1

EE6501
Wireless Communications
Week 9
Instructor: Dr. Jehan Zeb, Jehanzeb@case.edu.pk
2 Announcements
➢ Assignment 2 due today

Agenda for Today

➢ Large Scale Propagation Models
❖ Cell Coverage
➢ Intro. to Small Scale Propagation Effects and fading
❖ Mathematical Modelling
 Questions!!!

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4 Cell Coverage Area
 The cell coverage area is defined as the expected
percentage of area within a cell that has received
power above a given minimum.
 Consider a BS inside a circular cell of a given radius R.
All mobiles within the cell require some min recd SNR
for acceptable performance that translates to a min
recd pwr Pmin throughout the cell.
 The transmit power at BS is designed for an avg recd
pwr at the cell boundary, PR, averaged over the
shadowing variations.
 Shadowing will cause some locations within the cell to
have received power below PR, and others will have
received power exceeding PR
5
6

Constant power contours for combined path loss &

random shadowing indicate the challenge
Shadowing poses in cellular system design
7

 It is not possible for all users at the cell boundary to receive the
same power level.
 BS must either transmit extra pwr to ensure users affected by
shadowing receive Pmin, causing excessive interference to
neighboring cells, or
 Some users within the cell will not meet their minimum received
power requirement.
 In fact, since the Gaussian distribution has infinite tails, there is
a nonzero probability that any mobile within the cell will have
a received power that falls below the minimum target, even if
the mobile is close to the base station.
8 Cell Coverage Area with Path loss & Shadowing
 Percentage of area within a cell where recd pwr exceeds Pmin is obtained
by taking an incremental area dA at radius r from BS in the cell. Let Pr(r) be
the recd pwr in dA from combined path loss and shadowing.
 Total area within cell where min pwr requirement is exceeded is obtained
by integrating over all incremental areas where this min is exceeded:

 where 1[·] denotes indicator function. Define PA = p(Pr(r) > Pmin) in dA. Then
PA = E [1[Pr(r) > Pmin in dA]] .
 Making this substitution & using polar coordinates for integration yields
9
 Outage probability of the cell is defined as the percentage of
area within the cell that does not meet its minimum power
requirement Pmin, = 1− C.
 Given the log-normal distribution for the shadowing,
 Pmin − Pr (d ) 
P(Pr (d ) ≤ Pmin ) = 1 − Q   = 1 − Pout (Pmin , r )
 σ 
 where Pout is outage probability with d = r.
 Locations within cell with recd pwr < Pmin are said to be outage locations.

10n

 Where Pr(R) is the ave. recd pwr at cell boundary due to path loss alone
10
 This integral yields a closed-form sol for C in terms of a and b

 If the target minimum received power equals the average

power at the cell boundary: Pmin = Pr(R), then a = 0 and the
coverage area simplifies to

 Note with this simplification C depends only on the ratio n/σ.

Under this assumption the outage probability at

the cell boundary pout(Pr(R),R) = 0.5.
 Cell boundary
11 P(Pr (R ) ≥ Pmin )
12
Small-scale Fading
13
 Fading is the interference of many scattered signals arriving at an
antenna - causing rapid fluctuation of the signal strength & its phase

 These signal variations are experienced on a small time scale

 Dependency of time scale is on ‘velocity’ of either the Tx or Rx

14 Small Scale Fading
 Describes rapid fluctuations of amplitude, phase over
short period of time or travel distance
 Caused by interference b/w two or more versions of
transmitted signal arriving at Rx at slightly different
times.
 These waves are called multipath waves & they
combine at Rx antenna to give a resultant signal which
can vary widely in amplitude and phase
 The rapidness of fluctuation depends on the rate of
change of multipaths (owing to the change in the
surroundings because of Tx or Rx motion.).
 Critical factors
 Speed of the mobile, and/or surrounding objects
 Transmission bandwidth of the signal
15 Multipaths
16 Multipath Characteristics
 A signal may arrive at receiver at many different times & from
many different directions
 Due to of vector (phasor) addition - signals may reinforce each
other or they may cancel each other
 Causes constructive or destructive interference & signal strength
varies from place to place and from time to time
 Carrier wavelength in cellular is around 15 - 40 cm. Small changes
in differential delays due to nodes mobility will cause large
changes in the phase of arriving plane waves.
 Three Effects of the multipaths:
 Interference of plane waves with varying phase is manifested by
large amplitude fluctuations.
 Varying Doppler shifts of the MultiPath components causes Doppler
spread.
 Time dispersion (echoes)
17 Discrete-Time Impulse Response Model for a Time
varying Multipath Channel
18 Factors Influencing Small Scale Fading

