Unit 4 - Quantum Computing using Linear Optics

Linear optics plays a significant role in quantum computing, particularly in the field of quantum
information processing and quantum communication. Linear optical devices, such as beam
splitters, phase shifters, and detectors, are used to manipulate and measure the quantum states of
photons. Here are some key roles of linear optics in quantum computing:

1. Quantum Gates: Linear optical elements can be used to implement basic quantum gates,
which are the building blocks of quantum circuits. Beam splitters, for example, can be used to
create entanglement and perform operations like controlled-phase gates, which are essential for
quantum algorithms.
2. Quantum Entanglement: Linear optics allows for the creation and manipulation of entangled
photon pairs. Entanglement is a crucial resource for quantum computing, as it enables the
implementation of quantum algorithms that can potentially solve problems faster than classical
computers.
3. Quantum Communication: Linear optical devices are used in quantum communication
protocols such as quantum key distribution (QKD). QKD enables secure communication by
using the principles of quantum mechanics to establish secret keys between parties. Linear optics
is employed to manipulate and measure the quantum states of photons to ensure the security of
the communication.
4. Quantum Teleportation: Linear optics is involved in quantum teleportation, a process that
transfers the quantum state of one qubit to another qubit at a distant location. This concept is
foundational to quantum communication and quantum networking.
5. Quantum Error Correction: Linear optics can be used in the implementation of quantum
error correction codes. These codes help protect quantum states from the effects of decoherence
and noise, which are significant challenges in building practical quantum computers.
6. Quantum Metrology: Linear optics is used in quantum metrology, which involves using
quantum systems to achieve enhanced precision in measurements. Quantum metrology
techniques are employed in various applications, including sensors, atomic clocks, and magnetic
field measurement devices.
7. Quantum Algorithms: Linear optics can be used to simulate quantum systems, an important
application in quantum algorithms like quantum chemistry simulations. By mapping quantum
problems onto linear optical systems, researchers can gain insights into the behavior of complex
quantum systems.
8. Quantum Information Processing: Linear optics can be used to encode, manipulate, and
measure quantum information carried by photons. This is the foundation of various quantum
information processing tasks, including quantum gates, quantum circuits, and quantum
algorithms.
It's important to note that while linear optics offers many advantages in terms of ease of
implementation and compatibility with existing optical technologies, it also faces challenges
related to photon loss, noise, and the difficulty of creating certain types of entangled states. As a
result, researchers are continually working on advancing the capabilities of linear optical systems
for practical quantum computing applications.

ONE-PHOTON POLARIZATION AS A QUBIT:

In quantum mechanics, a qubit (quantum bit) is the basic unit of quantum information. It is the
quantum analog of a classical bit, which can exist in one of two states, 0 or 1. However, unlike
classical bits, qubits can exist in a superposition of states, meaning they can be in a combination
of 0 and 1 simultaneously.

One way to implement a qubit is by using the polarization of a single photon. Photons are
particles of light, and their polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field in the
direction of the photon's propagation. The two orthogonal polarization states commonly used for
qubits are usually denoted as |0⟩ and |1⟩.

Here's how it works:

1. Horizontal and Vertical Polarization:

Imagine a single photon with horizontal polarization, denoted as |H⟩. In this state, the electric
field of the photon vibrates horizontally.

Conversely, vertical polarization, denoted as |V⟩, means the electric field vibrates vertically.

2. Superposition:
 A key feature of qubits is superposition. A photon can exist in a superposition of horizontal
and vertical polarization states simultaneously. This superposition is represented as α|H⟩ + β|V⟩,
where α and β are complex numbers describing the probability amplitudes of each state.

3. Qubit Representation:

When using the polarization of a photon as a qubit, |0⟩ corresponds to horizontal polarization
(|H⟩), and |1⟩ corresponds to vertical polarization (|V⟩).

The superposition state of the qubit can be written as α|0⟩ + β|1⟩.

4. Manipulating Qubits:

Operations like applying gates to qubits involve manipulating their probability amplitudes. For
instance, a Hadamard gate can create a superposition from a pure state, and other gates can
perform rotations or flips between the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states.

5. Measurement:

When the qubit is measured, it collapses to one of the basis states with a probability
determined by the square of the amplitude of that state. For example, measuring a qubit in the
state α|0⟩ + β|1⟩ will yield |0⟩ with probability |α|^2 and |1⟩ with probability |β|^2.

Using the polarization of a single photon as a qubit provides a physical realization of a quantum
bit and is a crucial element in various quantum information processing tasks, such as quantum
communication and quantum computing.

