Integration

Dr Ramasu, Dr Hagos, Prof Gatsinzi and Ms Samuel

April 24, 2025

Ramasu, Hagos, Gatsinzi and Samuel (BIUST) Integration April 24, 2025 1 / 45
 Overview

1 Antidifferentiation

2 Riemann Integral

3 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

4 Integration Techniques: Substitution

Ramasu, Hagos, Gatsinzi and Samuel (BIUST) Integration April 24, 2025 2 / 45
 Antidifferentiation

Antidifferentiation is the process of differentiation in reverse. Given a

d
function f , we determine another function F such that F (x ) = f (x ).
dx
We say that F is an antiderivative of f . For example, if f (x ) = 2x, then
d
F (x ) = x 2 is an antiderivative of f , since dx (x 2 ) = 2x.
2 2 2
Note: F (x ) = x + 1 and F (x ) = x − 3 are also antiderivatives of f (x ).
Thus, an antiderivative of f (x ) = 2x is any function that can be written in
the following form F (x ) = x 2 + C , where C is any constant.

Results
The antiderivative of f (x ) is the set of functions F (x ) + C such that

d
(F (x ) + C ) = f (x ).
dx
The constant C is called constant of integration.

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 If F is an antiderivative of f , we write
Z
f (x )dx = F (x ) + C

The equation reads as ”The antiderivative of f (x ), with respect to x, is

F (x ) + C .” The expression
R on the left side is called an indefinite
integral. The symbol is called integral sign, and f (x ) is the
integrand. The symbol dx can be regarded as indicating that x is the
variable of integration.

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 Example
Determine these indefinite integrals. That is, find the antiderivative of
each integrand:
1
Z Z Z Z
3 x
(a) 8dx (b) 4x dx (c) e dx (d) dx.
x
Solutions:
d
Z
(a) 8dx = 8x + C . (8x + C ) = 8.
Check:
dx
d 4
Z
(b) 4x 3 dx = x 4 + C . Check: (x + C ) = 4x 3 .
dx
d x
Z
(c) e x dx = e x + C . Check: (e + C ) = e x .
dx
1 d 1
Z
(d) dx = ln |x | + C . Check: (ln |x | + C ) = .
x dx x

Ramasu, Hagos, Gatsinzi and Samuel (BIUST) Integration April 24, 2025 5 / 45
 Rules of Antiderivatives
Results
(1) Constant Rule: Z
kdx = kx + C .

(2) Power Rule (where n ̸= −1):

1
Z
x n dx = x n +1 + C .
n+1
(3) Natural Logarithmic Rule:

1 1
Z Z
dx = ln |x | + C , and for x > 0, dx = ln x + C .
x x
(4) Exponential Rule (base e):

1 ax
Z
e ax dx = e + C , a ̸= 0.
a
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 Example
Find the following indefinite integrals:
Z
7
Z
3.5
Z
√ Z
1
(a) x dx (b) x dx (c) xdx (d) dx.
x3
Solutions:  
1 8 1 8 d
Z
(a) x 7 dx = x + C = x 7.
x + C . Check:
8 8 dx
 
1 4.5 d 1 4.5
Z
3.5
(b) x dx = x + C . Check: x + C = x 3.5 .
4.5 dx 4.5
√ 1
(c) Note that x = x 2 .
√
 
2 3 d 2 3
Z Z
1 1
xdx = x dx = x + C . Check:
2 2 x +C = x2
2
3 dx 3
(d) Note that = x −3 .
1
x3  
1 −2 d 1 −2
Z
−3
x dx = − x + C . Check: − x + C = x −3 .
2 dx 2

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 Properties of Antidifferentiation

Results
(1) A constant factor can be moved to the front of an indefinite
integral: Z Z
[c · f (x )]dx = c · f (x )dx.

(2) The antiderivative of a sum or difference is the sum or

difference of the antiderivatives:
Z Z Z
[f (x ) ± g (x )]dx = f (x )dx ± g (x )dx.

