LECTURE 2: TYPES OF MATERIALS

Materials can be classified into the following: – metals; ceramics; polymers; semiconductors; and composites
materials. Table 1 and Figure 1 show materials in these groups which often possess different structures and
properties.

Table 1: Representative examples, applications, and properties for each category of materials
Metals and Alloys Applications Properties
Gray cast iron Automobile engine blocks Castable, machinable, vibration damping

Ceramics and Window glass Optically transparent, thermally insulating

Glasses
SiO2-Na2O-CaO

Polymers Food packaging Easily formed into thin, flexible, airtight

Polyethylene film

Semiconductors Transistors and integrated, circuits Unique electrical behavior

Silicon

Composites, Carbide cutting tools for machining High hardness, yet good shock resistance
Tungsten carbide,
-cobalt (WC-Co)

Fig 1: Representative strength of various materials

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Metals
Metals and alloys, which includes steel, aluminium, magnesium, zinc, cast iron, titanium, Cu, Ni, etc have the
general characteristics of good electrical and thermal conductivity, relatively high strength, high stiffness,
ductility or formability, and shock resistance. They are useful for structural and load-bearing applications. Pure
metals are occasionally used, combination of metals called alloys are normally design to provide improvement
to a particular desirable property or permit better combination of properties. The section through a jet engine
Fig. 2 shows the use of several metals alloys for a very critical application

Fig 2: shows a section through a jet engine.

The forward compression section operates at low to medium temperatures, and titanium parts are often used.
The rear combustion section operates at high temperatures and nickel-based superalloys are required. The
outside shell experiences low temperatures, and aluminum and composites are satisfactory for this purpose.
(GE Aircraft Engines)

Ceramics
Ceramics, such as brick, glass, tableware, refractories, and abrasives have low electrical and thermal
conductivities and consequently are often used as insulators. Ceramics are strong and hard but also are very
brittle. New processing techniques are being developed to allow ceramics to be used in load-bearing
applications such as impellers in turbines engines, Fig 3.
They have excellent resistance to high temperatures and certain corrosive media and have a number of unusual
optical and electrical properties that are used in constructing integrated circuits, fiber-optic systems and a
variety of sensing devices.

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Fig 3: A variety of complex ceramic components, including impellers and blades, which allow turbine engines
to operate more efficiently at higher temperatures. (Certech, Inc)

Polymers
Polymers include rubber, plastic, and many types of adhesives. They are produced by creating large molecular
structures from organic molecules in a process known as polymerization. Polymers have low electrical and
thermal conductivities, have low strengths, and are not suitable for use at high temperatures.
Thermoplastic polymers, in which the long molecular chains are not rigidly connected, have good ductility and
formability, thermosetting polymers are stronger but more brittle because the molecular chains are tightly
linked see Fig. 4. Polymers are used in many applications, including electronic devices. Fig. 5.

Fig. 4 Polymerization occurs when small molecules, represented by the circles, combine to produce larger
molecules, or polymers. The polymer molecules can have a structure that consists of many chains that are
entangled but not connected (thermoplastics) or can form three-dimensional networks in which chains are
cross-linked (thermosets)
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Fig. 5 Polymers are used in a variety of electronic devices, including these computer dip switches, where
moisture resistance and low conductivity are required. (CTS Corporation.)

Semiconductors
Semiconductors with their high brittleness are essentially for electronic, computer, and communication
applications. Examples are silicon, germanium, and a number of compounds such as GaAs. The electrical
conductivity of these materials can be control so that they can be used in electronic devices such as transistors,
diodes, and integrated circuits. Fig. 6. Information is now being transmitted by light through fiber-optic
system; semiconductors, which convert electrical signal to light and vice versa, are essential components in
these systems.

