SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Step 1 – Making observations and asking a question

We are all aware of puzzling things in the world around us. The scientific process starts with a
question about something that has been observed that is unknown or unclear.

Example
Question: Does the length of a person’s thigh muscles have an effect on the distance that he or
she can jump?

Step 2 – Formulating a hypothesis

A scientist should first do some background reading on the topic, to find out what is already
known. Based on what is already known, the scientist formulates a hypothesis in an attempt to
answer the question. The hypothesis should be testable by experimentation. A hypothesis is a
statement of what the scientist expects to find in an investigation. It states the expected result.

Example
Hypothesis: People with longer thigh muscles can jump further than people with shorter thigh
muscles.

HYPOTHESIS: Do not make your hypothesis too specific, it should be a general

statement. E.g. If you are doing an investigation to see what the effect of temperature is
on the rate of photosynthesis, do not say: The maximum rate of photosynthesis will be at
250C.

You should say: Temperature will have an effect on the rate of photosynthesis. OR
The rate of photosynthesis will increase with increasing temperature.

Step 3 – Making a prediction

A logical inference drawn from the hypothesis is used to generate a prediction. A prediction is
made using deductive reasoning. This means that the experimenter moves from the general to
the specific to test the hypothesis using ‘if … then …’ logic. If the hypothesis is true and an
investigation is done to test it, then one would expect a certain result.

Example
If the hypothesis is true and three groups of people are tested – one group with long muscles, one
with medium – length muscles and one with short muscles – then the group with the longest
muscles will jump the furthest, the medium length group will jump the next longest distance and
the group with the shortest muscles will jump the shortest distance.

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 Step 4 – Designing an investigation

Planning steps that the investigators have to take before carrying out the investigation
- this would obviously depend on the investigation. But some general planning steps would
include the following:

 Decide on a time/ place/ date to conduct the investigation.

 Decide on apparatus/ materials that need to be used.
 Decide on how to record data
 Advertise volunteers to participate (if relevant)
 Decide on the number of participants to include (if relevant)
 Decide on which factors to keep constant.

In order to test the hypothesis, a scientist must design an investigation. The aim of the
investigation states what the investigation is trying to prove.

Example
Aim: To determine whether the length of a person’s thigh muscles affects the distance he or she
can jump.

AIM: Always starts with the word ‘To’, e.g. To investigate…, To determine …

Usually, the investigation sets out to demonstrate a relationship between two variables.

Variables: A variable is any condition or factor that could affect the investigation. There are three
main types of variables:

 The manipulated variable or independent variable: this is the factor that the experimenter
deliberately changes or sets during an investigation to find out what effect it will have. Only
one factor should be manipulated or investigated in an investigation at a time. If more than
one factor is involved, it becomes difficult to identify what is causing the change in the
responding variable. The independent variable appears on the X – axis of a graph.
 The responding variable or dependent variable: This is the factor that is monitored or
measured during the investigation to see how it is affected when the independent variable
changes. The dependent variable is usually measured in some way and appears on the
Y – axis of a graph.
 Fixed variables: These are any other factors that might affect the investigation. These
factors need to be kept constant during the investigation. These could be conditions such
as light, temperature and humidity.

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Example

Independent variable: the length of the thigh muscle. The experimenter could choose to test
three groups of people – one with long thigh muscles, one with medium-length thigh muscles and
one with short thigh muscles.

Dependent variable: The length of the jump as measured by the experimenter.

Fixed variables: The number of people tested in each group, the age of the people tested, their
gender, the surface on which they jump, the type of shoes (or whether they wear any shoes at all),
the way the jump is performed and so on.

FIXED VARIABLES can also be called CONTROLLED VARIABLES. Make sure you can also explain
how to keep these variables constant. E.g. if you want different plants in your experiment to be subjected to
the same amount of light and temperature, put the plants in the same place in your garden. Or place all plants
in a glasshouse under the same light and temperature conditions.

Before starting an investigation, the investigator needs to decide how to test the hypothesis. An
investigation planner should be prepared to include the following:

Apparatus: Make a list of all the materials or chemicals to be used and all the samples or subjects
to be studied. Collect these items so that the investigation can run smoothly once you begin.

Time sheet: Draw up an investigation timetable. Work backwards from the time that the process
needs to be completed, and allow time for:

♦ carrying out the procedure and for repeating the investigation, if possible, to check the
results (also allow time for unforeseen setbacks or problems).
♦ writing up your results or report.