Example
Find each integral. Assume x > 0.
4 + 3x 2 + 2x 4
Z Z
5 3
(a) (3x − 4x + 6)dx (b) dx.
x
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 Example
Solution:
(a) We integrate each term separately:
Z Z Z Z
(3x 5 − 4x 3 + 6)dx = 3x 5 dx − 4x 3 dx + 6dx
   
1 6 1 4
= 3 x − 4 x + 6x + C
6 4
1 6
= x − x 4 + 6x + C .
2

(b) We integrate each term separately:

4 + 3x 2 + 2x 4 4 3x 2 2x 4
Z Z  
dx = + + dx
x x x x
Z  
4
= + 3x + 2x 3 dx
x
3 1
= 4 ln x + x 2 + x 4 + C .
2 2
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 Class Exercise
Z  
4 7
(a) + dx
x3 x
Z √
3
(b) 3 x 5 dx
Z
(c) 11e −3x dx
Z
(d) (x + 4)2 dx
Find f such that:
(e) f ′ (x ) = x − 3, f (2) = 9
7
(f) f ′ (x ) = 3e 4x , f (0) =
4
(g) f ′′ (x ) = 8x 3 + 5, f (1) = 0, f ′ (1) = 8
(h) f ′′ (x ) = x 3 + sinh x, f (0) = 1, f ′ (2) = 2.6
(i) f ′′′ (x ) = cos x, f (0) = 1, f ′ (0) = 2, f ′′ (0) = 3

Ramasu, Hagos, Gatsinzi and Samuel (BIUST) Integration April 24, 2025 10 / 45
 Table of Antidifferentiation formulas
Function Particular Antiderivatives
bx
bx ln b
cos x sin x
sin x − cos x
sec2 x tan x
cosh x sinh x
sinh x cosh x

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 Riemann Summation
Riemann summation is a process in which rectangles are used to
approximate the area under the graph of a continuous function. In the
following figure, [a, b ] is divided into four subintervals, each having width
∆x = (b − a)/4.

Figure: Subintervals

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 The heights of the rectangles shown are f (x1 ), f (x2 ), f (x3 ), and f (x4 ), and the
area of the region under the curve is approximately the sum of the areas of the
four rectangles:
4
f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + f (x3 )∆x + f (x4 )∆x = ∑ f (xi )∆x.
i =1
This is a Riemann Sum. Summation or sigma notation is denoted by a Greek
capital letter sigma, Σ. Expression on the right reads ”the sum of the product
f (xi )∆x from i = 1 to i = 4.”
Example
4 30
(a) ∑ 3i (b) ∑ h(xi )∆x.
i =1 i =1

Solution:
(a) We compute as follows
4
∑ 3i = 31 + 32 + 33 + 34
i =1
= 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 = 120.
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 Example
(b) We calculate in the following fashion
30
∑ h(xi )∆x = h(x1 )∆x + h(x2 )∆x + · · · + h(x30 )∆x
i =1

Approximating the area with rectangles becomes more accurate as we use

smaller subintervals, as shown in the following figure.

Figure: Smaller Subintervals

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 In general, suppose that the interval [a, b ] is divided into n equally sized
subintervals, each of width ∆x = (b − a)/n. We construct rectangles with
heights f (x1 ), f (x2 ), . . . , f (xn ). The area of the region under the curve is
approximated by the sum of the areas of the rectangles:

n
∑ f (xi )∆x.
i =1

Example
Consider the graph of f (x ) = −x 2 + 5x over an interval [0, 5]. Use
Riemann sum to approximate the area under the graph using:
(a) 5 equally sized subintervals.
(b) 10 equally sized subintervals.

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 Example
Solution:
(a) 5 equally sized intervals. We divide [0, 5] into 5 subintervals of size

5−0
∆x = = 1.
5
On the other hand, xi ranges from x1 = 0 to x5 = 4 in increments of 1.
The area under the graph of f is approximately
5
∑ f (xi )∆x = f (x1 ) · 1 + f (x2 ) · 1 + f (x3 ) · 1 + f (x4 ) · 1 + f (x5 ) · 1
i =1
= f (0) · 1 + f (1) · 1 + f (2) · 1 + f (3) · 1 + f (4) · 1
= 0·1+4·1+6·1+6·1+4·1
= 20.