Applications:

The application of one-photon polarization as a qubit has various implications in the field of
quantum information processing. Some key applications include:

Quantum Key Distribution (QKD):

One of the main applications of polarized single photons is to encode quantum information and
to transmit it. Polarization is very little affected by atmospheric scattering (remember the
experiment with looking at the sky through a polarizer); therefore a polarized photon is the best
carrier of quantum information in free space. Polarized photons are used in quantum key
distribution (QKD). But now we will introduce the tools for QKD: single photons, their
measurement, and entangled photons.
A qubit is encoded into a polarized photon as
 |⟩  |1⟩H  |1⟩V, ||2 | |2  1

How to prepare such a photon? Single photons are emitted by single-photon emitters: single
atoms, molecules, quantum dots. Ideally, it should be „on demand‟ preparation, but in reality, the
state prepared is a superposition or even a mixture of such a photon with the vacuum. One can
also prepare a single photons from a pair of correlated photons: the detection of one of them
„heralds‟ the appearance of the other one.

Quantum Communication:

One-photon polarization qubits are often used in quantum communication protocols, such as
quantum key distribution (QKD). QKD allows two parties to share a secret key securely by using
the principles of quantum mechanics to detect any eavesdropping attempts. Polarization-encoded
qubits help in creating secure communication channels.

Quantum Cryptography:

Quantum cryptography protocols, such as BBM92 (named after its inventors: Bennett, Brassard,
Mermin, and others), leverage one-photon polarization qubits to create secure communication
channels. The security is based on the principles of quantum mechanics, particularly the no-
cloning theorem and the disturbance caused by measurements in quantum systems.

Quantum Computing:

Polarization-encoded qubits are used in certain quantum computing architectures. Quantum gates
can be implemented by manipulating the polarization state of individual photons, and
entanglement, a key resource in quantum computing, can be generated using operations on pairs
of photons.

Quantum Metrology:

Quantum metrology involves using quantum systems to achieve higher precision in

measurements. One-photon polarization qubits can be employed in quantum-enhanced
measurements, providing advantages in terms of sensitivity and precision, which can be useful in
fields such as sensing and imaging.

Quantum Repeaters:

In quantum communication networks, quantum repeaters are necessary to extend the range of
quantum communication. One-photon polarization qubits play a role in the development of these
repeaters by enabling the distribution of entangled states over long distances, helping overcome
the limitations imposed by quantum decoherence in optical fibers.
Quantum Sensing:

Quantum sensors, which utilize the principles of quantum mechanics to achieve enhanced
sensitivity, can benefit from the use of polarization-encoded qubits. For example, quantum-
enhanced sensing of magnetic fields or other physical parameters can be achieved using
polarization-encoded states.

The ability to use one-photon polarization as a qubit provides a practical and reliable way to
implement quantum information processing tasks, contributing to the development of quantum
technologies with applications in secure communication, computing, and precision measurement.

CIRCUIT MODEL FOR QUANTUM COMPUTING WITH PHOTONS:

The circuit model for quantum computing with photons involves the manipulation of quantum
information encoded in the polarization states of photons using various quantum gates. In this
model, quantum operations are represented as quantum circuits composed of quantum gates that
act on qubits. Here are some key components of the circuit model for quantum computing with
photons:

1. Quantum Bits (Qubits):

- Qubits are the fundamental units of quantum information. In the case of quantum computing
with photons, qubits are typically represented by the polarization states of individual photons.
The two basis states are often denoted as |0⟩ (horizontal polarization) and |1⟩ (vertical
polarization).

2. Quantum Gates:

- Quantum gates are the building blocks of quantum circuits. They perform operations on
qubits, transforming their states. In the context of quantum computing with photons, specific
quantum gates are designed to manipulate the polarization states of photons. Some common
gates include:

 Hadamard Gate (H): Creates a superposition of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states.

 Pauli-X Gate (X): Flips the qubit from |0⟩ to |1⟩ or vice versa.

 Pauli-Z Gate (Z): Introduces a phase flip based on the qubit state.

 CNOT Gate (Controlled-NOT): Entangles two qubits.

3. Superposition and Entanglement:

 - Quantum circuits can generate superposition states where qubits exist in a combination of |0⟩
and |1⟩, as well as entangled states where the states of multiple qubits are correlated. These
properties are crucial for quantum algorithms and communication protocols.