Method: Think of different ways to test the hypothesis and then select the most suitable method,
depending on what resources and facilities are available. Write down the procedure to be followed
step-by-step (like a recipe). Explain the method clearly enough for someone else to carry out the
same investigation from your instructions.

The investigator should:

► only test or change one independent variable during the investigation

► decide how the dependent variable will be measured
► keep other variables that may affect the procedure constant
► ensure that the sample being tested is large enough.

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Most investigations require a control (another test carried out in exactly the same way as the
experiment except that no variables are changed or if the independent variable was eliminated).
The control is then used as a standard for comparison to see what would have happened if
nothing had been changed or if the independent variable was eliminated.

Example
In an experiment to investigate the effect of compost on the growth of a group of plants, the control
would be a second group of plants treated in exactly the same way but without the compost.

CONTROL:

What is the purpose of a control in any investigation? – As a means of

comparison to verify the results of the experiment

How does one set up a control in any investigation? – Set up in exactly the
same way as the experiment, but remove the factor you are testing for.

Step 5 – Conducting the investigation

Carry out the investigation and carefully observe, measure and record the results.

Step 6 – Processing and analysing the results

Raw data collected during the investigation must be processed and analysed. A table is a useful
way of organising data. Prepare the table before making the observations.

Step 7 – Assessing or evaluating the experimental procedure

The experimental procedure should be evaluated during the investigation and again at the end of
the process. When evaluating an investigation, an investigator needs to do a ‘reality check’. This
can be done by comparing the prediction (which is theory-based) with the observations or actual
results (which are reality-based).

In attempting to explain differences, problems and sources of the errors encountered, the
investigator should ask the following questions about the experimental procedure:

 What could or should be done differently if the experiment were to be repeated?

 What would help to improve the reliability of the results?
 Were all the other variables kept constant?
 Were the correct safety precautions followed?
 What further research needs to be done?

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 HOW CAN THE RELIABILITY OF THE EXPERIMENT BE
IMPROVED?
Reliability is increased by certain factors in the experimental
design to ensure that the same results will be generated by
other investigators that perform the same investigation under
the same set of conditions.

The following ways can improve the reliability, depending on

the nature of the investigation:

 Repeat the investigation

 Take many readings and use the average
 Increase the sample size
 Increase the period of the investigation

How can the VALIDITY of the investigation be improved?

An investigation is said to be valid if it can show that the dependent variable was
influenced by the independent variable only and no other variable.

To achieve this, ensure that all the factors in the investigation are kept constant except the
factor being tested (independent variable). The factors that must be kept constant, are
called CONTROLLED VARIABLES OR FIXED VARIABLES. (See bottom of p.2)

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 PRECAUTIONS: These will depend on your experiment.
These include things that you MUST or MUST NOT do to ensure that you get
the desired results.

E.g. Make sure all the cells in the plant are fully turgid before doing a
transpiration experiment.

E.g. Food Tests: Do not mix up different food types / do not use utensils
contaminated with other food types or you will get an incorrect result.

Step 8 – Drawing conclusions

Based on the results, conclusions may be made. An inference is something you deduce or
understand from results. From these inferences, conclusions may be drawn. The investigator
should give reasons for the conclusions that are reached.

These conclusions allow the investigator to either support or not support the hypothesis.

If the results do not support the hypothesis, it does not mean that the experiment was a failure.
The investigator will have learnt much from the investigation, and will then know what further
research should be done.

CONCLUSION: Structure your conclusion out as follows: Since ….(state

what happened) it can be concluded that …

E.g. Since the enzyme pepsin functions best in pH3 and is inactive at pH 8
and a neutral pH (water), it can be concluded that pepsin works best in
acid conditions.

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Interpolation (from a graph)

Line graphs can also be used to find values that were not measured in an investigation
e.g. if an investigation measured the rate of photosynthesis at different light intensities of 0,
200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 (FT-C) and these results are plotted on a line graph, then
it is possible to read off the estimated rate of photosynthesis at 700(FT-C). This is known as
interpolation. In order to read off this value, a vertical line must be drawn from 700 (FT-C) on
the X axis to the line graph. A second, horizontal line must be drawn from the point of
intersection on the line graph, to the Y axis, from where the value is read.

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Extrapolation

The line of a line graph can also be extended to predict a value beyond the range of
plotted points. This is known as extrapolation. The line should be extended smoothly, at
the same angle and as a dotted line.

An extrapolation of a graph of the population of impala in a reserve could be used to predict

what the population could be in 2 years’ time.

Note: while values extrapolated might be accurate, they might also be inaccurate.

e.g. if there was a drought in the region, the impala population of the reserve would be quite
different to the value extrapolated.