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 Example
Solution:
(b) 10 equally sized intervals. We divide [0, 5] into 10 subintervals of size

5−0 1
∆x = = .
10 2
On the other hand, xi ranges from x1 = 0 to x10 = 4.5 in increments of
1
2 = 0.5. The area under the graph of f is approximately

10
∑ f (xi )∆x = f (x1 ) · 0.5 + f (x2 ) · 0.5 + f (x3 ) · 0.5 + f (x4 ) · 0.5
i =1
+ f (x5 ) · 0.5 + f (x6 ) · 0.5 + f (x7 ) · 0.5 + f (x8 ) · 0.5
+ f (x9 ) · 0.5 + f (x10 ) · 0.5
= 20.6250.

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 Definite Integrals

We note that as the number of subdivisions n increases, the width of the

rectangles ∆x decreases. If n → ∞, then ∆x → 0, and the Riemann sum
approaches the exact area under the graph.
Results
Let y = f (x ) be continuous and nonnegative over an interval [a, b ]. A
definite integral is the limit as n → ∞ (equivalently, ∆x → 0) of the
Riemann sum of the areas of rectangles under the graph of y = f (x ) over
[a, b ].
n Z a
Exact Area = lim
∆x →0
∑ f (xi )∆x = b
f (x )dx.
i =1

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 Definition
Let f be any continuous function over [a, b ] and F be any antiderivative of
f . Then the definite integral of f from a to b is
Z b
f (x )dx = F (b ) − F (a).
a

Evaluating definite integrals is called integration. The numbers a and b

are the limits of integration. Note that here, the limit indicates an
endpoint of the interval, not the value being approached.
Example

5
x3 5 2
Z 5
(−x 2 + 5x )dx = − + x
0 3 2 0
53 5
=− + 52 − 0
3 2
75
= ≈ 20.8333.
6
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 Example
Evaluate each of the following:
Z 4 Z 2 Z 5
1
(a) (x 2 − x )dx (b) e x dx (c) dx.
−1 0 2 x
Solution:
(a)
4
x3 x2
Z 4 
(x 2 − x )dx = −
−1 3 2 −1
 3
42 (−1)3 (−1)2
  
4
= − − −
3 2 3 2
−1 1
   
64 16
= − − −
3 2 3 2
64 1 1 1
= − 8 + + = 14 .
3 3 2 6

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 Z 2
(a) e x dx = [e x ]20 = e 2 − e 0 = e 2 − 1.
0
Z 5
1
(b) dx = [ln x ]52 = ln 5 − ln 2 = 0.916.
x 2
We now state the following fundamental results of calculus.
The Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus
If a continuous function f has an antiderivative F over [a, b ], then
n Z b
lim
n→∞
∑ f (xi )∆x = a
f (x )dx = F (b ) − F (a).
i =1

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 Example
Find the area under the graph of f (x ) = 15 x 2 + 3 over [2, 5].

Example
Solution:
Z 5
Area = f (x )dx
2
  x =5
1 3
= x + 3x
15 x =2
 
1 3 1 3
= (5 ) + 3(5) − (2 ) + 3(2)
15 15
4
= 16 .
5

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 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Suppose f is continuous on [a, b ].
Z x
(1) If g (x ) = f (t )dt, then g ′ (x ) = f (x ), that is,
Z x a
d
f (t )dt = f (x )
dx a
Z b
(2) g (b ) = f (x )dx = F (b ) − F (a), where F is any antiderivative
a
of f , that is F ′ = f .

Example
Z xp
Find the derivative of the function g (x ) = 1 + t 2 dt.
√ 0
Solution: Since f (t ) = 1 + t 2 is √continuous, PART 1 of the fundamental
′
Theorem of calculus gives g (x ) = 1 + x 2 .

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 Example
Now let us consider f (x ) = x 2 − 1 over [0, 2]. Here f (x ) has both positive
and negative values. See the graph below:

Figure: f (x ) has +ve and −ve values.

