Chapter No.

1 Work Study
Industrial Engineering
Definition:
Industrial Engineering can be defined as the planning, scheduling, and control of
activities that transform raw material into goods and services.
Need of Industrial Engineering:
• It supports all services for the workers, supervisors, staff and management.
• It helps the company to be competitive in the market.
• It helps for lowering the cost of producing quality product.
• It helps in planning and producing quality product.
• Because of industrial engineering company is in position to satisfy customer and
stakeholders need.
Objective and scope:
• To increase productivity by optimum utilization of resources.
• To eliminate wastage of production time.
• To method of operation.
• To control production cost.
• To develop most efficient and effective operation work cycle.
Work Study:
A term used to embrace the techniques of method study and work measurement which is
employed to ensure the best possible use of human and material resources in carrying out a
specified activity.
Objectives of Work Study:
1. Work study brings higher productivity.
2. Work study improves existing method of work for which cost becomes lower.
3. It eliminates wasteful elements.
4. It sets standard of performance.
5. It helps to use plant and human more effectively.
6. It improves by saving in time and loss of material also.
Types of Work Study:
1. Method Study
2. Work Measurement
1. Method Study:
Method study is defined as the systematic investigation of the existing method of
doing a job or work in order to develop and install an easy, rapid, effective and efficient
procedure for doing the same job at lower cost and with less effort.
This goal should be achieved by eliminating unnecessary motions involved in certain
procedure or by changing the sequence of operating of the process itself.
Objectives:
1. The objectives of method study are:
2. Improvement in the existing method.
3. To find out best method to do the work.
4. Better workplace layout and better working condition.
5. Less fatigue to worker.
6. Improvement in the use of materials, machine, manpower.
7. Greater work satisfaction, higher standard of safety and health.
8. Reduction in waste and scrap.
9. Fast material Handling.
Steps in Method Study:
1. Select: Select the method which to be improved by considering economy,
technology, and human factor.
2. Record: All the relevant facts about present working method is recorded.
3. Examine: The recorded data are critically recorded.
4. Develop and evaluate: The most practical and economical method by considering
the entire situation is developed.
5. Define: The new method is defined in systematic way so that each and every
person should understand.
6. Install: Install the new method practically
7. Maintain: The new method are maintained regularly and checked
Selection of work for method study:
1. Economic consideration
2. Technical Consideration
3. Human Reactions
1. Economic consideration:
The particular work or activity require maximum time obviously it require maximum
money so that work should be studied by method study procedure and fine the best method
which require less time and money.
2. Technical consideration:
Method study is carried to reduce technical error, use of advance machinery, to reduce
rejection due to machine error etc. these are the technical consideration.
3. Human Reaction:
Method study is done to reduce human efforts, fatigue of worker etc. these are the
human consideration.
Recording Techniques:
The whole method study is depends on the accuracy of recording because they will
provide the base for examine and develop stage in method study. All the facts relating to
the selected work or job are recorded in the form of charts diagrams.
Types of Recording Techniques:
a) Process charts:
a) Outline Process charts
b) Flow process charts: Man type, Material type, Equipment type
b) Time scale charts:
a) Multiple activity Chart
b) SIMO Chart
c) Models and Diagrams indicating movements:
a) Flow Diagram
b) String Diagram
c) Travel Chart
d) Therbligs chart
Process Chart:
A process charts records graphically or diagrammatically in sequence the activity
performed during process.
Process charts uses 6 basic symbols for recording different activity. Symbols
used…….
a) Outline Process chart:
In this chart only the key operation and inspection is recorded without going all
activities like delays, movement and storage. Such chart is known as outline process chart.
b) Flow Process Chart:
A flow process chart is a graphical representation of the sequence of all the activities
(operation, inspection, transport, delay and storage) taking place in a process. Process
chart symbols are used here to represent the activities.
There are three types of flow process charts. They are,
1. Man type flow process chart: This flow process chart records what the worker does.
2. Material type flow process chart: This flow process chart records how the material is
handled or treated.
3. Equipment type flow process chart: This flow process chart records how the equipment
or machine is used.
Flow Diagram:
In any production shop, repair shop or any other department, there are movements of
men and material from one place to another.
Process charts indicate the sequence of activities. They do not show the movements of
men and material.
To record the path of movement of men or material a flow diagram is used for
recording the movement.

Procedure to draw Flow Diagram

1. A flow diagram is drawn to scale. The relative position of machineries, material
handling equipment etc. is drawn first.
2. Then the path followed by men or material is marked on the diagram. Different
movements can be marked in different colors.
3. Process symbols are added to the diagram to identify the different activities at
different work centers.
The flow diagram is used for the following purposes:
1. To remove unwanted material movement.
2. To remove back tracking.
3. To avoid traffic congestion.
4. To improve the plant layout.
Contents in the Flow diagram:
1. Heading and description of the process should be given at the top.
2. Other information's like location, name of the shop, name of the person drawing the
diagram are also given.
3. The path followed by the material is shown by a flow line.
4. Direction of movement is shown by small arrows along the flow lines.
5. The different activities are represented by the symbols on the flow lines. (Same
symbols used in flow process chart are used here).
String Diagram
Flow diagram for recording the movement of men or material when the movement is
simple and the path is almost fixed.
But when the paths are many and are repetitive, it may not be possible to record them
in a flow diagram. Here a string diagram is used.

Procedure to draw String Diagram

1. String diagram is a scaled plan of the shop.
2. Location of machines and various facilities are drawn to scale in a drawing sheet.
3. Pins are fixed at the various work centers in the drawing sheet.
 4. A continuous colored thread or string is taken round the pins where the material or
worker moves during the process.
5. At the end note down the number of movements from one work center to another.
6. Remove the string and measure the total length of the string. Multiply by the scale and
get the actual distance of movement.
Applications of String Diagram:
1. It is used for recording the complex movements of material or men.
2. Back tracking, congestion, bottlenecks, underutilized paths are easily found out.
3. It is used to check whether the work station is correctly located.
4. Used to record irregular movements.
5. Used to find out the most economical route.
Man-Machine Chart / Multiple Activity Chart
A man-machine chart is a chart in which the activities of more than one worker or
machine are recorded. Activities are recorded on a common time scale to show the inter-
relationship. It is also known as multiple activity charts.

Use of Multiple Activity Chart:

1. Using the chart we can idle time of worker or machine is reduced.
2. Using the chart we can Work load is evenly distributed among the workers or
machines
3. Using the chart we can find out the correct number of machines that a worker can
operate at a time.
4. Using the chart we can find out the exact number of workers needed to do a job
jointly.
Micromotion study
Micromotion study is a set of techniques used study small movements or
micromotions of human activity and the study of such movements helps to find out one
best pattern of movements that consumes less time and requires less effort to accomplish
the task.
Micro motion study use motion pictures camera, which records very small time in the
form of “wink”.
1 wink = 1/2000 minutes = 0.0005 minutes
This technique was developed by Fran Gilbreth who considered that an operation consists
of small movements which may be repetitive or non repetitive. He termed these elements
THERBLIG (after his name Gilbreth if spelt back word is Therblig). Therbligs primarily
refer to motion of human body at the workplace and to the mental activities associated
with it.
Therbligs
Therbligs were suggested by Frank B. Gilberth the founder of motion study who
differentiated 17 fundamental hand or hand and eye motions to which an eighteenth has
been added. Each therblig has a specific color, symbol and letter for recording purposes.
SIMO chart format: (Simultaneous Motion cycle chart)
It is one of micro motion study devised by Gilbreth and it presents graphically the
separate steps of each limb (Leg or arm of person) of the operator under study.
It records simultaneously the different therbligs (motion) performed by different parts
of the body .The movements are recorded against time measured in “Winks” (1 wink= 1/2000
minute).
 Therbligs in the SIMO chart are critically examined to explore the possibility of:
(i) Removing or eliminating the unproductive Therbligs such as find, select and avoidable
delay etc.
(ii) Sequencing of the productive therbligs.

Two handed process chart (Operator process chart)

•Records activity of workers hand .
•Representing sequence of manual activities of the worker
•Studies work station layout & repetitive task

Cycle graph & Chronocycle graph:

In making a these graph, a small electric bulb is attached to the hand, finger or any
other part of body whose motion is to be analyzed or recorded. Path of the light of the bulb is
same as that of the body member. As bulb moves through the space for one complete cycle,
path is photographed by still photograph.
Advantages of Cycle graph and Chronocycle graph:
(i) All types of movements i.e. complex, very fast or unrestricted movements can be
recorded.
(ii) It can be used for training purposes when the comparing motion pattern.
(iii) It can be used for method improvement.
(iv)These graphs provide an aid in explaining the pattern of motion which is used in
performing the operation.
Limitations:
(i) Workers may feel uncomfortable while doing job if their hand are tied with electric bulb
or any wire.
(ii) Very good photographic skills are required.

Work measurement (Time Study)

Work measurement refers to the estimation of standard time for an activity
that is the time allowed for completing one piece of job by using the prescribed method.
Standard time can be defined as the time taken by an average experienced worker for
the job with provisions for delays beyond the worker's control.
Objectives of Work Measurement:
1. To determine the standard time for various operations.
2. For fixing wages and incentives for the worker.
3. To estimate cost of product accurately.
4. Planning and production control.
5. To achieve the delivery dates by assessment of accurate time for completion of order.
6. To train new employees.
7. To find that how many machines an operator can run with the help of man machine chart.
Procedure of work Measurement:
1. Select: The work or activity or process to be studied and determine the objectives of
the study.
2. Record: All the relevant data of selected activity is recorded.
3. Examine: the recorder data of each activity or operation examined and motions
involved, unproductive element are separated.
4. Measure: The time required to complete each activity or element using appropriate
work measurement techniques.
5. Compile: The standard time for the operation.
6. Define: Define the method and standard time for the activity.
Techniques for Work Measurement:
1. Time study.
2. Activity sampling; and rated activity sampling Synthesis from standard data.
3. Pre-determined motion time system Estimating
4. Analytical estimating comparative estimating.