Extrapolated, D

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Flow Chart showing a method for scientific investigation

OBSERVATION sparks interest

ASK a question

HYPOTHESIS suggests an answer

To design an EXPERIMENT

LIST all variables

Choose manipulated
(INDEPENDENT) variable

Choose responding (DEPENDENT)

variable

Keep all other Keep manipulated

variables fixed and all other
variables fixed

Carry out Carry out

EXPERIMENT CONTROL

Obtain RESULTS

HYPOTHESIS REJECTED
HYPOTHESIS ACCEPTED

NEW OBSERVATION

Ayerst, .P.W. (!989). Data response exercises in Biology. Pietermaritzburg; Shuter and Shuter.

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How to determine true size of an object in µm when the magnification is given.
Look at the micrograph of a nucleus. (CHECK MEASUREMENTS)

1. Notice it has been magnified 4 500x. This means that it has

been enlarged 4 500 times.
2. If you measure the diameter i.e. the length from one side to
the other through the middle, it is 64 mm.
3. Now convert the measurement from mm to µm by
multiplying it by 1 000. i.e. 64 mm x 1 000 = 64 000 µm.
4. To get the true size, divide 64 000 µm by the magnification,
i.e. 4 500.
5. The true/actual size, in µm, will therefore be 14,22 µm.
6. The formula to use is therefore:

True/actual size = measured size x 1 000

Magnification 4 500x

7. Note: If asked to calculate the size in mm:

Use the formula: Size = Measured size

Magnification

How to determine true size of an object in µm when a scale line is given.

Look at the micrograph of a chloroplast.

1. Note the scale line on the micrograph.

2. Measure the length of the scale line
(= 15 mm).
3. This means that 15 mm = 1,5 µm.
4. Measure the width of the chloroplast.
It is about 27/28 mm. 1,5µm
1,5µm
5. Apply the formula:

True size = Measured size/width x true length of scale line

Measured length of scale line

= 27/28 mm x 1,5 µm
15 mm

= 2,7/2,8 µm
(NOTE: ROUND OFF TO TWO DECIMAL PLACES)

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Exercise: An investigation was carried out to determine wether carbon dioxide affects the growth
of seedlings.

Investigation A: Bag contains Investigation B: Bag that contains air

normal air with extra carbon dioxide added

Apparatus to find out whether carbon dioxide affects the growth of seedlings

Table 1 The results of the experiment to find out if carbon dioxide affects the growth of seedlings

Group 1 2 3 4
Average length of seedlings in Investigation A (cm) 4,5 7,5 3,6 5,0
Average length of seedlings in Investigation B (cm) 7,0 7,5 6,8 8,3

a) Identify the independent variable.

b) Identify the dependent variable

c) Name three factors that the learners must keep constant during their investigation.

d) Which investigation, A or B, is the control?

e) Calculate the average length of the seedlings for the two investigations. Use all the results
in Table 1 to do your calculations.

f) Name the type of graph you would use to show the average lengths that you calculated in
question (e).

g) Draw a graph using the averages you calculated for each investigation. Plot the averages
against the composition of the air.

h) Draw a conclusion from the results of this investigation.

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Study the table below and match the words in column A with the correct description in
column B.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. An investigation is done A. Thinking up possible answers to questions and
then doing tests to see if the answers are correct
2. Observations & B. A second investigation, done for purposes of
measurements comparison, is carried out in exactly the same
way except for the factor being tested
3. A conclusion C. Any factor that may affect the investigation
4. Scientific method involves D. Saying what might happen in the future
5. Aim E. Give us the results of an investigation
6. Control F. Drawings, tables or graphs
7. A hypothesis G. What the investigator is trying to prove
8. A variable H. To answer a question
9. Ways of recording data I. A judgement reached by reasoning based on the
data collected and observations made during the
investigation
10. A prediction J. States what the investigator expects to find

SUGGESTED ANSWERS:

a) The air/gas in the bag (1)

b) The length of the seedlings (1)
c) Any three: the amount of water; temperature; light; type of plant; age of plants; type of soil
(3)
d) A (1)
e) Investigation A: (4,5+7,5+3,6+5,0)/4 = 20,6 / 4 = 5,15 ≈ 5,2cm
Investigation B: (7,0+7,5+6,8+8,3)/4 = 29,6 / 4 = 7,4cm (2)
f) Bar graph (1)

g) Marks will be awarded for:

● suitable heading above the graph which mentions BOTH variables

● suitable label on X- and Y-axis
● include units on X- and Y-axis
● suitable scale for X- and Y-axis
● bars drawn accurately with a ruler
● space between the bars for a bar graph
● draw a key if required

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 The average length of seedlings in normal air
and air with extra carbon dioxide
Average length of seedlings (cm) 8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
InvestigationA A
Experiment with Investigation
with Experiment BBwith
with
normal air extra carbon dioxide

Air composition around the plants

h) Since the average length of the seedlings was greater with extra carbon dioxide that in
normal air, it can be concluded that carbon dioxide stimulates the growth of seedlings.