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 Example
Z 2
We can find f (x )dx in two ways.
0
First we use the FACT that for any a, b, c, if a < b < c, then
Z c Z b Z c
f (x )dx = f (x )dx + f (x )dx.
a a b

That is, area from a to b plus the area from b to c is the area from a to c.
Thus, since 1 ∈ [0, 2], we have
Z 2 Z 1 Z 2
(x 2 − 1)dx = (x 2 − 1)dx + (x 2 − 1)dx
0 0 1
 3 1  3 2
x x
= −x + −x
3 0 3 1
2 4 2
= − + = .
3 3 3

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 Example
Now let’s evaluate the original integral in another, more direct, way:
2
x3
Z 2 
2
(x − 1)dx = −x
0 3 0
8 2
= −2 = .
3 3

Example
Consider the two definite integrals:
Z 2 h x 3 i2 8
Z 2 h x 3 i2 8
2
x dx = = and −x 2 dx = − =−
0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3

We note that, graphs of y = x 2 and y = −x 2 are reflections of each other

across the x-axis. Thus, the have the same area, 38 . We also observe that
definite integrals of negative valued functions gives opposite of the area
between the curve and the x-axis.
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 Example
Z 2
Consider (−x 3 + 3x − 1)dx. Predict the sign of the results by
−1
examining the graph, and evaluate the integral.

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 Example
Z 2 h 1 i2
3
(−x 3 + 3x − 1)dx = − x4 + x2 − x
−1 4 2 −1
24 3
= − + · 22 − 2
4 2
 (−1)4 3 
− − + · (−1)2 − (−1)
4 2
9 9
. = 0− = − .
4 4

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 Properties of the Definite Integral

Z b Z a
(1) f (x )dx = − f (x )dx
Za a b

(2) f (x )dx = 0
a
Z b
(3) cdx = c (b − a) where c is a constant.
a
Z b Z b Z b
(4) [f (x ) + g (x )]dx = f (x )dx + g (x )dx
a a a
Z b Z b Z b
(5) [f (x ) − g (x )]dx = f (x )dx − g (x )dx
a a a
Z b Z b
(6) cg (x )dx = c g (x )dx where c is any constant.
a a

Ramasu, Hagos, Gatsinzi and Samuel (BIUST) Integration April 24, 2025 29 / 45
 Example
Evaluate each definite integral:
Z 4 Z 3
(a) |x |dx; (b) |1 − x 2 |dx.
−3 0

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 Integration Techniques: Substitution

The following provide a basis for an integration technique called

substitution.
Note
u r +1
Z
(A) u r du = + C, assuming r ̸= −1.
Z
r +1
(B) e u du = e u + C
1 1
Z Z
(C) du = ln |u | + C ; and du = ln u + C , u > 0
u u
In the above formulas, the variable u usually represents some function of x.

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 Example
Z
Find (3x − 4)7 dx.
Lets make this substitution:

u = 3x − 4.

Then
du du
= 3 ⇒ du = 3 · dx ⇒ dx = .
dx 3

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 Example
With substitution, our original integral, takes the form
du du
Z Z
(3x − 4)7 dx = u7 · Substituting u for 3x − 4 and for dx
3 3
1 1
Z
= · u 7 du Factoring out the constant
3 3
1 u8
= · +C using formula in (A) above
3 8
1
= (3x − 4)8 + C .
24
Through out this section, it is important to recall that
dy
= f ′ (x ) and dy = f ′ (x )dx.
dx

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 Class Exercise
Find dy for each function:
2
(a) y = f (x ) = x 3 (b) y = f (x ) = x 3
2
(c) u = g (x ) = ln x (d) y = f (x ) = e x

Example
Find the antiderivative Z
2
2xe x dx

Let
du
u = x 2, ⇒ = 2x we have du = 2xdx.
dx

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 We substitute u for x 2 and du for 2xdx:
Z Z
x2 2
2xe dx = e x 2xdx
Z
= e u du
= eu + C
2
= e x + C . Replacing u with x 2

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 Class Exercise
Evaluate
2x
Z Z
2 3 10
(a) 3x (x + 1) dx (b) dx
1 + x2
ln(3x ) 2xdx
Z Z
(c) dx (d)
x (1 + x 2 )5

Solution
Z
(a) 3x 2 (x 3 + 1)10 dx:
du du
Let u = x 3 + 1 and dx = 3x 2 ⇒ dx = 3x 2
. Thus,

du
Z Z
3x 2 (x 3 + 1)10 dx = 3x 2 u 10 ·
3x 2
u 11 1
Z
= u 10 du = + C = (x 3 + 1)11 + C .
11 11

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 Solution
2x
Z
(b) dx:
1 + x2
du du
Let u = x 2 + 1 and dx = 2x ⇒ dx = 2x . Thus,

2x 2x du
Z Z
dx = ·
1 + x2 u 2x
1
Z
= du = ln |u | + C = ln(x 2 + 1) + C .
u

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 The Substitution Rule
If u = g (x ) is differentiable function whose range is an interval I and f is
continuous on I , then du = g ′ (x )dx and
Z Z
′
f (g (x ))g (x )dx = f (u )du.