Time Study
Time study may be defined as “the art of observing and recording the time required to
do each detailed element of an industrial operation”.
Use/Application of Time Study:
1. It is useful in determining the standard time
2. It helps in fixing wages and incentives.
3. It is useful to estimate the cost of a product
4. It helps in production control.
5. It helps in predicting accurately as to when the work will be completed and hence
customers can be promised to take delivery on a fixed date.
6. To determine capacity of machine
Steps in making a time study:
1. Obtaining and recording all the information about the job, the operator and the
surrounding conditions.
2. Recording a complete description of the method, breaking down the operation
into “elements.”
3. Examining the detailed breakdown to ensure that the most effective method
and motions are being used.
4. Measuring and recording the time taken by the operator to perform each
“element” of the operation.
5. At the same time assessing the effective speed of the working of the operative
in relation to the observer’s concept of the rate corresponding to standard
rating.
6. Extending the observed times to “basic times.”
7. Determining the allowances to be made over and above the basic time for
operation.
8. Determining the “standard time” for the operation.
Time Study Equipment:
1. Stop Watch.
2. Time Study Board.
3. Time Study Forms.
4. Motion Picture Camera.
5. Videotape Recorder.
Stop Watch:
Stop watch is one of the important timing devices used for measuring the time taken
by a worker to complete a job. There are three types of stop watches and they are:
1. Non-fly back stop watch.
2. Fly back stop watch.
3. Split hand or split second type stop watch.
1. Non-fly back stop watch:
This stop watch is used for continuous timing. When the winding knob is pressed for
the first time, the watch starts and the long hand begins to move, now if the winding knob is
pressed for the second time, the long hand stops. If the winding knob is pressed for the third
time, the hand returns to zero position.

2. Fly back stop watch:

When two elements are to be timed and the second element is immediately after the
first element, fly back stop watch is required.
By pressing the wind knob, the hands are brought back to zero, but they move
forward again immediately without stopping. To stop the hand at any point, the slide is used.
This watch is used to take continuous timing observation.
3. Split-hand stop watch:
A split hand stop watch is used to get greater accuracy when two elements are to be
timed and the second element is immediately after the first element. After the completion of
first elements the winding knob is pressed which makes one hand to stop but the other hand
keeps moving.
Time Study Board:

The data or observation sheet, the stopwatch and pencil should be held by a specially
designed board shown in Fig. 5.5. This board provides a convenient writing surface by
holding the observation sheet.
It also holds the stop watch in position to be operated by the left-hand free to record
observations. The watch is held in a locked holder which gives protection against breakage,
permits functioning at an angle to avoid glare on its face and offers a maximum of visibility
in use. The board should be of highly polished, smooth, black, rigid plastic or wood material.
Approximate dimensions are 13″ x 13″ x 1/8″ to 1/4″.
Time study sheets / Forms:
Time study can be made on a plain paper but it is very difficult to rule up new sheet every
time when study is to be made. Thus, it is more convenient to have the printed forms of a
standard size, so that they can be filled neatly. There is no single standard format for taking
time study observations.
Motion Picture Camera:
The camera capture the picture at a constant speed time taken for each film is
calculated. Thus knowing the number of number of films covered by one operation the exact
time can be found. For example is camera was set of 600 films per minute i.e. each film takes
0.0166 minute and if the operation or activity completed in 100 films then time required for
this operational element would be 0.0166*100=1.66 minute.

Observed Time (Cycle Time):

Cycle time is defined as the time duration from the starting point of a job to the
starting point of the next job.
Cycle time = Machine Time + Material handling time.
Cycle time is also known as Observed Time.
Basic Time(Normal Time):
Basic time of a job is determined by multiplying rating factor to the observed time
(cycle time). Basic time is also expressed as Normal time,
Basic time = (Observed time X Performance Rating)/100
or
Basic Time = (Standard Time - Allowances)
In Basic Time no allowances are included.
Standard Time:
Standard time is the time allowed to an operator to carry out the specified task under
the specified condition and defined level of performance.
Standard Time = Basic Time + Allowances
The basic constituents of standard time are shown in the following chart. This chart
shows how standard time is made up of the observed time and basic time of a job. (Click on
the image to enlarge)
The basic constituents of standard time are shown in the following chart. This chart shows
how standard time is made up of the observed time and basic time of a job.
Allowances
Allowances in time study can be defined as the extra time added to the basic time of
an operation to consider personnel needs, delays, fatigue of operators, and any special
situation. Standard time of a job is obtained by adding
Standard time = Normal time + Allowances
 Allowances are considered while calculating standard time because;
 Method study investigation tries to minimize the energy expended by the worker
in performing the operation.
 However, the job will still require the expenditure of human effort.
 Therefore, a worker is not able to work throughout the day continuously.
Therefore he requires sometime for recovery from fatigue and for relaxation.
 He also requires some additional time for his personal needs and other reasons.
 This additional time other than basic time is known as allowance.

The types are:

1. Relaxation allowance,
2. Delay allowance (Contingency allowance)
3. Interference allowance
4. Policy allowance
5. Other and Special Allowances
1. Relaxation allowances
Relaxation allowances are calculated so as to allow the worker to recover from
fatigue. Relaxation allowance is a addition to the basic time. The amount of allowance will
depend on nature of the job.
Relaxation allowances are of two types:
a. Fixed allowances
b. Variable allowances
a. Fixed allowances are divided into
Personal allowance: Allowance to operator for personal needs like drinking water,
smoking, washing hands. A fair personal allowance is 5% for men, and 7% for women.
Fatigue Allowances: This allowance is given to compensate fatigue. A common figure
considered as allowance is 4% of the basic time.
b. Variable allowance
Variable allowance is allowed to an operator who is working under poor
environmental conditions that cannot be improved, added stress and strain in performing the
job. For e.g. Standing, Weightlifting applications, Light conditions, Visual strains, Air
conditions or availability etc.
2. Delay Allowance/ Contingency Allowances:
A contingency allowance is an allowance of time that is to be added in normal time
or to be included in standard time to meet the legitimate and unexpected items of work.
Contingency allowance should not exceed 5%.
For e.g. Tool breakage, Power failures of small duration, Obtaining the necessary
tools and gauges from central tool store.
3. Interference Allowance:
It is an allowance of time included into the work content of the job to compensate the
operator for the unavoidable loss of production due to simultaneous stoppage of two or more
machines being operated by him.
4. Policy Allowances:
Policy allowance is not a part of time study. It can be permanent or temporary in
nature. It is applied according to the policy of the firm in which the time standard is to be
applied.
5. Other and Special Allowances
There are some other and special allowances which are to be added for certain
conditions.
1. Start up, shut down, and tooling
2. Allowances are provided when a new type of product is started
3. Rejection reworks
4. Allowances are given to the trainees before they start working
Problems on Standard Time:
Formulas:
1. Cycle time = Machine Time + Material handling time.
*Cycle time is also known as Observed Time.
2. Basic time = Observed time X Performance Rating/100
*Basic time is also called as normal time
3. Standard Time = Basic Time + Allowances
Total Normal Time = 0.56 + 0.8 + 1.56 + 0.45 + 1.2
 = 4.57
Total Standard Time = 0.644+ 0.920 + 1.794 + 0.518 + 1.380
= 5.256
Chapter No.2 Process Engineering
Factors of production -
Factors of production are the resources people use to produce or manufacture Products,
goods and services. Factors of production divide into four categories:
1. Land. 2. Labor. 3. Capital. 4. Entrepreneurship.
1. Land:
Land comprises all natural resources which can use for generation of goods includes earth,
soil, air, minerals, water etc. Any natural resource which is used for manufacturing goods and
service is termed as land.
2. Labour:
All human effort that assists in production is labour. This effort can be mental or physical.
It is a human factor of production. It is the worker who applies their efforts, abilities, and skills to
produce.
Types of Labour Unskilled, Semi-skilled, Skilled, Professional
3. Capital:
Capital refers to all manmade resources used in the production process. It is a produced
factor of production. It includes factories, machinery, tools, equipment, raw materials, wealth etc.
4. Entrepreneur:
An entrepreneur is a person who brings other factors of production in one place. He uses
them for the production process.
He is the person who decides What to produce, Where to produce, How to produce. A
person who takes these decisions along with the associated risk is an entrepreneur. The payment
for land is profit.

Supply chain management:

Supply chain management can be defined as the management of flow of products and
services which begins the origin of the product (raw material) and ends with product consumption
at the consumer.
It manages the right product at the right time, right place at the right cost to the customer.
Objective of supply chain management:
1. To minimize total chain cost
2. To meet the customer demand
3. To reduce unnecessary inventory
4. To achieve effective use of labour equipment
5. To reach the customer at right time and right place.
Functions of supply chain management
1. Inventory Management.
2. Distribution and return management.
3. Customer service and relationship management.
4. Transportation management.
5. Warehouse management.
6. Payment and financial management.
Process Engineering/ Process Planning
Process Engineering/ Process Planning is defined as the systematic determination of
methods by which a product is to be manufactured economically and competitively.
Significance or benefits of process planning
1. Process or method standardization
2. Productivity improvement
3. Product cost reduction
4. Reduction in time
5. Faster response to any changes
Necessary Information required for process planning
1. Working drawing or assembly drawing with specification like dimensions.
2. Number of parts per production run/ standard time
3. Bill of material
4. Accuracy and surface finish required
5. Material and machine specification
6. Data of labours
7. Data regarding cutting tools, cutting speed, feed etc.
Functions of Process planning / Procedure of process plan:
1. Study the part drawing and its specification.
2. To take the decision regarding make or buy.
3. Deciding sequence of operation or operations are combined whenever possible.
4. Determining blank size of raw material and list of material is prepared.
 5. As per the capacity selection of machine.
6. Determination of inspection points.
7. Selection of labors tools, measuring and inspection tools
8. Estimation of process and manufacturing cost of product.
9. Preparation of process sheet
Factors Affecting Process Planning
1. Volume of production
2. Delivery dates of components or products
3. Capacity of machine- Poor maintenances, wear and tear, condition of machine
4. Skill of manpower
5. Quality, quantity and properties of raw material.
6. Surface finish and accuracy required.

Preliminary Part Print Analysis:

Detailed study or interpretation of part drawing under consideration for the manufacturing
of the part is called as part print analysis.
Part print:
The product design department give the detailed drawing to the process engineering
department is called part print/working drawing/part drawing it consist of variety of information
which help in process planning.
Part print consist of,
1. Part geometry.
2. Dimensions and geometrical tolerances.
3. Surface finish specifications.
4. Material specifications.
5. Quantity of parts required.
6. Part drawing of individual components and assembly drawing.

Selecting and planning manufacturing process

The manufacturing process selected must be and economical and it effectively use
materials manpower tooling and equipment, plant, space etc. and it is selected in such way that it
is acceptable by customer economically.
Criteria for selection and planning of manufacturing process:
1. The process should produce the product as per design requirement of quality function and
reliability.
2. Day wise production requirement should be meet.
3. The machine must fully use.
4. Idleness of machine and men should be less.
5. Rejection of material should be less.
6. The process should be flexible enough to accommodate into the design changes.
7. The process should combine as many operation which are practically and economically
possible.
8. The process should be safe for operation.
9. The process should select such that overall production cost should minimum.