4. Single-Photon Sources:

- Creating quantum circuits with photons often involves the use of single-photon sources to
generate individual photons in a controlled manner. This could include techniques like
spontaneous parametric down-conversion or single-photon emitters.

5. Linear Optical Elements:

- Quantum gates for photons often include linear optical elements such as beam splitters and
phase shifters. These elements allow for the manipulation of the quantum state of the photons
without measuring them.

6. Quantum Measurement:

- Quantum circuits typically end with measurements. In the case of quantum computing with
photons, measurements are performed to extract classical information from the quantum system.
The outcome of measurements provides probabilistic information about the state of the qubits.

7. Quantum Interference:

- Quantum interference is a key concept in quantum computing with photons. Interference

phenomena, such as Hong-Ou-Mandel interference, are exploited to create entangled states and
perform certain quantum computations.

The circuit model for quantum computing with photons provides a systematic way to design and
analyze quantum algorithms and protocols. Quantum optics, linear optical elements, and the
unique properties of photons in superposition and entanglement are harnessed to perform
quantum computations and secure communication tasks. It's important to note that the
implementation of quantum gates for photons relies on the principles of quantum optics and the
ability to manipulate the quantum states of individual photons without destroying their quantum
coherence.

ONE-WAY QUANTUM COMPUTER

The one-way quantum computer (1WQC), also known as the measurement-based quantum
computer, is a model of quantum computation that relies on the creation and manipulation of
entangled states, particularly cluster states, followed by a series of one-qubit measurements. The
model was introduced by Robert Raussendorf and Hans J. Briegel in 2001. These quantum
computers are different from the more commonly discussed gate-based quantum computers like
those developed by companies such as IBM, Google, and Rigetti. In a one-way quantum
computer, quantum information is encoded in a highly entangled state, and computations are
performed by making a sequence of measurements on this state.

Here are the key features and steps involved in the one-way quantum computer model:

Cluster States:

The central resource in the one-way quantum computing model is the cluster state. A cluster state
is a highly entangled state of multiple qubits arranged in a specific pattern. The initial creation of
a cluster state is a crucial step in the one-way quantum computing process.

Initialization:

The computation begins by preparing an initial cluster state. This typically involves entangling
qubits in a specific spatial arrangement. The entanglement is often generated through a series of
quantum gates acting on a set of qubits.

Single-Qubit Measurements:

The computation proceeds by performing a series of one-qubit measurements on the qubits of the
cluster state. Each qubit is measured in a specific basis, and the measurement outcomes are used
to perform subsequent measurements.

Adaptive Measurement:

The measurements are adaptive, meaning that the choice of basis for measuring each qubit
depends on the outcomes of previous measurements. This adaptability allows for the creation of
complex entanglement structures and the implementation of quantum gates.

Entanglement Propagation:

As qubits are measured, entanglement information is effectively "teleported" to other qubits in

the cluster, creating new entanglement links. This propagation of entanglement allows for the
generation of entanglement patterns necessary for quantum computation.

Universal Quantum Computation:

It has been shown that, with a properly initialized and manipulated cluster state, a one-way
quantum computer can perform universal quantum computation. This means it can simulate any
quantum algorithm efficiently.

Fault Tolerance:
One-way quantum computing is known for its potential fault-tolerant properties. The
entanglement structure of the cluster state enables the detection and correction of errors through
the use of error-detecting codes.

Cluster states and graph states can be defined constructively in the following way. With each
state, we associate a graph, a set of vertices and edges connecting vertex pairs. Each vertex on
the graph corresponds to a qubit. The corresponding “graph state” may be generated by
preparing every qubit in the state |+⟩ = (1/√2) (|0⟩+|1⟩) and applying a controlled σz (CZ)
operation |0⟩⟨0|⊗1l+|1⟩⟨1|⊗σz on every pair of qubits whose vertices are connected by a graph
edge. Cluster states are a sub-class of graph states, whose underlying graph is an n−dimensional
square grid. The extra flexibility in the entanglement structure of graph states means that they
often require far fewer qubits to implement the same one-way quantum computation.

One way quantum computation consists of single-qubit measurements in certain bases and in a
certain order on an entangled resource state. Cluster states have a square lattice structure (a)
while the freedom of choosing specific general graph states such as illustrated in (b) can reduce
the number of qubits needed for a given computation significantly.

One of the advantages of the one-way quantum computing model is its potential for fault
tolerance and robustness against certain types of errors. However, creating and manipulating
large-scale cluster states can be challenging in practice, and the efficiency of the one-way
quantum computer is an ongoing area of research.