ANSWERS TO MATCHING:

1. H
2. E
3. I
4. A
5. G
6. B
7. J
8. C
9. F
10. D

(From Kagiso Senior Secondary Life Sciences Grade 10 and 11)

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 INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES: EXAMPLES TO TRY

Identify the independent and dependent variables in the following studies.

1. A group of college students were given a short course in speed-reading.

The instructor was curious if a monetary incentive would influence performance on a reading test taken at
the end of the course. Half the students were offered $5 for obtaining a certain level of performance on
the test, the other half were not offered money.

Independent variable: Dependent variable:

2. A social psychologist thinks that people are more likely to conform to a large crowd than to a single
person. To test this hypothesis, the social psychologist had either one person or five persons stand on a
busy walking path on campus and look up. The psychologist stood nearby and counted the number of
people passing by who also looked up.

Independent variable: Dependent variable:

3. To test a new voice feature in a cockpit design a flight simulator was used. The simulator was
programmed to give visual readings of flight information, or to give visual and auditory (voice) readings of
flight information. All test pilots were put through a simulated emergency landing procedure, but were
randomly assigned to the visual, or visual and auditory conditions. Flight experts rated each pilot’s
performance in the simulator on a scale of 1 (very poor) to 10 (excellent).

Independent variable: Dependent variable:

Fixed/constant variables:

4. Can blueberries slow down aging? A study indicates that antioxidants found in blueberries may slow
down the process of aging. In this study, 19-month old rats (equivalent to 60-year old humans) were fed
either their standard diet or a diet supplemented by either blueberry, strawberry, or spinach powder. After
eight weeks, the rats were given memory and motor tests. Although all supplemented rats showed
improvement, those supplemented with blueberry powder showed the most notable improvement.

Independent variable: Dependent variables:

5. Does beta-carotene protect against cancer? Beta-carotene supplements have been thought to protect
against cancer. However, a study published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute suggests this is
false. The study was conducted with 39,000 women aged 45 and up. These women were randomly
assigned to receive a beta-carotene supplement or a placebo, and their health was studied over their
lifetime. Cancer rates for women taking the beta-carotene supplement did not differ systematically from
the cancer rates of those women taking the placebo.

Independent variable: Dependent variable:

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6. How bright is right? An automobile manufacturer wants to know how bright brake lights should be in
order to minimize the time required for the driver of a following car to realize that the car in front is
stopping and to hit the brakes.

Independent variable: Dependent variable:

7. In a study done by gr 11 boys at a well known boys school, the boys wanted to find out the conditions
in which milk stayed fresh the longest. The boys took equal quantities of fresh 2% milk and stored the milk
at 4oC, 23oC and 18oC and tested for freshness each day.

Name the independent variable: Name the dependent variable:

8. A friend of yours puts forward the hypothesis that over half of boys at Bishops believe that species are
immutable (unchanging) and that they came into existence through special creation rather than being
evolving from common ancestors. He suggests that you survey a group of your 18 year old male friends in
order to test the hypothesis.

Name the independent variable: Name the dependent variable:

(HINT: look at the hypothesis itself as both the independent and dependent variables should be listed IN
the hypothesis).

Answers:

1. A group of college students were given a short course in speed-reading. The instructor was curious
if a monetary incentive would influence performance on a reading test taken at the end of the
course. Half the students were offered $5 for obtaining a certain level of performance on the test, the
other half were not offered money.

Independent variable: Monetary incentive ($5 or no money)

Dependent variable: Performance on reading test

2. A social psychologist thinks that people are more likely to conform to a large crowd than to a single
person. To test this hypothesis, the social psychologist had either one person or five persons stand on
a busy walking path on campus and look up. The psychologist stood nearby and counted the number
of people passing by who also looked up.

Independent variable: Size of group (5 people or 1 person)

Dependent variable: Conformity (measured by number of people looking up)

3. To test a new voice feature in a cockpit design a flight simulator was used. The simulator was
programmed to give visual readings of flight information, or to give visual and auditory (voice)
readings of flight information. All test pilots were put through a simulated emergency landing
procedure, but were randomly assigned to the visual, or visual and auditory conditions. Flight experts
rated each pilot’s performance in the simulator on a scale of 1 (very poor) to 10 (excellent).