 Multipath propagation
 Presence of reflecting objects and scatterers cause multiple
versions of the signal to arrive at the receiver
 With different amplitudes and time delays
 Causes the total signal at receiver to fade or distort

 Speed of mobile
 Causes Doppler shift at each MP comp & causes random freq
mod
 Speed of surrounding objects
 Causes time-varying Doppler shift on the MP comp
19 Doppler Effect

 When a Tx or Rx is moving, the freq of the received signal

changes, i.e. it is different than the frequency of
transmission. This is called Doppler Effect.
 The change in frequency is called Doppler Shift and it
depends on
 The relative velocity of the receiver with respect to transmitter
 The frequency (or wavelength) of transmission
 The direction of traveling with respect to the direction of the arriving
signal
20

 Doppler shift results from the fact that the Tx or Rx movement over
a short interval
 ∆t causes a change in distance ∆l = v ∆t cos θ. This is the change in
the distance that the transmitted signal that needs to travel to Rx
 Phase change due to this path difference is
∆φ = 2 π (v/λ) ∆ t cos θ ; Doppler freq is then the phase derivative
1 ∆φ v
fd = . = cos θ
2π ∆t λ
21
22

 Each component of the received multipath signals

arrives from different direction and contributes a
different value to the Doppler Spreading
 This effectively increases the Bandwidth of the
received signal
 The received frequency, fr, is offset by the transmitted
frequency, ft, by a factor of Doppler Frequency, fd.
23
24 Doppler Shift Effects
 The composite received signal of various multipaths has
different Doppler Shifts on individual paths
 Signals coming from ahead of mobile will be shifted up
in frequency and those coming from behind will be
shifted down in frequency.
 In practical situations, the magnitude of Doppler shift
can be as much as ±100Hz in the Cellular Mobiles of
frequency range of 800-900MHz, with mobile speeds of
80-100Km/hr.
 This shift in frequency can be modeled as a random
process of phase/frequency modulation
25 Received Signal Profile (w/ Speed Variation)
26 Delay Spread

 In digital systems, Delay

Spread causes ISI – limiting
the maximum symbol rate
of the multipath channel

 Depending on the
environment, the delay
spread can be between
0.1 to 2 micro-seconds
 Mathematical Modeling
of Small Scale Fading

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28 Baseband Equivalence: Summary

 Let s(t) denote the input signal with equivalent lowpass signal u(t).

 Let h(t) denote the bandpass channel impulse response with

equivalent lowpass channel impulse response hl(t)
 The transmitted signal s(t) and channel impulse response h(t) are both
real, so the channel output r(t) = s(t) ∗ h(t) is also real, with frequency
response R(f) = H(f)S(f)

 It can be re-written (after manipulations as):

[
r (t ) = Re (u (t ) ∗ hl (t ) )e j 2 πf c t ]
Summary: Equivalent lowpass models for s(t), h(t) and r(t) isolates the carrier
terms (fc) from the analysis. Sampled version allows discrete-time processing.
29 Fading
 Fading is interference of many scattered signals arriving at an
antenna. It is responsible for rapid changes of signal strength as
well as its phase.
 These signal variations are experienced on a small time scale,
mostly a fraction of a second or shorter, depending on the velocity
of the receiver.
 In this Lecture we will discuss the physical reasons causing fading,
present a mathematical model for fading and characterize it as a
stochastic process.
 Fading might have a time varying or frequency varying
attenuating impact on the transmitted signal.
 Due to the frequency varying and time varying (complex valued)
nature of fading, we will denote the attenuating impact by H(t, f).
30
31

Physical basis of fading is given by the reception of multiple copies of

the transmitted signal, each having followed a different path.
Depending on the environment of Tx and receiver, there can be
many or only few objects reflecting the transmitted radio signal.

In general these objects, known as scatterers, & transmission of a

signal leads to a situation shown & is called a multipath signal
propagation.
32 General Discussion
 In a typical environment each path i has a different length li
li
 Delay of ith multipath, τi = (different for each path)
c

 Signal copies traveling along short paths will arrive quite fast, while
others traveling longer path arrive later

 Besides, each signal copy is attenuated differently, since signal path

have to pass differently obstacles

 We will denote the attenuation factor of path i by ai

 If each element within the propagation environment do not move, the

receiving signal will only suffer from delay spread and different
attenuation. Therefore,

 Channel can be modeled as time-invariant

33

 In contrast, movement causes ai and ti to change over time

 In such a situation the wireless channels becomes time-
variant
 In this case along with a constant changing delay spread,
the receiver also experiences a varying signal strength due
to its movement.
34 MODEL For SMALL SCALE FADING

 Consider the transmission of a bandpass signal at carrier freq fc with

complex envelope u(t). Transmitted signal s(t) (bandpass) is given
by
[
j 2 πf c t
s (t ) = Re u (t )e ] (1)
 Received bandpass signal is given by