The one-way quantum computer model is just one of several quantum computing models, each
with its strengths and challenges. Other models include the circuit model, adiabatic quantum
computing, and topological quantum computing, among others.

Applications:
1. Quantum Error Correction: One-way quantum computers may offer advantages in terms of
error correction. The entangled state can be more robust against certain types of errors, and the
measurement-based approach could potentially simplify error correction protocols.

2. Quantum Communication: One-way quantum computers may be useful for certain quantum
communication protocols. The entangled states used in the computation can be distributed
among different locations, enabling secure quantum communication.

3. Quantum Simulation: Like other quantum computing models, one-way quantum computers
could be well-suited for simulating quantum systems, allowing researchers to study complex
quantum phenomena, materials, or chemical reactions.

4. Optimization Problems: Quantum computing, in general, has shown promise for solving
optimization problems more efficiently than classical computers. One-way quantum computers
may have specific advantages for certain optimization tasks.

5. Machine Learning: Quantum machine learning is an area of research where quantum

computers could potentially provide speedup over classical methods. One-way quantum
computers might have a role to play in certain quantum machine learning algorithms.

6. Quantum Cryptography: The entangled states generated in one-way quantum computers could
be used for quantum key distribution, a method for secure communication that relies on the
principles of quantum mechanics.

It's important to note that the practical implementation of one-way quantum computers and their
specific applications are still areas of ongoing research and development.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PHOTONIC EXPERIMENTS

Photonic experiments involve the use of photons, the fundamental particles of light, to study and
manipulate various physical phenomena. The field of photonics encompasses a broad range of
experiments, from basic optics and quantum optics to more advanced applications in
telecommunications, quantum information processing, and quantum communication. Here are
some fundamental principles that underlie many photonic experiments:

1. Wave-Particle Duality:

Photons exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties. This duality is a fundamental
concept in quantum mechanics. In photonic experiments, researchers often exploit the wave
nature of photons for interference and diffraction phenomena, as well as the particle nature for
particle detection and counting.
2. Interference:

Photonic experiments frequently leverage the wave nature of light to create interference patterns.
Interference occurs when two or more light waves overlap, leading to the reinforcement or
cancellation of specific regions of the wave. This phenomenon is essential in various
applications, including creating optical patterns, filters, and measuring distances with high
precision.

3. Diffraction:

Diffraction is the bending of light waves as they encounter obstacles or pass through narrow
openings. This phenomenon is fundamental to understanding the behavior of light and is often
used in experiments to analyze the spatial distribution of light patterns.

4. Polarization:

Light waves can oscillate in different planes. Polarization experiments involve the study of the
orientation of these oscillations. Polarizers and wave plates are common optical components
used in these experiments.

5. Quantum Superposition:

Photons can exist in multiple states simultaneously, thanks to the principle of quantum
superposition. In quantum optics experiments, researchers manipulate and control the
superposition of photon states to perform tasks such as quantum information processing,
quantum teleportation, and quantum cryptography.

6. Quantum Entanglement:

Entanglement is a quantum phenomenon where two or more particles (such as photons) become
correlated in such a way that the state of one particle cannot be described independently of the
others. Photonic experiments exploit entanglement for applications in quantum communication,
quantum key distribution, and quantum teleportation.

7. Single-Photon Sources and Detectors:

Many photonic experiments involve the use of single-photon sources and detectors. These
technologies are crucial for performing experiments at the quantum level, where the discrete
nature of photons is essential. Single-photon sources can be based on methods like parametric
down-conversion, and detectors can include technologies like avalanche photodiodes.

8. Nonlinear Optics:

Nonlinear optics involves the interaction of light with a material in a way that depends on the
intensity of the light. This can lead to phenomena such as second-harmonic generation,
parametric amplification, and four-wave mixing. Nonlinear optics is fundamental for creating
sources of entangled photons and for various quantum information processing tasks.

9. Quantum Gates and Circuits:

In the context of quantum information processing, photonic experiments often involve the
implementation of quantum gates and circuits. These elements are used to perform quantum
computations and are crucial for building quantum computers and quantum communication
systems.

10. Potonic Crystal Structures:

Photonic crystals are periodic structures that can manipulate the flow of light in a manner
analogous to how semiconductors manipulate electrons. These structures find applications in
controlling the propagation of light for devices such as lasers, optical switches, and filters.

Understanding and manipulating these fundamental principles allow researchers to design and
conduct experiments that push the boundaries of classical and quantum optics, leading to
advancements in technology and our understanding of the nature of light and quantum
mechanics.