Determining sequence of operation:

The sequence of operation is very important during process planning means when
operation is done e.g. some operation is done before other.
i.e. Casting before machining, machining before finishing or heat treatment.

1. Basic Operation:
Operation which gives initial shape to raw material e.g. bar cutting according to length,
sheet cutting etc.
2. Principle Operation:
These are the group of operations which is carried out to convert the shape of material into
actual product. E.g. machining, Hot and cold forming, casting, assembly.
3. Major Operation
These are the operation performed within principle operation. For e.g. Machining is the
principle operation in that turning, facing, turning etc.
4. Auxiliary Operation:
These are the operation which is performed to ensure continuity and completion of
principle operation. E.g. heat treatment, Grinding, is finishing etc.
5. Supporting Operation
These are the operations which are necessary to the successful completion of the product.
e.g. inspection, packaging etc.

Following factors deciding sequence of operation:

1. Types of plant layout.
2. Type of machining and equipment available.
3. Type of operation which is performed.
4. Type of labour skill required.
5. Material handling equipment.
Importance of operation Sheet:
[1] A Operation Sheet used in the routing
[2] It consists of details of operations, sequences, types of machinery used and operation time.
[3] It gives details of the process plan.
[4] It gives sequence of operations which must be performed on the component.

Importance of Operation Sheet in Process Planning:

[1] It becomes important document for costing and provides the information on the various details
like set up and operation times for each job.
[2] The machine and manpower requirements can be compute from the set up and operational
times.
[3] It helps to carry out scheduling.
[4] It helps in cost reduction and cost control.
[5] It helps to determine the efficiency of a work center.
[6] It helps to trace the material movement.
Combined Operation:
Adding more than one operation in practical and economical way is known as combining
operation. Method of combining operation,
1. Simulation Method
2. Integration Method
1. Simulation Method
In this method two or more operations are performed simultaneously at the same time and
in one setting of job i.e. without changing job setting.
E.g. drilling multiple holes simultaneously using multi spindle drilling machine, Gang milling etc.
2. Integration method:
In this method operations are performed one after other not simultaneously and without
changing job setting.
E.g. CNC machining, VMC machining etc.
Advantages of combined operations:
1. Reduction in cycle time.
2. Rate of production increases
3. Goods are dispatched to customer in time
4. Improvement in accuracy
5. Reduction in labour cost
6. Less material handling
7. Less production cost
Limitations of combined operations:
1. Special purpose machine is required
2. High skill labour is required
3. High tooling cost

Inspection:
Inspection means act of measuring, calculating, comparing with standard, for example
measuring the dimensions, measuring mechanical properties etc.
Stages in inspection:
1. Inspection of Incoming Material.
2. Inspection of In process material.
3. Inspection of finished goods.
Determination of Inspection stages
1. Types of production system Job, Batch or mass production.
2. Nature of product (complex, simple)
3. Cheap or costly operation
4. Type of layout
5. The cost of inspection
Types of Inspection
1. Floor Inspection
2. Centralized Inspection

Floor Inspection Centralized Inspection

1. Inspection is conducted at the place 1. Inspection is conducted at a

of actual production. central location.

2. Material Handling is almost zero. 2. Material Handling is more.

3. Difficult to use high accuracy and 3. Better condition to use high

delicate measuring instruments. accuracy and delicate
measuring instruments.

4. Suitable for heavy and bulky parts. 4. Suitable for light and
medium part.

5. Inspector moves to the workplace 5. Inspector does not move to

for inspection. the workplace for the
inspection.

Line Balancing:
Line balancing is the process in which the task or work is distributed evenly over the
workstation so that the idle time of man and machine are minimized.
Consider 3 machines A, B and C. 1st operation is performed 5 parts/hr. on machine A. 2nd
operation is performed 10 parts/hr. on machine B and 3rd operation is performed 15 parts/hr. on
machine C. Arrange the machine for reducing idle time of man and machine.
Procedure for Balancing Line:
1. Study the part.
2. Breakdown the each operation of part.
3. List various operations with their sequence and duration.
4. Draw the flow diagram to demonstrate flow of part between different workstation.
5. Determine the cycle time at each workstation.
6. Assign the work to each workstation.
7. Calculate the efficiency of line.
 Chapter No.3 Ergonomics
Ergonomics:
Ergonomics is the process of designing the products and systems so that they fit the
people who use them.
The main aim of this study is to reduce the fatigue and strain of operator and hence,
improving his efficiency on the whole.
Objectives of ergonomics as follows:
• Improve efficiency of man-machine system.
• To provide better working conditions so as to improve productivity of the system.
• To create adequate facilities to reduce or eliminate the stresses, fatigue and failures in
the performance of man-machine system.
• To provide comforts and make the job easy.
Advantages of Ergonomics
(a) Higher output.
(b) Improved productivity.
(c) Minimum fatigue.
(d) Easy to work.
(e) Maximum satisfaction to worker.
(f) Good product design.
(g) Comfort and convenience.
Man-Machine Relationship
Man-machine system may be defined as a combination of activities between man and
machine to get the desire output from the given input.

 The machine has a display unit and a control unit.

 A man (user) receives the information from the machine display through the sense
organs.
  He (or she) then takes the corrective action on the machine controls using the hands or
feet.
 This man-machine closed-loop system is influenced by the working environment
factors such as lighting, noise, temperature, humidity, air circulation, etc.

Anthropometry
Anthropometry is the branch of the human science that studies the physical
measurement of the human body, particularly size and shape.

When anthropometric data (measurements) is applied to a product, e.g. measurements

of the hand are used to design the shape and size of a handle Anthropometric data
(measurements) are used to determine for e.g. Height of the body, Length of hand, Average
size palm.

Types of Anthropometry
1. Static Anthropometry: The measurements of the body are taken when the body is in static
position. e.g. dimensions of skeleton, maximum body width, height etc.
2. Dynamic Anthropometry: The measurements of the body are taken when the body is in
dynamic position. e.g. driving a car, working on a disc etc.
Ergonomic Design of Display Instruments
Displays are devices which the man can receive the information from the machine
A good display device is one which allows proper combination of speed, accuracy and
sensitivity of display
1. Quantitative visual displays
These displays provide information about quantitative value.
2. Qualitative visual displays
Such displays provide approximate value, trend, rate or direction of change.
Types of Quantitative visual displays
(a) Analogue Display system (Type-I) - Round dial with movable pointer.
(b) Analogue Display system (Type-II) - Fixed pointer with movable dial.
(c) Digital Display system - Open window in which the numerical value can be read directly

Ergonomic Considerations in Design of Display Devices

(a) The degree of accuracy shown on the dial must be in accordance with the required
accuracy.
(b) The dial should give the correct and needed information to the operator while working
on the machine.
(c) As far as possible, subdivision should be in multiples of 1,2 or 5, since other sub-
divisions may raise difficulties
(d) Numerical figures should be tangential on a moving scale and upright on a fixed
scale.
 (e) The pointer must have a sharp arrow or tipped point to show the correct numerical
value. It should neither cover the scale nor the numbers.
(f) The sizes of letters and figures must be adjusted to the Expected distance between the
eye and the information display.
(g) Numbering should increase in clockwise direction on circular scale, rightward on
horizontal scale and upward on vertical scale.
Ergonomic Design of Control Devices
The design of knobs, levers, push buttons, switches, steering and hand wheels should
provide ease so as to control efficiently. The dimensions and forces that can be applied on
them should be optimum such that the operator will not be strained.
Ergonomic Considerations in Design of Controls:
The ergonomic considerations in the design of the controls are as follows:
1. The control devices should be logically positioned and easily accessible.
2. The control operation should involve minimum and smooth moments.
3. The control operation should consume minimum energy.
4. The portion of the control device which comes in contact with user's hand should be
in conformity with the anatomy of human hands.
5. The proper colours should be used for control devices and backgrounds so as to give
the required psychological effect.
6. The shape and size of the control device should be such that the user is encouraged to
handle it in such a way as to exert the required force, but not excessive force,
damaging the control or the machine.
Factors for Selection of Controlling Devices
Most industrial processes operated by humans generally need to be controlled by
knobs, levers, hand wheels, pedals etc. Correct type of control is to be selected with the
due consideration of the safety and operational requirements. The correct choice could be
based following factors:
1. Fit to the Functions
The controls should be so selected as to fit the functions and anatomy of limbs. For
instance fast and precise operations should be performed by fingers or hands and those
requiring force by arms or feet.
2. Easy Grasping/Gripping
Hand operated controls must be placed within easy grasping distances between elbow
and shoulder height and be clearly visible.
 3. Anatomic Considerations
Distances between the controls must match anatomic considerations. For example, if a
control is to be operated by finger, the knob of at least 15 mm diameter is ergonomic
while for hand control at least 50 mm diameter is necessary.
4. Need low Energy
For operations needing low energy expenditure and step or continuous adjustments
for high precision, can be suitably done by manually operated push buttons, toggle
switches, knobs.
Whereas operations needing high energy expenditure moving an element to great
amplitude with less precision, can be carried out by levers, long arms, cranks, hand
wheels and pedals, etc.