Fig. 6 Integrated circuits for computers and other electronic devices rely on the unique electrical behavior of
semiconducting materials. (Rogers Corporation)

Composites materials
Composites are formed from two or more materials, producing properties that cannot be obtained by any single
material. Concrete, plywood, and fiberglass are typical examples. The majority of composite materials use two
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constituents: a binder or matrix and reinforcement. The reinforcement is stronger and stiffer, forming a sort of
backbone, while the matrix keeps the reinforcement in a set place. The binder also protects the reinforcement,
which may be brittle or breakable, as in the case of the long glass fibers used in conjunction with plastics to
make fiberglass. Generally, composite materials have excellent compressibility combined with good tensile
strength, making them versatile in a wide range of situations.
Lightweight, strong, ductile, high temperature-resistant materials that are otherwise unobtainable can be
produced from composites materials. Hard yet shock-resistant cutting tools that would otherwise shatter can
also be produced. Advanced aircraft and aerospace vehicles rely heavily on composites such as carbon-fiber-
reinforced polymers. Examples:
Tennis racquet is normally epoxy resin reinforced with carbon fibres or a mixture of carbon and glass fibres
Bicycle Frame State of the art carbon fiber reinforced composites are often used for the frame and the wheels,
as these can be designed to improve airflow through and around the bike

Structure-Property-Processing Relationship
Engineers are interested in producing a component that has the proper shape and properties, permitting the
component to perform its task for its life span. This requirement is met by taking advantage of a complex
three-part relationship between the internal structure of the material, the processing of the material, and the
final properties of the material Fig. 7.

Fig. 7: The three part relationship between structure, properties, and processing method

When any of the three aspects of the relationship change, either or both of the others also changes. It is
therefore important to determine how the three aspects interrelated in order to finally produce the required
product.

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Properties
Material’s properties can be considered in two categories (Table 2).
(1) Mechanical and
(2) Physical properties

Mechanical properties describe how a material responds to an applied force. The most common mechanical
properties are strength, ductility, and stiffness (modulus of elasticity). However, we are often interested in how
a material behaves when it is expose to a sudden, intense blow (impact) continually cycled through an
alternating force (fatigue), expose to high temperatures (creep) or subjected to abrasive conditions (wear).
Mechanical properties also determine the case with which a material can also be deformed into a useful shape.
A metal part formed by forging must withstand the rapid application of a force without breaking and must have
a high enough ductility to a proper shape. Often, small structural changes have a profound effect on the
mechanical property of a material.

Table 2: Typical examples of materials properties

Mechanical Properties Physical Properties
Creep Chemical
*Creep rate *Corrosion
*Stress-rupture properties *Refining
Ductility Density
*% Elongation Electrical
*% Reduction in area *Conductivity
Fatigue *Dielectric (insulation)
*Endurance limit *Ferroelectricity and Piezoelectricity
*Fatigue life Magnetic
Hardness *Ferrimagnetic
*Scratch resistance *Ferromagnetic
*Wear rate Optical
Impact *Absorption and colour
*Absorbed energy *Diffraction
*Toughness *Lasing action
*Transition temperature *photoconduction
Strength *Reflection, Refraction and Transmission
*Modulus of Elasticity Thermal
*Tensile strength *Heat capacity
*Yield strength *Thermal conductivity
*Thermal expansion

Physical properties, which include electrical, magnetic, optical, thermal, elastic, and chemical behavior,
depend on both structure and processing of a material. Even tiny changes in composition cause profound
changes in the electrical conductivity of many semiconducting materials. For example, high firing
temperatures may greatly reduce the thermal insulation characteristics of ceramic brick; small amounts of
impurities change the colour of a glass or polymer.