Independent variable: Presence or absence of auditory (voice) readings

Dependent variable: Ratings of pilots’ performance

Constant variable: All pilots received visual readings

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4. Can blueberries slow down aging? A study indicates that antioxidants found in blueberries may slow
down the process of aging. In this study, 19-month old rats (equivalent to 60-year old humans) were
fed either their standard diet or a diet supplemented by either blueberry, strawberry, or spinach
powder. After eight weeks, the rats were given memory and motor tests. Although all supplemented
rats showed improvement, those supplemented with blueberry powder showed the most notable
improvement.

Independent variable: diet: blueberries or no blueberries

Dependent variables: memory test and motor skills test

5. Does beta-carotene protect against cancer? Beta-carotene supplements have been thought to
protect against cancer. However, a study published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute
suggests this is false. The study was conducted with 39,000 women aged 45 and up. These women
were randomly assigned to receive a beta-carotene supplement or a placebo, and their health was
studied over their lifetime. Cancer rates for women taking the beta-carotene supplement did not differ
systematically from the cancer rates of those women taking the placebo.

Independent variable: supplements: beta-carotene or placebo

Dependent variable: occurrence of cancer

6. How bright is right? An automobile manufacturer wants to know how bright brake lights should be in
order to minimize the time required for the driver of a following car to realize that the car in front is
stopping and to hit the brakes.

Independent variable: brightness of brake light

Dependent variable: time to hit brake

7. In a study done by gr 11 boys at a well-known boys school, the boys wanted to find out the
conditions in which milk stayed fresh the longest. The boys took equal quantities of fresh 2% milk and
stored the milk at 4oC, 23oC and 18oC and tested for freshness each day.

Name the independent variable: temperatures at which milk is kept

Name the dependent variable: freshness of the milk

8. A friend of yours puts forward the hypothesis that over half of boys at Bishops believe that species
are immutable (unchanging) and that they came into existence through special creation rather than
being evolving from common ancestors. He suggests that you survey a group of your 18 year old male
friends in order to test the hypothesis.

Name the independent variable: Bishops boys

Name the dependent variable: number that believe that species are immutable

Fixed variables: same age, same gender, all have same amount of knowledge about
evolution, all are friends who will answer truthfully

Sample size: as big as possible to ensure that data is reliable

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 BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS

Drawings and diagrams are essential in any science and are particularly important in Life Sciences
because you use them to interpret what you see, for example when you look at a specimen under
the microscope or when you understand how the human body works. There are RULES about
scientific drawings and diagrams. Remember that the drawing or diagram is not a sketch. It is an
easy-to-understand representation of what you see.

Rules for drawings and diagrams

These are general rules that you need to follow when doing drawings and diagrams.

Drawings and diagrams must:

 be drawn in pencil (using a sharp HB pencil to draw clear smooth lines)

 be labelled in ink
 be large enough (at least half of an A4 page) to see all the structures that are in the diagram.
 be positioned in the centre of the page
 usually be two-dimensional (i.e. show length and width only)
 NOT be shaded
 have a title/caption below them.

The following rules apply to the title/caption:

 Remember that a biological specimen can be sliced in different ways. This is the section of
the part, i.e. whether it is the transverse section (T/S) or longitudinal section (L/S).
 The caption should show the source of the diagram, i.e. whether it is from a specimen a
micrograph or a slide.
 The magnification/scale of the drawing should be placed either in the caption or in one corner
of the drawing itself, e.g. (10 X40)

Label lines must:

 be drawn in with a ruler (NOT hand-drawn)

 not cross each other
 not have arrows at the end
 touch the part/structure that is labelled
 be on one side of the diagram if there are few labels, otherwise both sides can be used
 be aligned neatly, preferably one label below the other
 be drawn in pen (ink)

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Labels must be written:

 in small letters (unless named after a person)

 at the end of the label lines, NOT on the label lines
 in pen (ink)
 to the right of the diagram, however may also be written on the left if there are too many
labels.

As an example, look at the label lines in the drawing below.

thin cell wall

cytoplasm
nucleus

large vacuole

intercellular air spaces

Diagram showing the structure of the parenchyma cells (x400)

The following checklist will be used to assess the diagram:

 Shape
 Size
 Proportion (if the different parts of the diagram are the correct size in relation to the size of
the object being shown).
 Position of parts
 Caption
 Magnification/ scale
 Labels
 Neatness

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