Design of control members push button, knobs, levers, cranks, hand wheel

Design of Push Buttons

(a) Surface should be slightly concave, so that the finger force may be transmitted more
effectively.
(b) Diameter should be able to accommodate the fingertip
(c) Recommended design range is Diameter: 12-15 mm
(d) It is to be made of such a material which is easily distinguishable and preferably can shine
even in the dark
Design of Knobs
These are rotary controls that can be operated freely by gripping it on both sides with
the fingers of one hand.
1. The shape should be in such a manner that must be easy to feel
2. A reliable grip.
3. Any movement required must be clearly visible.
4. They may be used for making fine adjustment
5. Thicker knob allows two or three fingers for more grip.
6. The gear ratio should be such that it should minimise the force required to rotate
Design of Cranks
It is a control parallel to the shaft in which the handle is offset from the shaft. This is
suitable for setting or continuous movements. It can also be used when high turning speeds
are required up to 200 rpm. Further, different gear ratios can be selected to have desired
speed.
1. Facing the operator,
2. For fast movement, the handle must be set free to turn on its own axis
Hand Wheel
It is a circular control gripped at the rim with both hands. It is recommended when
large forces have to be exerted as the use of two hands .It is useful for low turning speeds (1
rpm or low). Hand wheels are best when the amount of turn required does not exceed 90
degree for fine positioning.
Design of hand levers and handwheels:
When a large force is required to operate the controls, levers and handwheels are
used. When the operating forces are light, push buttons or knob are used.
The ergonomic considerations in the design are as follows:
i) The controls should be easily accessible and logically positioned.
ii) The shape of the control component, which comes in contact with the hands, should
conform with the anatomy of human hands.
iii) Proper color produces beneficial psychological effects. The controls should be painted
with a grey background of machine tools to call for attention.
 Control type Suitability for tasks involving:
Speed Accuracy
Push button Good Unsuitable

Toggle switch Good Unsuitable

Goodselector
Rotary Good Good

Knob Unsuitable Fair

crank Poor Unsuitable

Wheel Poor Good

Compatibility in the Design of Display and Control Members

Displays and controls are the essential means of communication that allow operators
to interact with machines and equipment. Displays provide operators with information about
the operational status of systems, and control devices allow the operators to take action to
influence the state of systems.
Compatibility is a central concept in the study of displays and controls and it gives
the relationships between display signals, control responses, and the expectations of the
operators.
Three specific compatibilities
1. Spatial compatibility
2. Movement compatibility
3. Conceptual compatibility
1. Spatial Compatibility
Spatial compatibility refers to the physical arrangement of display and control
components. Spatial compatibility provides operator to handle and see control and display
effectively.
Spatial compatibility examples are CNC machine display and control unit, Control
room of Train etc.
2. Movement Compatibility
Movement compatibility refers to the relationship between movement of control
devices. When people interact with a control and display system, they will normally have
certain expectations about the relationship between the movement of the controls and the
display indicators.
e.g. Clockwise rotation of a control knob is expected to produce an increase in the
parameter being measured or monitored, TV Volume button on remote.
3) Conceptual Compatibility
Conceptual compatibility is concerned with the relation between the conceptual
associations of human operators and the codes, colours and symbols used in control devices
and display.

Ergonomics considerations in the design of the Lathe machine.

1) The controls on lathe should be easily accessible and properly positioned.
2) The control operation should involve minimum motions.
3) Height of lathe should be matched with the worker for operation
4) Lathe machine should make less noise during operation.
5) Force & power capacity required in turning the wheel as per operation or human being can
apply normally.
6) Should get the required accuracy in operation.
 Chapter No.4
Quality Control and Inspection
Quality
Quality is defined as the total features and characteristics of products and goods
possess to satisfy the needs of customer.
Quality means fitness to use
Quality Characteristics
Any products or goods are described by its features, and specifications that are called
Quality characteristics.
For e.g. Quality characteristics are,
Structural type: Length, height, diameter etc.,
Capacity of product: Loading capacity, CC etc.,
Look Type: Color, Texture, Appearance etc. ,
Commercial: Cost, discount etc.,
Time oriented: Warranty, Used before, expiry etc.
Quality specification/characteristics are divided into
1. The standard specification
2. Consumer specification
3. Company specification

1. Standard Specification
The standard bodies formulate the specification for standardization of the components
for e.g. BIS (Bureau of Indian standards), ASTEM (American society of testing material) etc.

2. Consumer Specification
When standards are not available or not suitable for the particular customer need then
consumer specification are used
3. Company Specification
When company which manufacture products or goods to its, own specifications called
as company specification. For e.g. motorcycle, mobile manufacturing etc.
Quality of Design
Quality of design is the quality which producer or supplier is to offer to the customer
as per design standard. Quality design consider all types of failure like stress, wear shocks,
vibrations etc.
The good quality of design must ensure performance, overload capacity, efficiency
etc.
Factors affecting quality of design
1. Types of customer in the market
2. Price of the product
3. Profit consideration after sales
4. Environmental condition
5. Special requirement of product

Quality Conformance
Quality of conformance is basically meeting the standards defined in the design after
the product is manufactured. How well manufactured product confirms to the quality of
design.
For e.g. when manufacturer manufacture the product within tolerance limit it is called
as quality conformance.
Factors affecting quality of conformance
1. Incoming Raw material
2. Selection of manufacturing process
3. Skill of operators
4. Inspection methodology

Quality Performance
It states that how well manufactured product perform under related to the stated
condition. Quality of Performance depends on Quality of design and Quality of
Conformance.
Quality of design + Quality of Conformance = Quality of Performance

Concept of Reliability
Reliability of product is the ability of product to perform a required function under
stated conditions for a stated period of time without failure. For e.g. Failure of clutch wire for
a 2 wheeler can occur after every 10,000 km, 1,00,000 hrs can be the mean life to the first
failure of electric bulb
Wear out of tier after 10000 km etc.
Finalizing Reliability Goals
1. Reliability goals are finalized according to the cost of the product and budget.
2. Reliability is predicted by post performance, data, calculating expected failure rates
for various systems.
3. Analysis of stronger and weaker section is done and they are identified for the design
improvements if necessary.
Methods of improving reliability
1. By reviewing the customer need
2. Design the system in such a way that some parts are fail before system failure e.g.
fuse in electric circuit, valve in pressure cooker.
3. Ensure that stresses applied to the parts are lower than design by selecting proper
factor of safety (FOS)
4. Product are manufactured to sustain environment changes
5. Specify replacement schedule of some part from assembly

Quality assurance (QA)

Quality assurance (QA) is a way of preventing mistakes and defects in
manufactured products by taking all the quality improving necessary action to avoid
problems of products which going to use by customer.
Stages in Quality Assurance:
1. Quality Design: In design stage it is ensured that the quality of design is according to
the need of customer
2. Quality of conformance: The check whether the quality of products manufactured
confirms design consideration.
3. Quality of performance: Observing the performance or working of product in actual
field, life of product etc.
Quality of assurance = Quality Design + Quality of conformance + Quality of
performance
Advantages of Quality assurance:
1. Fewer defects
2. Less Scrap
 3. Less inspection
4. Fewer complaints
5. Better quality
6. Customer satisfaction
7. Higher productivity
Quality Control
Quality control means observing and measuring actual dimensions of job to given
standard (Drawing) and taking control action if required.
Quality control is system of maintaining standards in manufactured products by
testing samples of the output against specifications.

Quality control loop:

1. Set the quality standards (Drawing)
2. Plan for achieving required quality
3. Plan for inspection and checking
4. Check and measure manufactured job
5. Get the difference between measured and standards
6. Take necessary action.
Quality control objective
1. Get the product as per standard
2. To satisfy customer
3. To reduce rework repair and rejection
4. To reduce cost of manufacturing
5. To increase manufacturer income
6. To develop good relation between customer and manufacturer
 Quality Control Quality Assurance

1. Quality Control is product oriented 1. Quality assurance is process oriented

2. Quality control process is post production 2. Quality assurance in is before production

3. It includes inspection and analysis 3. It includes design of quality, quality of

conformance, quality of performance

4. Quality control to identify defects and fix 4. Quality assurance aims to prevent the defects
the
5. Itdefects
is related to only production department 5. It is related to design, production and customer

Quality circle
A group of employees who meet regularly in the organization for resolving problems
related to quality and improving quality of product and production in the organization.
Characteristics of quality circle
1. Quality circle includes 3 to 12 member
2. Members meet regularly according to schedule
3. Special training is given to Quality circle member for problem solving
4. Members should identify the problem and solve it
5. Members should be cooperative and helping nature
6. Members are self-confident
Work of quality circle:
1. Problems identification
2. Problem analysis
3. Generation of different solution and selecting best one from different solution
4. Prepare action plan
5. Presenting solution to higher management/ owner of organization
6. Implementation of solution
Objective of quality circle
1. QC should improve quality
2. QC should improve productivity
3. QC should reduce rejection
4. QC should identify the problem and solve it
5. QC should make use of all resources in the organization
 6. QC improve communication in the organization
7. QC should create good work environment
8. QC should create awareness about quality in the mind of worker, and motivate them
for quality improvement.
Advantages of quality circle
1. It improve quality and productivity
2. It create team spirit
3. Increased motivation and job satisfaction
4. Reduce rejection and rework
5. Leadership development
6. Identify work related problem and solve them
7. Provide training to the staff
Limitation of quality circle
1. It hamper daily work of QC Member
2. Time and money required
3. Some person resist to change and non cooperative
4. Uncomfortable with higher authority in the team
5. Member may experiment with new ideas that is not feasible
6. Over expectation of some employee in the quality circle

Quality Audit
Quality audit is defined as the systematic examination of whether quality activities
and related result matched with planning and whether these plans are implemented effectively
and suitable for achieve quality product.
Quality Audits are conducted by asking questions like
1. The design meets the customer requirement
2. The specification are proper
3. Design is strong or weak enough
4. Proper material selection
5. Manufacturing machines and tools are used properly
6. Inspection method is proper
7. Working nature or behavior of worker cooperative, helpful etc.
Quality audit objectives
1. To determine what are the requirement to achieve required quality product
 2. To determine how to achieve quality objective
3. To meet customer requirement
4. To improve efficiency and effectiveness of the quality system
5. To verify that your quality system continues to meet requirement