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Structure
The structure of a material can be considered on several levels, all of which influence the final behavior of the
product. At the finest level is the structure of individual atoms that compose the material. The arrangement of
the electrons surrounding the nucleus of the atom significantly affects electrical, magnetic, thermal, and optical
behavior and may also influence corrosion resistance. Furthermore, the electronic arrangement influences how
the atoms are bonded to one another and helps determine the type of material-metal, ceramic, semiconductor,
or polymer.
At the next level, the arrangement of the atoms in space is considered_ Metals, semiconductors, many
ceramics, and some polymers have a very regular atomic arrangement, or crystal structure. The crystal
structure influence the mechanical properties of metals. Other ceramic materials and many polymers have no
orderly atomic arrangement-these amorphous or glassy materials behave very differently from crystalline
materials. For instance, glassy poly-ethylene is transparent, whereas crystalline polyethylene is translucent.
Imperfections in either type of atomic arrangement may be controlled to produce profound changes in
properties.
A grain structure is found in most metals, semiconductors, and ceramics and occasionally in polymers. The
size and shape of the grains play a key role at this level. In some cases, as with silicon chips for integrated
circuits or metals for jet engine parts, we wish to produce a material containing only one grain, or single
crystal.
Finally, in most materials more than one phase is present, with each phase having its unique atomic
arrangement and properties. Control of the type, size, distribution, and amount of these phases within the main
body of the material provides an additional way to control properties.

Processing
Material processing produces the desired shape of a component from the initial formless material. Metals can
be produced by pouring liquid metal into a mould (casting), joining individual pieces of metal ( welding),
brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, forming the solid metal into useful shapes using high pressure (forging,
drawing extrusion, rolling, bending), compacting tiny metal powder particles into a solid mass (powder
metallurgy), or removing excess material ( machining). Similarly, ceramic materials can be formed into shapes
by related processes such as casting, forming extrusion or compaction, often while wet, and heat treatment at
high temperatures to drive off the fluids and to bond the individual constituents together. Polymers are
produced by injection of softened plastic into moulds (much like casting), drawing, and forming. Often a metal
is heat treated at some temperature below its melting temperature to effect a desired change in structure. The
type of processing we use depends, at least partly on the properties, and thus the structure, of the material.
Often a variety of materials are used during processing to produce a final component. One example of this is
the evaporative pattern casting (lost foam) process for making aluminium castings Fig. 8.

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 (a) An expanded polystyrene pattern is coated with
ceramic (b) The coated pattern is
surrounded by vibrated sand

(c) Molten metal vapourizes

and displaces the styrofoam (d) The solidified coatings removed and cleaned

Fig. 8: The evaporative pattern casting process involving the use of polymer ang ceramics to produce a metal
part

In this manufacturing process Fig. 8, a polymer pattern is made by expanding polystyrene beads into a die,
forming a shape nearly identical to the intended part. The pattern is then coated with a thin layer of ceramic
and backed up by loose sand grains (sand, or silica, is another ceramic). Finally, molten aluminium, a metal, ie
poured into the mould; the polymer pattern vapourizes as the metal takes its place. Solidification of the molten
aluminium produces the final cast shape.

Environmental Effect on Material Behaviour

The structure-property-processing relationship is also influenced by the surrounding to which the material is
subjected.

Temperature
Changes in temperature dramatically alter the properties of materials. The strength of most materials decreases
as the temperature increases Fig. 9. Furthermore, sudden catastrophic changes may occur when heating above
critical temperatures. Metals that have been strengthened by certain heat treatments of forming techniques may

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suddenly lose their strength when heated. Very low temperatures may cause a metal to fail in a brittle manner
even though the applied loads are low. High temperatures can also change the structure of ceramics or cause
polymers to melt or char.

Fig. 9: Increasing temperature normally reduces the strength of a material. Polymers are suitable only at low
temperatures. Some composites, special alloys, and ceramics, have excellent properties at high temperatures

The design of materials with improved resistance to temperature is essential in many technologies, as
illustrated by the increase in operating temperature of aircraft and aerospace vehicles (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10: Skin operating temperatures for aircraft have increased with the development of improved materials.
(After M. Steinberg, Scientific American, 1986)

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As faster speeds are obtained, more heating of the vehicle skin occurs due to friction with the air, in addition,
engines operate more efficiently at higher temperatures. In order to obtain higher speed and better fuel
economy, new materials have gradually increased allowable skin and engine temperature. But materials
engineers are continually faced with new challenges. The “Orient Express,” an advanced aircraft intended to
carry passengers across the Pacific Ocean in less than three hours, will require the development of even more
exotic materials and techniques in order to meet the higher temperatures that will be encountered.