When evaluating a definite integral by substitution, two methods are

possible. One method is to evaluate the indefinite integral first and then
use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. For instance,
Example
Z 4√
Evaluate 2x + 1dx.
0

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 Example
Z √
Solution: We first evaluate 2x + 1dx. Let u = 2x + 1. Then
du = 2dx ⇒ dx = 12 du. Thus the substitution rule gives
Z √ Z
√ 1 1
Z
1
2x + 1dx = u du = u 2 du
2 2
3
1 u2 1 3
= · +C = u2 +C
2 3/2 3
1 3
= (2x + 1) 2 + C .
3
Using the results above
Z 4√ Z √ 4
2x + 1dx = 2x + 1dx
0 0
4
1 3 1 3 1 3
= (2x + 1) 2 = (9) 2 − (1) 2
3 0 3 3
1 26
= (27 − 1) = .
3 3
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 Another method, is to change the limits of integration when the variable is
changed.
The Substitution Rule for Definite Integrals
If g ′ is continuous on [a, b ] and f is continuous on the range of u = g (x ),
then
Z b Z g (b )
′
f (g (x ))g (x )dx = f (u )du.
a g (a )

Consider the examples below.

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 Example
Z 4√
Evaluate 2x + 1dx.
0
Solution: Let u = 2x + 1, so dx = 12 du. To find new limits of integration
we note that

when x = 0, u = 2(0) + 1 = 1 and when x = 4, u = 2(4) + 1 = 9.

Therefore
Z 4√
1√
Z 9
2x + 1dx = udu
0 1 2
9
1 2 3 1 3 1 3
= · u 2 = (9) 2 − (1) 2
2 3 1 3 3
1 26
= (27 − 1) = .
3 3

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 Example
Z 2
1
Evaluate 2
dx.
1 (3 − 5x )
Solution: Let u = 3 − 5x. Then du = −5dx ⇒ dx = − 15 du. When
x = 1, u = −2 and x = 2, u = −7. Thus,
Z 2 Z −7
1 1 1
dx = − du
1 (3 − 5x )2 5 u2
−2
  −7  
1 1 1 1 1
= − − =− − +
5 u −2 5 7 2
1
= .
14

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 Example
Z e
ln x
Calculate dx.
x 1
Solution: We let u = ln x because its differential du = x1 dx appears in the
integral. When x = 1, u = ln 1 = 0; when x = e, u = ln e = 1. Thus
1
u2
Z e Z 1
ln x 1
dx = udu = = .
1 x 0 2 0 2

The following results uses Substitution Rule for definite integrals to simplify the
calculation of integrals of functions that possess symmetry properties.

Integrals of Symmetric Functions

Suppose f is continuous on [a, b ].
Z a Z a
(a) If f is even [f (−x ) = f (x )], then f (x )dx = 2 f (x )dx.
−a 0
Z a
(b) If f is odd [f (−x ) = −f (x )], then f (x )dx = 0.
−a

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 Example
(a) Since f (x ) = x 6 + 1 satisfies f (−x ) = f (x ), it is even and so
Z 2 Z 2
2
(x + 1)dx = 2 (x 6 + 1)dx
−2 0
 2
1 7 128 284
= 2 x + x = 2( + 2) = .
7 0 7 7

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 Example
tan x
(b) Since f (x ) = 1+x 2 +x 4
satisfies f (−x ) = −f (x ), it is odd and so
Z 1
tan x
dx = 0.
−1 1 + x2 + x4

Class Exercises
Evaluate the definite integrals
Z 1  
π
(1) cos t dt.
0 2
Z 2 1
ex
(2) dx.
1 x2
Z e4
1
(3) √ dx.
e x ln x

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