Total Quality management

Total Quality management is defined as a continuous effort by the
management as well as employees of a particular organization to ensure long term customer
loyalty and customer satisfaction.
 Total: It means everyone in the organization is responsible for Quality irrespective of
their position and functions.
 Quality: Produce and serve quality product according to customer needs.
 Management: Continuous improvement by an interactive network of communication
and control.
Functions of TQM
1. Development of product based on needs of users and economical
considerations.
2. Quality Product Design.
3. Improve Reliability of product.
4. Process capabilities study.
5. Quality planning for production control.
6. Quality control of incoming material.
7. Vendor quality control and vendor development
8. Inspection and testing during manufacturing.
9. Training of staff and customer
ADVANTAGES / BENEFITS OF TQM
1. Advantages to Customer
2. Advantages to the Organization or management
3. Advantages to staff
1. Advantages to Customer
1. Fewer problems with the product/service.
2. Better customer care good servicing after sales.
3. Customer satisfaction.
2. Advantages to the Organization
1. Better product quality.
2. Good Reputation in market.
3. Higher problem solving capability.
4. Increased market.
5. Increased Profit
3. Advantages to staff
1. Employee empowerment
2. Higher job interest
3. Higher satisfaction level
4. Better communication
5. Good salary and salary
Principles of TQM
1. Customer-focused Organization: Every organization strives to serve only one
purpose, i.e., customer satisfaction through quality products and services. It means the
end product must meet the demands and needs of the customers
2. Leadership: Leadership is essential in maintaining unity among employees to
achieve interdependent goals. Leaders can form a convenient environment to work
effectively inside the organization, in which all employees work to achieve the
organization’s goal.
3. Involvement of Employee/people: Employee, along with management, becomes
responsible for assessing the quality of the products and services at their levels.
4. Processes Approach: The Company needs to improve the process consistently for
good output. A good result from the processes approach can bring customer
satisfaction. Hence, TQM focuses on the process approach to assure the quality of the
product or service.
5. System Approach to Management: The industry makes a proper implementation
plan, and they collect data while applying those processes. The International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) describes this principle: ―Identifying,
understanding, and managing interrelated processes as a system contributes to the
organization’s effectiveness and efficiency in achieving its objectives.‖
6. Factual Approach to Decision-Making: Take decisions based on the information
collected from data. Making a decision based on facts is an effective way to achieve
 customer satisfaction. This principle uses the actual method to collect and analyze
data in order to make decisions for the company’s progress.
7. Continual Improvement: Continual improvement of the process is an essential step
for every industry to make their customer satisfied. Therefore, TQM assists the
company in keeping watching the constant improvement of the system to improve the
service and product of the industry. Above all, continual improvement assists the
company in achieving competitive advantages, and it is the most critical principle
among the eight principles of TQM.
8. Mutually Beneficial Supplier Relationships: A business is conducted by multiple
combined departments, and each of the departments is assigned individual tasks,
although the function of these departments is interconnected. The total quality
management process helps all sections work combined to achieve an interdependent
objective.
Objective of TQM
1. Customer Satisfaction, customer focus
2. Do it right first time: Rework and rejection Prevention and zero defects
3. Continuous Improvement to meet changing customer requirement.
4. Total participation: All the persons working in the organization should be involved in
TQM operation.
5. Empowering the staff: Empowering the staff by required training is provided with all
relevant information
6. Feedback Mechanism: The customer feedback and employee feedback mechanism for
creating customer oriented product.
7. Increased sales, Profit, Minimum losses
8. Reducing customer complaints
Principles of TQM
1. Customer-focused Organization
2. Leadership
3. Involvement of People
4. Resources Management
5. Continual Improvement
6. Decision Making
7. Mutually Beneficial Supplier Relationships
Implementation of Total Quality Management
1. Plan 2. Do 3. Check 4. Act Also referred to as PDCA Cycle
1. Planning Phase
Plan the policies and objectives of TQM. Determine what the customer is supposed to
get

2. Doing Phase
Educate and train workers and managers to understand and meet the requirement of
TQM. Start the operation of TQM by introducing new product, materials, process, machines
etc.
3. Checking Phase
Check the results of operations and find out the causes of non-conformance to quality
standard
4. Acting Phase
Prevent undesired effects and determine the problem. Suggest solutions for
improvement of methods and design in future

Six Sigma
Six Sigma was born in Motorola. It is a data driven approach for analyzing the root
causes of problems/defects and solving them. Sigma measures the capability of the process
to perform defect free work.
Defects in Six Sigma:
A defect is anything that results in customer dissatisfaction like defective component,
wrong shipment, delayed deliveries, high cycle time.
The sigma value indicates how often defects are likely to occur. As sigma increases
defects goes down and profitability, productivity and customer satisfaction go up.
1 million = 10 lakh
6 Sigma = 3.4 defects parts per million (PPM)
5 Sigma = 230 defects parts per million (PPM)
4 Sigma = 6,210 defects parts per million (PPM)
3 Sigma = 66,800 defects parts per million (PPM)
2 Sigma = 308,000 defects parts per million (PPM)
1 Sigma = 690,000 defects parts per million (PPM)
Phases of Six Sigma
 Define At the preliminary stage we identify customer and their needs and also poorly
performing areas of the company
 Measure Here we identify the process, and defects occurred in the process.
 Analyze When, where and why do defects occur? This phase applies analysis
techniques accurately understand and find out what is causes of defects.
 Improve In this phase, major causes in the process are identified and improvement is
done in to the process for reducing the causes which is responsible for the defects.
 Control Actions should be taken to sustain and continuous improvements made in the
process.
Benefits of Six Sigma
1. Focus on customer
2. Less scrap, waste, rejection
3. Systematic problem solving
4. Employee motivation
5. Faster to market
6. Improved customer relationship, customer loyalty

Belts Used in SIX Sigma

Yellow Belts
 Represent a large workforce and is trained with skills
 They prepared to feed that information to Black Belts and Green Belts working on
larger system projects.
Green Belts
 Green belt person is a specially trained team member
 The Green Belt work on small carefully projects
 They have less commitment compared to Black Belt’s full-time, they provide
information to black belt person.
The Black Belt
 They report details related to project work to MBB
 The black belt person works on the issues that are negatively impacting the
company’s performance.
 The Black Belt is usually assigned to a two-year dedicated position responsible for
Six Sigma process on selected projects.
The Master Black Belt (MBB)
 They sits at the top
 The primary activity for the MBB is being a leader and teacher.
 As a leader, the MBB will have responsibility for overseeing projects under them
multiple Black Belts and Green Belts employee work
 As a teacher, the MBB is responsible for providing guidance to Black Belts, Green
Belts and Yellow Belts and the training for new participants.

Concept of Kaizen
Kai 'means change' and zen 'means good', Kaizen indicates change for good.
Kaizen has philosophy in improve in smaller steps always consistently and
continuously at all place with smallest or zero investment.
Areas of Kaizen
1. Planning
2. Design and Drawing
3. House Keeping
4. Material Handling
5. Maintenance
6. Quality Control
7. Storage and delivery
Benefits of Kaizen
1. Improved Quality
2. Improved safety.
 3. Job satisfaction in employees
4. High morale
5. Reduced rework, scrap, etc.
6. Faster cycle time.
7. 0verall improvement
8. Satisfied customers
Kaizen Tools:
• Poka Yoke
• 5S
• JIT (Just in Time)
• Kanban.

POKA YOKE (FAIL-SAFING/FOOL PROOFING)

Poka Yoke is a Japanese word. It means fool-proof mechanism. It is one of the tools
and techniques of kaizen. It is an approach for fail safing or mistake proofing processes using
automatic devices or methods to avoid simple human error.
All the activities of manufacturing will be performed only in correct (Standardized)
manner and there are no chances to mistake on the part of machine, tools, operator and the
entire system.
For e.g. purchasing, inventory control, process used for manufacture, tools, jigs and fixture,
inspection and testing etc.
Two aspects focused by Poka-Yoke are:
(i) Prediction or recognizing that a defect is about to occur and providing a warning.
(ii) Detection or recognizing that a defect has occurred and stopping the process.
Applications of Poka-Yoke
Few more examples of Poka-yoke application are:
a. Modifying a machine so that it will operate only if parts are inserted correctly.
b. Sensors in machine to avoid accidents. For e.g. sensors to detect human body.
c. Different type of plugs fittings to avoid 110 volts appliances being connected to a 230
volt outlet.
Application of Poka-Yoke :
1. Less defects.
2. Fast Production Process
3. Better quality production.
 4. Workers efforts are reduced.
5. Increase in profit
5S Concept:

The 5S are:
• Seiri (Sort): Indicates sorting, items kept near workplace to be sorted according
to set parameters (i.e. sort out necessary and not necessary).
• Seiton (Set in Order): Seiton means setting in proper sequence. The workplace
items to be located in proper allocated place, so that it would be easy to access
them (i.e. searching time should be zero).
• Seiso (Shine): Indicating cleaning the workplace daily to make it shine using
regular cleaning. So that we regularly monitor workplace.
• Seiketsu (Standardize): Standardization to be done by following daily
practices. Use standard operating procedure (SOP).
• Shitsuke (Sustain): Indicates to maintain and follow the above techniques
regularly and consistently.
Advantages of 5S:
1. Builds a good culture in the industry
2. Cleanliness maintained
3. Increase good habit in staff
4. Reduction in accidents
5. Reduced unnecessary time in searching
6. Increase work efficiency
7. Discipline
ISO CERTIFICATION
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is an independent, non-
governmental, international organization that develops standards to ensure the quality, safety,
and efficiency of products, services, and systems.
ISO certification certifies a management system, manufacturing process, service, or
documentation procedure for standardization and quality assurance.
Some Examples of ISO Certification
ISO 9000 - Quality Management System
ISO 31000 – Risk Management
ISO 27001 – Information Security Management System
ISO 14000 – Environment Management System
ISO 26000 – Social Responsibility
ISO 28000 – Security Management

ISO 9000
 International Standards Organization.
 It is adopted by more than of 145 countries ISO published its 9000 series of standards
in 1987.
 The ISO 9000 standard provide guidelines for maintaining a quality system in the
organization
 It Guides for high quality product development.
 The ISO 9000 designed to help organizations ensure that they meet the needs of
customers and other stakeholders
 It gives organizational aspects responsibilities, reporting, procedures, processes, for
implementing quality management.

ISO 9000 Series Application

ISO 9001 Organization which gives quality assurance in design, development,
production, installation and servicing.

ISO 9002 Organization which gives quality assurance in the production and
installation of manufacturing systems

ISO 9003 Organization which gives Quality assurance in final inspection and
testing.
Advantages of ISO 9000 certification process
• Quality is maintained,
• Increases market credibility as well.
• Opportunity to compete with larger companies
• More time spent on customer focus,
• Confirmation that your company is committed to quality,
• Can increase customer confidence, satisfaction and retention
• Create a more efficient, effective operation
• Identification in global and international market
• Increase profit
• Reduce waste and increases productivity
Drawbacks or limitations of ISO 9000 certification process
• Not fool-proof
• Likely variations in the norms of awarding certificates as industry is changed
• It is non-governmental accreditation agency
• It does not guarantee the process to be of high quality.
• Does not give any guideline for defining an appropriate process.
• Special expertise and experience are required.

Process of Getting ISO 9000 Certification

1. Application stage: Applies to a registrar for Certification.
2. Pre-assessment: The registrar makes a rough assessment of the organization.
3. Document review and adequacy audit:
 Process and quality-related documents.
 The registrar reviews the documents
 Makes suggestions for improvements.
4. Compliance audit: The registrar checks whether the suggestions made by him
during review have been complied.
5. Registration: The registrar awards ISO 9000 certificate after successful completions
of all previous phases.
6. Continued Monitoring: The registrar continues monitoring the organization
periodically.
ISO 14000
 ISO 14000 is the standards for organizations committed to taking care of environment
while production. ISO 14000 is a family of standards related to environmental
management.
 Minimize negative affect on the environment by their operations (processes etc.) (i.e.
cause adverse changes to air, water, or land)
 Work according with applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented
requirements continually improve in the above.