Corrosion
Most metals and polymers react with oxygen or other gases, particularly at elevated temperatures. When
hydrogen dissolves in tough pitch copper, steam is produced at the grain boundaries, thus creating thin voids.
The metal is then weak and brittle and fails easily.
Metals and ceramics may catastrophically disintegrate due to corrosion. Polymers may become brittle.
Materials are also attacked by a variety of corrosive liquids. A metal may be uniformly or selectively
consumed or may develop cracks or pits, leading to premature failure. Ceramics can be attacked by other
liquid ceramics, and solvents can dissolve polymers. The material engineer faces the challenge of developing
new materials or coatings that will prevent these reactions and permit materials to operate in more extreme
environments.

Radiation
High-energy radiation, such as neutrons produced in nuclear reactors, can affect the internal structure of all
materials, producing a loss of strength, embrittlement, or critical alteration of physical properties. External
dimensions may also change, causing swelling or even cracking.

Materials Selection
When selecting a material foe a given application, care must be taken to select
1. A material that can develop the desired physical and mechanical properties
2. A material that can be processed or manufactured into the desired shape, and
3. A material and process that is economical. In satisfying these three requirements, trade-offs may have to be
made in order to produce a satisfactory yet marketable product.
As one example, we may decide to produce a complex metal fastener by investment casting rather than by
forging. In forging, a heated metal blank is deformed into shape by the application of a force; the forging may
then be machined into final shape. In investment casting, several steps are required including producing an
aluminium die, injecting molten wax into the die to produce a pattern, coating the solidified wax with
ceramics, heating the ceramic mould to melt out the wax and strengthened the mould, and finally, pouring the
molten metal into the to produce a part that is almost completely finish. Although the forging process itself
may be much less expensive than the complicated casting process, the additional cost for machining may make
the final forged part more expensive.
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As another example, material cost is normally based on cost per kilogram. We must consider the density of the
material, or its weight per unit volume, in our design and selection (Table 3). Aluminium may cost more per
kilogram than steel, but it is only one third the weight of steel. Although parts made from aluminium may have
to be thicker, the aluminium part may be less expensive that the one made from steel, due to weight difference.

Table 3: Strength-to-weight ratio of various materials

S/ Material Strength Density Strength-to-weight
No (MPa) (Mg/m3) ratio (m2 s-2 x 103)
.
1 Polythene 7 0.83 8
2 Pure Aluminium 45 2.7 17
3 Pure Copper 207 8.9 23
4 Low Carbon steel 393 7.8 50
5 Pure titanium 241 4.4 55
6 Al2O3 207 3.9 53
7 Nylon 76 1.11 68
8 Epoxy 103 1.40 74
9 High carbon steel 614 7.8 79
10 Si3N4 483 3.2 151
11 Heat-treated alloy steel 1655 7.8 212
12 Heat-treated aluminium alloy 593 2.7 220
13 Carbon-carbon composite 414 1.8 230
14 Heat-treated titanium alloy 1172 4.4 266
15 Kevlar-epoxy composite 448 1.4 320
16 Carbon-epoxy composite 551 1.4 393

In some instances, particularly in aerospace applications, weight is critical, since additional vehicle weight
increase the fuel consumption and reduces the range. By using materials that are light weight but very strong,
aerospace vehicles can be designed to improve fuel utilization. Many advance aerospace vehicles use
composite materials instead of aluminium. These composites, such as epoxy, are more expensive than the
traditional aluminium alloys; however, the fuel savings due to the higher strength-to-weight ratio of the
composite may be more than the offset in the higher initial cost of the aircraft (Table 3).

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