[
r (t ) = Re (u (t ) ∗ hl (t ) )e j 2 πf c t ] (2)
 We look for a mathematical model of the recd bandpass signal
taking multipath propagation into account
 We will initially consider the NO MOTION CASE

Each path is associated with a different length li

and a different attenuation ai
  
35
r (t ) = Re 

∑ a u(t- τ ) .e
∀i
i i
j 2 πf c (t − τ i )


Superposition of all copies

  l 
 l 
j 2 πf c  t − i  
r (t ) = Re 

∑ ∀i
ai u  t- i  .e
 c
 c 

c 2πf c li
Since λ = , denote φ i =
fc c
2πli
φi = is the phase shift of the carrier freq caused by the different length of each path
λ

  li  − jϕi j 2 πf c t 
r (t ) = Re 

∑ ∀i
ai u  t-  .e e
 c 


(3)

v(t ) = u (t ) ∗ hl (t) is the low pass equivalent response of received signal

 l 
l

∑
− j 2π i
v(t ) = ai e λ
u  t- i 
∀i  c
= ∑a e i
− jφ i
u (t- τ i ) (4)
∀i
  
36
r (t ) = Re 

∑ a u(t- τ ) .e
∀i
i i
j 2 πf c (t − τ i )


Superposition of all copies

  l 
 l 
j 2 πf c  t − i  
r (t ) = Re 

∑ ∀i
ai u  t- i  .e
 c
 c 

c 2πf c li
Since λ = , denote φ i =
fc c
2πli
φi = is the phase shift of the carrier freq caused by the different length of each path
Without
λ motion MP environment leads to interference of
multiple copies with a different attenuation of the
  li  − jϕi j 2 πf c t 
r (t ) = Re ∑ arespectively
envelope, i u  t-  .e e the  carrier,
(3) ai, different phase shift
 of
∀i the  carrier
c
φi and  delay of envelope τ .
i

v(t ) = u (t ) ∗ hl (t) is the low pass equivalent response of received signal

 l 
l

∑
− j 2π i
v(t ) = ai e λ
u  t- i 
∀i  c
= ∑a e i
− jφ i
u (t- τ i ) (4)
∀i
37 Lets Introduce Motion
 Denote by γi the AOA (Angle of Arrival) of path i w.r.t the direction
of motion of the Rx

 The path length change, as a function of speed v and time t is

∆li = v cos (γi) .t and v(t) can be obtained by
l + ∆li
 l + ∆li 
∑
− j 2π i
v(t ) = ai e λ
u  t- i 
∀i  c 
− j 2 π cos ( γ i ).t  v cos(γ i ).t 
v
= ∑∀i
a i e − jφ i e λ
u  t- τ i −
 c


(5)
 − j 2 π cos ( γ i ).t  v cos(γ i ).t 
v

38
v(t ) = ∑a e
∀i
i
− jφ i
e λ
u  t- τ i −
 c


(5)

 Including phase e-jφi in ai and denoting by Ai

 Comparing delay caused by the term vcos(γi).t/c to the overall
signal length of the complex envelope u(t), then the delay variation
is very short such that it can be ignored.
v
 Also denote νi = fdcos(γi) where, fd =
λ

v(t ) = ∑ ∀i
Ai e − j 2 πν i t .u (t- τ i ) (6)

 The motion of Rx in combination with the i-th scatterer influences

recd signal in amplitude of the carrier, respectively the envelope
and in the phase Ai, carrier freq νi and delay τi.
 Therefore, motion of Rx or a scatterer in the model introduces a freq
offset of carrier in addition to signal changes that are already
present if no motion is involved.
39 v(t ) = ∑ Ai e − j 2πν it .u (t- τ i ) (6)
∀i
SUMMARY
 Out of different impacts on signal recd in a MP environment
including motion, the freq offset (Doppler shift) of carrier freq
& time delay of envelope damage the signal most.
 The shifted and delayed waves might interfere destructively
causing severe attenuation
 In practice a wireless transmission in a certain environment
including a certain velocity of objects is described by two
values the Doppler spread ∆fd and the delay spread ∆τ
 Both spreads result from MP reception where each path may
be characterized by different Doppler shift and time delay.
 Delay spread is due to the topology of the environment
 Doppler spread is due to the motion
40
Characterization in Time and Frequency
MULTIPATH

Due to motion Due to toplogy

Doppler Shift
Time Delay
Doppler Spread ∆fd Delay Spread ∆τ

Although Doppler spread is a While the delay spread is a

phenomenon in freq, the over phenomenon in time, the
all result on the recd signal is resulting impact on the recd
a time selective behavior of signal is a freq selective
the channel behavior of the channel