ISO 14000 is a series of standards and guideline documents which covers the following
• ISO 14001 Environmental Management Systems (EMS)
• ISO 14010 Guidelines for Environmental Auditing (EA)
• ISO 14020 Guidelines for Environmental Labelling (EL)
• ISO 14030 Guidelines for Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE)
• ISO 14040 Guidelines for Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA)
• ISO 14060 Guidelines for Environmental Aspects in Product Standards
Advantages of ISO 14000
• Reduces environmental related problems
• Enhances image and reputation of organization
• Satisfies investor criteria (Europe requires ISO 14000 as a part of doing business)
• Meets clients registration requirements
• Reduces consumption of materials and energy
• Improve industry-government relations

Economics of Quality Conformance

When the sum of prevention and appraisal increases the cost of failure reduces. This
is called optimum cost of conformance. The total costs associated with conformance quality
will be U-shaped as indicated in the exhibit below. Prevention costs include quality
engineering, training and related supervision costs. Appraisal costs include inspection, testing
and supervision related to these activities. Internal failure costs include spoilage, scrap,
rework and the associated downtime costs, while external failure costs include warranty costs
and the costs of lost customers.
Cost of Quality
Cost of quality is defined as the cost required to company to carry out quality
functions for meeting the quality needs of the customer are known as cost of quality. Cost of
quality divided into two types, Cost of Conformance and Cost of non-conformance

Cost of Conformance
These costs are incurred in an effort to keep defective products from falling into the
hands of customers. The Cost of Conformance is made up of Preventions costs and Appraisal
costs.
1. Prevention Costs
Prevention costs include all those costs which are incurred for activities that are
specifically designed to prevent poor product quality from happening in the first place. It is
much less expensive to prevent a problem from happening than it is to find and correct the
problem after it has occurred.
Prevention costs are incurred for activities whose purpose is to reduce the number of defects.
It includes cost of design, cost of planning, cost of training etc.
2. Appraisal Costs
Appraisal costs, which are also called inspection costs, are those costs which are
incurred to identify defective products before they are shipped to customers. However,
performing appraisal activities does not prevent defects from occurring. It includes cost of
incoming inspection, 100% inspection, outgoing inspection etc.
Cost of non-conformance
These costs are incurred because defects are produced despite efforts by the
organization to prevent them. Therefore these costs are also known as costs of poor quality.
These failure costs are incurred when a product fails to conform to its design specifications
.The cost of non conformance is made up of internal failure costs and external failure costs.
1. Internal Failure Costs
Internal failure costs result from identification of defects before they are shipped to
customers. These costs include rejected products, reworking of defective units, and downtime
caused by quality problems.
2. External Failure Costs
External failure costs are costs that are a result of delivering a defective product to the
customer. These costs include warranty, repairs and replacements, product recalls, liabilities
arising from legal action against a company, and lost sales arising from a reputation for poor
quality.

Cost of Rework and Repair

If errors are negative the jobs are to be thrown as the scrap. If the jobs are positive or
the errors can be rectified the lot will be given to rework the cost required is cost of rework.
Similarly it can be possible that error of the product can be repaired by some method this is
called as cost of repair.

Value of Quality
Value of quality can be defined as the return direct or indirect to the manufacturer due
to improvement in the quality.
1. Increased Sales 2. Increased Profit 3. Improved Productivity 4. Reduces waste,
rejection, scrap 5. Indirect benefits are improve reputation, publicity of the company

Relation between ‘cost of quality’ and ‘value of quality’

The balance between the cost of quality and value of quality gives optimum quality of
 design. The quality of design must fulfill the needs and expectations of customers, while the
production cost should be low as possible so as to earn maximum profit. The graph shown
represents cost and value of quality.

If we want to improve the quality of design from point 1 to 2, the cost of quality will
increase by amount A, whereas the value of quality will increase by amount B. Here B>A
and therefore, improvement in quality at this level will yield more income.
But, when the quality is to be improved from 2 to 3, we find here that D<C, i.e. rise
in value of quality is less than cost of quality. Hence, the quality level at point 2 is
optimum quality of design, below this, the profit that can be earned is not maximized and
above this it is not economical to improve the quality of design.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

Quality function deployment is planning tool used to fulfil customer expectation and
requirement.
QFD employed to translate customer expectation in terms of engineering or technical
characteristics that can be deploy in the product through Product planning, Process
planning, Production planning, Part development etc.
QFD Stages
1. Customer Needs
2. Technical Specification
3. End Product Specification
4. Process Features
5. Process Control Features
1. Customer need/ requirement:
In first stage is identifying customer needs and wants. These are usually related with
Product or service such as look, feel, colour, how long it last etc.
Sources for knowing the customer needs are market surveys, customer complaints etc.
2. Technical Specification/requirement:
Customer requirements are then translated into technical specification through the use
of technical experts.
3. End product specification:
Technical specifications are the turned into end product specification and this stage
lead to end product which meets customer requirement.
4. Process feature:
In fourth stage decide or plan how turns the design into real product.
5. Process control features:
Manufacture or produce the required product as per end product specification

Advantages of QFD:
1. Customer satisfaction
2. It prevents design errors
3. Product development cycle gets shorter
4. Provides base for product development
5. Reduced development cost
Inspection
Inspection is checking of material, products or components at various stages of
manufacturing. Inspection involves for e.g. Parameter Measurement of the product ,
Comparison with drawing or standard etc.
Objective of Inspection
1. Inspection of incoming material
2. Inspection of raw material as it under goes processing from one machine to another
machine
3. Final inspection is required for supplying good products to customer
4. To maintain better relations with customers by ensuring no defective products
5. Inspection for deciding rejection rework etc.

Quality control Inspection

It involves inspection at various stages It is part of quality control

QC is an effective system for quality Inspection is an act of checking material part

product development , Quality component at various stages
QC uses SQC, X bar chart, R bar chart etc.
improvement It uses measuring instruments

In QC after inspection if error happened In inspection compare with given standard

take the corrective action and sorting out defective from good product
Everybody working in an organization are Inspection is responsibility of Inspector
responsible for QC
Types of Inspection
1. Process Inspection
Offline inspection (Centralized Inspection)
Online inspection (Floor inspection)
2. Final Inspection
3. Raw Material Inspection
4. Tools and gauges Inspection
1. Process Inspection:
Inspection on material is done during processing on the material/ or job it is called
process inspection
Advantages:
1. Error and defects are removed during processing
 2. Processing cost should be low
3. Less rejection

Online / Floor Inspection Offline /Centralized Inspection

1. Inspection is conducted at the place of 1. Inspection is conducted at a central location.

actual production.

2. Material Handling is almost zero. 2. Material Handling is more.

3. Difficult to use high accuracy and 3. Better condition to use high accuracy and delicate
delicate measuring instruments. measuring instruments.

4. Suitable for heavy and bulky parts. 4. Suitable for light and medium part.

5. Inspector moves to the workplace for 5. Inspector does not move to the workplace for the
inspection. inspection.

2. Final Inspection
When products/jobs are ready in all respects then inspection is done before dispatch to
the customer that inspection is called as final inspection
Advantage
1. Dispatch of defective parts are stopped
2. Transportation cost of defective parts are reduced
3. Raw Material Inspection
It is expected that raw material is inspected before start of production it is known as
raw material inspection
Advantages:
1. Defective material is rejected before production starts
2. Processing cost of defective material is reduced
4. Tools and gauges Inspection
Various tools and gauges are used for inspection during manufacturing. These will get
damaged or setting may get changed during their use. So tools and gauges are inspected and
calibrated.
Roles of Quality Control Inspector/supervisor
• Reading drawings and specifications
• Monitoring operations to ensure that they meet production standards
• Inspection and testing of raw material, in process jobs, final product etc.
• To find out cause of defect, error, rejection etc.
 • Recommending adjustments to the assembly or production process and take the
corrective action to remove defect, error etc.
• To verify and calibrate Instrument used for inspection
• Accepting or rejecting finished items
• To Prepare Quality reports
• Reporting inspection and testing data to higher authority

Difference between Process inspection and final inspection

Process Inspection Final Inspection
1. Process inspection for refers to 1. Final inspections take place when
inspection during production. production is complete.
2. This is done to check the parameters 2. The overall product is measured
within each section of the process. against engineering, customer
requirements, and standards.
3. It is possible to stop the production at 3. It not possible to stop the
the moment if rejection is identified. production as it is the post
inspection procedure.
4. This will help to isolate the faulty 4. It may be necessary to test the
semi-finished goods, before they enter performance according to its
for next operation. specifications or not to evaluate
the fitness of product.
5. E.g. Inspection of raw materials or 5. E.g. Inspection of finished goods or
semi-finished products. products.
6. Wastage is minimized at early stage of 6. Wastage is not minimized if
production. rejection takes place.

Seven basic tools of quality

The seven basic tools of quality is a designation given to a fixed set of graphical
techniques identified as being most helpful in solving issues related to quality. They are
called basic because they are suitable for people with little formal training in statistics and
because they can be used to solve the vast majority of quality-related issues.
The seven tools are:
1. Check sheet
2. Control chart
3. Flow Chart
4. Pareto chart
5. Histogram
6. Cause-and-effect diagram (also known as the "fishbone diagram" or Ishikawa diagram)
7. Scatter diagram

Check sheet
The check sheet is a form (document) used to collect data in real time at the location
where the data is generated. The data it captures can be quantitative or qualitative. To provide
a structured way to collect quality-related data as a rough means for assessing a process or as
an input to other analyses
Function
Five uses for check sheets in quality control:
 To check the shape of the probability distribution of a process
 To quantify defects by type
 To quantify defects by location
 To quantify defects by cause (machine, worker)
 To keep track of the completion of steps in a multistep procedure

Ishikawa diagram:
Ishikawa diagrams (also called fishbone diagrams, herringbone diagrams, cause-and-
effect diagrams, or Fishikawa) are causal diagrams that show the causes of a specific event.
―It is a meaningful relationship between an effect and its causes."
Common uses of the Ishikawa diagram are product design and quality defect
prevention to identify potential factors causing an overall effect.
Advantages
• Tool which can show root causes
• Show all causes simultaneously
• Good visualization for presenting issues to stakeholders
Disadvantages
• Complex defects might yield a lot of causes which might become visually cluttering
• Interrelationships between causes are not easily identifiable

Pareto chart:
It is a bar graph arranged in descending order of height from left to right. It is a graph
that shows the order of the largest number of occurrences by item. The Pareto analysis helps
us to prioritize where we can get more benefits by applying fewer efforts. The purpose of the
Pareto chart is to highlight the most important among a (typically large) set of factors.

