and demagnetized, but they can be
permanently magnetized.

•The reason is that the domain walls are motion less owing to crystal defects and imperfections.

• Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis loop area.

• These are used to make permanent magnets.

• High remnant magnetization.

• The shape of BH loop is nearly rectangle.

• Small initial permeability.

• Relatively low permeability and susceptibility.

• These materials have high Coercivity and retentivity. Hence, cannot be easily magnetized and
demagnetized.

• High magnetizing force is required to attain magnetic saturation.

• Eg: Alnico alloy, Copper nickel iron alloy, Copper nickel cobalt alloy.

Applications:

• Hard magnetic materials (such as carbon steel, tungsten steel, cobalt steel and hard ferrites) have
large hysteresis loop area and consequently large energy loss per cycle of magnetization and are
used in making all kinds of instruments and devices requiring permanent magnets.

Various other applications are;

• Automotive: motor drives for fans, wipers, injection pumps, starter motors, Control for seats,
windows etc.

• Tele communication: Microphones, Loud Speakers, Telephone Ringers etc.

• Consumer electronics: Home computers, Clocks, DC Motors for showers etc.

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• Electronic and instrumentation: Energy Meter Disc, Sensors, Dampers etc.

• Industrial: Lifting apparatus, Robotics, Meters etc.

• Astro and aerospace: Auto-compass, Couplings, Instrumentation etc.

• Bio surgical: NMR/MRI body scanner, Wound Closures etc. data processing: Printers, Stepping
Motors, Disc Drives and Actuators.

Examples:

• Steel: Carbon steel have large hysteresis loop. It is used in making magnets for toys and in certain
types of measuring meters. Due to any shock or vibration, they lose their magnetic properties
rapidly.

• Tungsten steel, chromium steel and cobalt steel have high energy product.

• Alnico: It is made up of aluminum, nickel and cobalt. Alnico 5 is the most important material
used to create permanent magnet. It is used in high temperature operation

• Rare-Earth Alloys: SmCo5, Sm2Co17, NdFeB etc.

• Hard Ferrites or Ceramic magnets (like Barium Ferrites): These materials can be powdered and
used as a binder in plastics. The plastics made by this method are called plastic magnet.

• Bonded Magnets: It is used in DC motors, Stepper motors etc.

• Nano crystalline hard magnet (Nd-Fe-B Alloys): The small size and weight of these material
make it suitable for use in medical devices, thin motors etc.

6.5.2 Soft magnetic materials

Properties:

•These magnetic materials can be easily magnetized and demagnetized, but they cannot be
permanently magnetized

• Less energy is required to magnetize and demagnetize a soft magnetic material.

• These are used to make electromagnets.

• Eg: Iron silicon alloys, Ferrous nickel alloy, Iron-cobalt alloys, Ferrite and garnets
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• Low Hysteresis loss and low coercivity.

• These materials have large values of permeability and susceptibility.

Applications:

• Soft magnetic materials have relatively small and narrow hysteresis loop and hence small energy
loss per cycle of magnetization. They are widely used for the construction of cores of electrical
rotating machines, transformers, and for making electro-magnets, reactors, relays.

• Soft magnetic materials are mostly used where changing magnetic flux is associated, such as
magnetic core of electric motors, alternators, DC generators, electrical transformers, protective
relays, inductors.

• Used for making a path for flux in permanent magnetic motors.

• Used for magnetic shielding, electromagnetic pole-pieces, to activate the solenoid switch.

• Permanent magnet uses soft magnetic material to make a path for flux lines.

Examples:

• Nickel Iron Alloys-It is used in communication equipment such as audio transformer, recording
heads and magnetic modulators. Since it has high initial permeability in feeble fields, low
hysteresis and low eddy current losses.

• Grain oriented sheet steel: used to make transformer cores.

• Mu-metal: used in miniature transformers meant for circuit applications.

• Ceramic magnets: used for making memory devices for microwave devices and computer.

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Comparison between soft and hard magnetic materials

6.8 Manufacturing of magnetic materials

There are several processes for making magnets, but the most common method is called Powder
Metallurgy. In this process, a suitable composition is pulverized into fine powder, compacted and
heated to cause densification via “liquid phase sintering”. Therefore, these magnets are most often
called sintered magnets. Ferrite, Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and neodymium-iron-boron (neo)
magnets are all made by this method. Unlike ferrite, which is a ceramic material, all of the rare
earth magnets are metal alloys.

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