Histogram:
―Histogram is a type of bar graph representing the frequency distribution of the data
from a process.‖ To construct a histogram, the first step is to cells and cell interval are created
that is, divide the entire range of values into a series of intervals—and then count how many
values fall into each interval.
Purpose: roughly assess the probability distribution of a given variable by depicting
the frequencies of observations occurring in certain ranges of values.
Scatter Plot:
A scatter plot (also called a scatterplot, scatter graph, scatter chart, scattergram, or
scatter diagram) is a type of plot or mathematical diagram using Cartesian coordinates to
display values for typically two variables for a set of data.

Control Chart:
―It is used for studying the process variation over time." It is a plot of a process
characteristic, usually through time with statistically determined limits.
The control chart is a graph used to study how a process changes over time. Data are
plotted in time order. A control chart always has a central line for the average, an upper line
for the upper control limit, and a lower line for the lower control limit. These lines are
determined from historical data.

Flow Charts:
―It is a diagrammatic representation that illustrates the sequence of operation to be
performed to get the desired result.‖ It is a visual representation tool for a sequence of
operation; therefore, we can easily illustrate the Internal and external operational boundaries.
 5. Statistical Quality Control
 Basics of statistical concepts, Meaning and importance of SQC.
 Variable and attribute measurement Control charts- inherent and assignable sources of
variation, control charts for variables - X and R charts, control charts for attributes p,
np, C charts.
 Process capability Cp and Cpk calculations
 Acceptance Sampling concept, Comparison with 100% inspection, operating
characteristics Curve
 Different types of sampling plans, sampling methods
 Merits and Demerits of Acceptance Sampling
Statistical Quality Control
Statistical Quality Control is the collection, analysis and interpretation of the
inspection data to solve the problems related to quality control
SQC find out variations in the inspection data in order to take the necessary actions to
improve the quality.
Objective and importance of SQC
1. Improvement in customer satisfaction
2. Better inspection method
3. Less rejection scrap
4. Effective utilization of equipment's and machine
5. Deployment of good quality product
Reasons of variation within the inspection data
1. Tool wear
2. Machine variation
3. Loose bearing
4. Play between nut and screw of the machine
5. Carelessness of operator
6. Poor maintenance of machine
7. Poor quality raw material
8. Measuring Errors

In SQC Inspection DATA is divided into two types

1. Variable Data
 2. Attribute Data
1. Variable data:
When record is made of actual measured quality characteristics such as dimensions
(height, diameter, width breadth, hardness, temperature etc.) are expressed with respect to
their unit, the quality is said to express in variable and the data is called variable data.
E.g. Dimensions of a part measured in mm, Hardness measured in Rockwell unit, tensile
strength in N/mm2 etc.
2. Attribute Data
When inspection record shows only defective parts or defects in the assembly that
inspection is called Attribute Data.
E.g. No. of defective parts found from the lot, defects in the casting parts, cracks in sheet
metal , Parts ok or not ok etc.

Difference between Variable and Attribute Data

Variable Data Attribute Data

1. Data collected by using measuring 1. Data is collected by GO NOGO

instruments such as vernier, micrometre gauges, visual inspection etc.
etc.
2. Calculations Involved 2. No calculations involved

3. Sampling Inspection is done 3. Mass production are tested

4. Result in the form of readings 4. Result in the form of accepted or

rejected
5. More time required to collect data 5. Less time required to collect data

6. Skilled worker can inspect 6. Unskilled worker needed

7. Cost is more 7. Cost is low

Variable measurement- „When measurements are carried out to find quality characteristic
of a component, the quality is said to be expressed by „variables‟. For example length of bar
in mm.
Attribute measurement- „When a record shows only the numbers of work pieces/items or
products conforming and non-conforming to any specified requirement, it is said to be
attribute‟. For example, GO and NO GO gauge.
 • Some technical terms used in SQC
Mean, Median, Mode, Range, Standard Deviation, Variance

Mean: X
It is average of all the observations. Observations x1, x2, x3, x4…….. xn

Median (Middle Value)

When all the observations are arranged in ascending or descending order the median
is the middle value. For e.g. Observations 4,8,5,7,6 Put in order 4,5,6,7,8
Then Median is 6
If in case two numbers at in middle. For e.g. Observations 4,8,6,7,9,10,11 Put in
order 4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11.
7 and 8 in the middle then median is (7+8)/2. Then Median is 7.5

Mode:
Choose the number that appears the most frequently from the observations.
Observations 5,3,2,1,2,2 Put in order 1,2,2,2,3,5. Mode is 2
Sometimes there may be more than one mode. Observations 1,1,3,2,2,5 Put in order
1,1,2,2,3,5
Mode is 1 and 2 (Bimodal)

Dispersion:
The extent to which the observations are distributed about the zone is known as
dispersion.
Dispersion is measured by Range.

Range:
Range is the difference between largest values to the smallest value for e.g.
Observations 5,8,9,7,10,6 Range is 10 - 5=5

Standard Deviation ( ):
It is the root mean square of the difference between the observations and mean
If X1 ,X2 ,X3, X4……….. Xn are n observations,

Variance:
It is the square of standard deviation. Variance =

For analyzing Data Control charts are used in SQC

For Analyzing Variable Data
1. ̅ Chart
2. R Chart
For Analyzing Attribute Data
1. P chart
2. nP Chart
3. C Chart
Parameters Variable Control Chart Attribute Control Chart

Characteristics Actual Measurements of Determining the presence

quality characteristics ofquality characteristics
Data Data is continuous like diameter, Data is discrete like go-no-go,
width, length, etc. good-not good, etc.
Time More Less
Inspection Cost High Less
Measurement Length, Temp. etc. Defective, Non -Defective.

Instruments Venire calipers, Micrometer Gauges like Go and NOGO.

Examples X-Bar and R chart P, C, np Chart

For example
1. ̅ and R Chart is used for analyzing data such as Diameter of shafts, hole, length of
pins etc.
2. P and nP Chart is used for analyzing the data of inspection of rings, inspection of
screws etc.
3. C chart is used for analyzing the data such as defects in car assembly, defects in two
wheeler assembly etc
̅ and R Chart
• ̅ chart shows the centring of the process i.e. it shows the variation in the
measurement
• R chart shows the uniformity or consistency of the process i.e. it shows the variations
in the ranges of sample

̅ and R Chart

1. Calculate the mean ̅ and Range R for each sub group (Group of job at different
interval of time is selected calculate each group mean and range) For e.g. if sample
contains 5 items whose dimensions are , , , ,

Then ̅ =

And R is calculated R = Highest value – lowest value

2. Calculate the average of mean ̅ and average of Range ̅

∑̅
Average of mean ̿ =

N = Number of sub group

Similarly average of Range ̅

∑
̅

3. Calculation of 3 sigma limit it is also called as upper control limit (UCL) and lower control
limit (LCL) for ̅
̅ =̿+ ̅

̅ =̿- ̅
4. Calculate 3 sigma limits for R chart
= ̅
= ̅

5. Plot ̅ and R chart

While plotting chart the center line should be drawn solid horizontal line the UCL line
and LCL line should be shown by dotted line
6. Drawing Preliminary conclusion from control chart
When all points fall inside limit is means process is in control if they fall outside
process in out of control
P Chart
P chart are usually used for
1. To find out avg. proportion of defective parts from inspected parts over period of time
2. To bring the attention of the management any changes in quality level
3. To find causes behind the defects
Steps to Draw P chart
Step 1: Record the data of each subgroup on number of inspected parts and number of
defective parts
Step 2: Calculate fraction defective (P) of each sub group

P=

Step 3: Calculate ̅ the average fraction defective

̅=

Step 4: Calculate control limits (UCL and LCL)

̅ ̅̅̅ ̅ ̅̅̅
̅ √ ̅ √

n=

Step 5: Plot P chart

While plotting chart the center line should be drawn solid horizontal line the UCL line
and LCL line should be shown by dotted line
Step 6: Drawing Preliminary conclusion from control chart
When all points fall inside limit is means process is in control if they fall outside
process in out of control

Steps to Draw nP chart

Step 1: Record the data of each subgroup on number of inspected parts and number of
defective parts
Step 2: Calculate fraction defective (P) of each sub group
̅̅̅̅ =

Step 3: Calculate ̅ the average fraction defective

̅=
Step 4: Calculate control limits (UCL and LCL)

̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅ ̅

Step 5: Plot P chart

While plotting chart the center line should be drawn solid horizontal line the UCL line
and LCL line should be shown by dotted line
Step 6: Drawing Preliminary conclusion from control chart
When all points fall inside limit is means process is in control if they fall outside
process in out of control

C Chart
C chart are usually used for analyzing the no. defects from the assembly
For e.g. No. of defects in the four wheeler car assembly, No. of defects in the two wheeler
bike
Steps to Draw C chart
Step 1: Record the data of each assembly with respect to their number of defects
Step 2: Calculate average number of defects ( ̅ )

̅=

Step 3: Calculate control limits (UCL and LCL)

̅ + 3√ ̅

̅ - 3√ ̅
Step 4: Plot C chart
While plotting chart the center line should be drawn solid horizontal line the UCL line
and LCL line should be shown by dotted line
Step 5: Drawing Preliminary conclusion from control chart
When all points fall inside limit is means process is in control if they fall outside
process in out of control

Special Causes of Variation are also known as Assignable Causes (unnatural) of

variation. If Special cause of variations is present in a process, then the process is neither
stable nor predictable and is said to be out of statistical control.
SPC technique uses Control Charts to monitor and control the Special Cause of
variations present in the manufacturing process.
  Special Causes (Assignable causes)
 Special cause of variation is not always acting on the process.
 Process is not under Statistical control.
 Process output is unpredictable.
 Process is not stable over time.
 Erratic fluctuations and Shift occurred in process.
Type of Special Causes of Variation
1. Extreme Variations
2. Erratic Fluctuations
3. Shifts
4. Indication of Trend
1. Extreme Variations: Extreme variation is recognized by the points falling outside the
Upper and Lower control limits.

Causes of Extreme Variations:

1. Error in measurements and calculations.
2. Wrong setting of machine, tools etc.
3. Samples chosen at the start or at the end of an operation.
2. Erratic Fluctuations: Erratic fluctuation is characterized by ups and downs. This may be
due to single cause or a group of causes affecting the process.
Causes of Erratic Fluctuations:
1. Frequent adjustment of machine.
2. Change in Man, machine, method and material etc.
3. Processing of different types of material.
3. Shift: When a series of consecutive points fall above or below the centre line on the
control chart then it is assumed that shift in the process has taken place. It is generally
assumed that when 7 consecutive points lie above or below the centre line, the shift is
occurred.

Causes of Shift:
1. Change in Machine setting.
2. Change in Material.
3. Loose fixture etc.
4. Change in Operator, Inspector and Inspection equipment.
5. Unskilled or New operator or carelessness of the operator.
4. Indication of Trend: If the consecutive points on control chart tend to move steadily
either towards Upper Control Limits (UCL) or Lower Control Limit (LCL), then it can be
assumed that process is indicating a „Trend‟ i.e. change is taking place slowly.
Causes of Trend:
1. Tool wear
2. Wear of thread on clamping device
3. Clogging of fixtures and holes
4. Effect of temperature and humidity.

Process Capability
Process capability analysis is a statistical tool used to evaluate the ability of a process
to produce output within specified limits, or the "potential capability." It is used to determine
whether a process is capable of meeting customer requirements and specifications and also to
identify opportunities for improvement. Process capability analysis involves comparing the
natural variability of a process with the allowable tolerance range for the output.
Calculation of Process capability
Process capability = 6𝜎
̅
𝜎=

Cp and Cpk are commonly referred to as process capability indices. They are
statistical measures used in process capability analysis to evaluate the ability of a process to
produce output within specified limits.

Cp is the ratio of the spread between the process specification and the six times
process standard deviation. In other words, it is a measure of how well a process is capable of
meeting customer requirements. A higher value indicates a greater degree of capability.
The formula for Cp is:

Where USL and LSL are the upper and lower specification limits, respectively.
Cpk Process Capability Index is calculated by taking the minimum difference between the
process mean and the specification limit and dividing it by three times the process standard
deviation.
Interpretations of Cp and Cpk
When the Cp value is greater than 1 i.e. Cp value >1: The process spread is less
and all products fall within the specification limit. Here the process is said to be quite
capable of meeting the specification limit.
When the Cp value is equal to 1 i.e. Cp value =1: The process spread is little wide
but running within the designed specification limit. Here the process is said to be just
capable of meeting the specification limit.
When the Cp value is less than 1 i.e. Cp value <1: The process spread is large and
most of the products fall outside the specification limit. Here the process is said to
be incapable.
When Cp value equal to Cpk i.e. Cp=Cpk: The Process means is said to be at
centre.
When the Cpk value is less than 1 i.e. Cpk value <1: Indicates that the mean of the process is
shifted from target and defects will be produced.
When the Cpk value is greater than 1 i.e. Cpk value >1: The center or mean of the
process may be shifted from target but still the process is capable of meeting design
specification.
In order to achieve Six Sigma quality in the organization, we must reduce the
variation in the process so as to achieve the desired value of Cp.

The Voice of the Process is the capability of your processes to meet the needs and
expectations of your customer, while the Voice of the Customer is the expression in the
customer‟s own words about their needs, expectations, and preferences.
Acceptance sampling
Acceptance sampling is a technique in which a few parts or samples are selected
randomly from a lot and the selected units are inspected to decide whether the lot should be
accepted or rejected on the basis of sample inspection.
Example, company packs the mobile phones lots of 100 units. To check the quality of the
lots, draws a random sample of size 10 from each lot.
Advantages or merits of Acceptance Sampling
i) It is less expensive in terms of money, time and labour
ii) It is applicable for items, which cannot be used after single inspection, for e.g.
crackers, bulbs, tube lights, food, etc.
iii) Less inspection staff is required.
iv) Quick inspection through the acceptance sampling
v) In many cases, acceptance sampling provides better outgoing quality
Acceptance sampling limitations which are
i) Risk of accepting “bad” lots and rejecting “good” lots
ii) There is always some risk of making wrong inference about the quality of the lot on
the basis of some sample inspection
iii) The success of acceptance sampling depends on the randomness of the sample,
quality characteristics to be tested, lot size, acceptance criteria.

100% Inspection
In this method of inspection, each and every item/unit of any given lot is inspected. A
decision regarding the quality of the entire lot is taken on the basis of all inspected units
of the lot. This procedure needs huge expenditure of time.

Acceptance Sampling 100% Inspection

1. Few Samples are selected from the 1. All samples or jobs are selected from
lot for inspection the lot for inspection

2. It is practically and economically 2. It is practically and economically

possible impossible

3. Time required for inspection is less 3. Time required for inspection is more.

4. Less inspection staff is required. 4. More inspection staff is required.

 5. Risk of rejection of rejecting entire 5. No risk of rejection of entire lot.
lot.

6. It is applicable for items, which 6. It is not applicable for items, which

cannot be used after single inspection, cannot be used after single inspection,
for e.g. crackers, bulbs, tube lights, for e.g. crackers, bulbs, tube lights,
food, etc. food, etc.

Types of acceptance sampling:

1. Single Sampling Plan:
A single sampling strategy involves selecting a sample from the batch and testing it to
see if it meets certain quality criteria. In other words, check whether the defective items are
not above the acceptable limit. If the lot fails to meet the set criteria, the entire lot is rejected.
This type of plan is employed for inspecting products produced in small batches.
Procedure of single sampling plan is outlined as follows:
(1) Pick up randomly number of items from the lot of N and inspect them.
(2) If the number of defectives found in the sample size is ≤ Acceptance number (A)1, accept
the lot.
(3) If the number of defectives in sample of n items > A1, inspect the remaining (N – n)
items.
(4) Correct or replace all the defective products found.
Example: Let the values of N, n and A1, be as follows:
N = 400, n = 20, A1= 2
A Sample of 20 products shall be taken from a batch of 400 pieces randomly. The 20
pieces shall be inspected and if the number of defectives found is ≤ 2, the lot of 400 pieces
will be accepted without further inspection.
If the number of defectives in the sample of 20 is more than 2 then all the remaining
products, then lot is rejected.

2. Double Sampling Plan:

A sample consisting of n units of products is inspected, if the number of defective is
below A1 the lot is accepted, if it is above the second acceptance number A2 (where A2< A1)
the lot is rejected. If the number of defectives falls between A1 and A2 the result is
inconclusive and a second sample is drawn.
 The rule again is similar to that of a single sampling plan. If the total number of
defectives of the two samples is below the pre-determinded acceptance number A2, the lot is
accepted otherwise rejected.
Example: Let N = 600 A1 = 2, n1 = 30, n2 = 50, A2 = 4 then the interpretation of the
above data is given below:
(i) The lot consists of 600 products.
(ii) Take a sample of 30 randomly from 600 and inspect them.
(iii) If the number of defectives is < 2 accept the lot of 600 without further inspection
(iv) If the number of defectives more than 2 but < 4 take the second sample of 50 products
from the remainder of N i.e., from (600-30) and inspect 50.
(v) If the total of defective in 50and 30 together < 4 then accept the batch of 600 otherwise
reject the lot of 600.

3. Multiple or Sequential Sampling Plans:

This is similar to the double sampling plan except that with the second sample we

have again an inconclusive range between A3 (Acceptance number at third sample) and A4

(Acceptance number at fourth sample). Below A3 the lot is accepted above A4 it is rejected

and if the total number of defectives is between A3 and A4, a next sample is taken and so on.

Eventually after a number of samples the inspector must come to a final decision and
one critical limit is set which determines whether the lot is accepted or rejected.

Single sampling plan Double sampling plan

1. In single sampling plan, decision about 1. In double sampling plan decision about
accepting or rejecting a lot is based on one accepting or rejecting is based on two
sample samples.
2. Time required is less 2. Time required is more
3. Decision and testing procedure of single 3. Decision based on double samples is more
sampling plan is easier than double sampling reliable and has psychological advantage of
plan. giving the lot a second chance compared to
single sampling plan.
4. In S.S.P. the lot is accepted if: d ≤ c , where d 4. In D.S.P the lot is accepted if: d1 ≤ c2 and
= no. of defectives, c=acceptance number (d1 + d2) ≤ c2. where d1,d2 – no. of
defectives ; c1, c2 – acceptance number
Operating characteristic curve (OC curve):
OC curve is the probability curve for sampling plans that shows the probabilities of
accepting lots with various quality levels (% defectives).

(α-risk)

(β -risk)

1. Lot: A lot is the collection of units or items from which a sample is taken and
inspected to determine its acceptability.
2. Lot Size: The number of units in a lot is called lot size. It is denoted by N.
3. Sample Size: The number of units inspected to sentence a lot is called sample size. It
is denoted by n.
4. Lot Quality: The proportion of defective units in a lot is called lot quality or
proportion defective. It is denoted by p and defined as Number of defective units in a
lot
 5. Acceptance Number: When a deal is finalised between a producer and a Consumer,
they decide on the maximum number of allowable defective units in a sample. This
number is called acceptance number and is denoted by c.
6. Acceptance Quality Level (AQL): The producer and the Consumer generally know
that the supply of completely defect-free lots is not possible. So they usually negotiate
and arrive at an agreement that the Consumer will accept all lots which have at most a
definite quality level or definite percentage of defective units. This definite quality
level is known as acceptance quality level (AQL).
7. Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD): In order to reduce the producer‟s risk,
the Consumer agrees to tolerate a lot quality worse than acceptance quality level
(AQL) upper limit but not beyond it. This limiting value is known as the lot tolerance
percent or proportion defective (LTPD).
8. Producer’s risk (α-risk): There is a possibility of rejecting a lot having a quality
level less than or equal to the acceptance quality level (AQL) due to sampling
inspection. If a lot of good quality is rejected, the producer suffers loss. Therefore, the
producer always faces the risk of a good lot being rejected. Such a risk is known as
producer‟s risk a
9. Consumer’s risk (β-risk): A consumer has a risk of buying a lot of unsatisfactory
quality. Such a risk is known as the consumer‟s risk

Ideal OC Curve:
Fig. below shows an ideal O.C. curve where it is desired to accept all lots having 3%
or less defective, and to reject all lots having more than 3% defectives.
In this curve, all lots with less than 3% defectives have a probability of acceptance of
100%, while all lots with more than 3% defectives have a probability of acceptance as 0%.