Unit 4 : Plane stress problem in FEM

1. Plane Stress
• Definition:
o Plane stress is a state of stress in which the stress components
perpendicular to a particular plane are assumed to be zero. This condition
typically occurs in thin, flat plates subjected to in-plane loads.
o In simpler terms, imagine a very thin sheet of metal being pulled or pushed
along its surface. The stresses acting through the thickness of the sheet are
negligible compared to the stresses acting within the plane of the sheet.
• Key Characteristics:
o It's a two-dimensional simplification of a three-dimensional stress state.
o The stress components σz, τxz, and τyz are considered to be zero.
o This simplification is valid when the thickness of the object is much smaller
than its other dimensions.
• Applications:
o Analysis of thin plates, sheets, and membranes.
o Design of aircraft skin, thin-walled structures, and printed circuit boards.
2. CST Element (Constant Strain Triangle Element)
• Definition:
o The CST element is a simple triangular element used in FEM for analyzing
two-dimensional plane stress or plane strain problems.
o It's a three-node element, meaning it has three corner nodes.
• Key Characteristics:
o Constant Strain:
▪ A defining feature is that the strain within the element is assumed
to be constant. This is a direct result of using linear displacement
functions.
o Linear Displacement:
▪ The displacement field within the element is approximated by
linear functions. This simplicity makes the element easy to
formulate, but it also limits its accuracy.
o Simplicity:
▪ Due to its simple formulation, the CST element is relatively easy to
understand and implement.
 o Limitations:
▪ Because of the constant strain assumption, the CST element can
provide inaccurate results in regions of high stress gradients.
▪ It can require a large number of elements to achieve reasonable
accuracy, especially for complex geometries or stress distributions.
▪ "Locking" phenomena can occur, where the element appears overly
stiff.
• Applications:
o Basic structural analysis of two-dimensional problems.
o Educational purposes, as it provides a clear illustration of FEM principles.
• In FEM Analysis:
o When using CST elements, the domain of the problem is discretized into a
mesh of triangles.
o The stiffness matrix for each element is derived based on the material
properties and the element geometry.
o The element stiffness matrices are then assembled to form the global
stiffness matrix, which is used to solve for the nodal displacements.
1a. Plane Stress Example: A Thin Plate Under Tension
• Problem:
o Imagine a very thin, rectangular metal plate. The plate is fixed at one end
and subjected to a uniform tensile (pulling) force along the opposite end.
o Because the plate is thin, we can assume that the stress through its
thickness is negligible. Therefore, this is a plane stress problem.
• Analysis:
o We're interested in determining the stress distribution within the plate and
the resulting deformation.
o Key considerations:
▪ The material properties of the metal (e.g., Young's modulus,
Poisson's ratio).
▪ The magnitude of the applied tensile force.
▪ The dimensions of the plate.
o By using finite element analysis, and discretizing the plate into elements,
the stress and strain values can be found.
• Why it's Plane Stress:
 o The thickness of the plate is small compared to its length and width. This
allows us to ignore the stress component perpendicular to the plate's
surface.
2a. CST Element Example: Discretizing a Simple Shape
• Problem:
o Consider a simple square plate that we want to analyze using FEM.
o We'll use CST elements to discretize (divide) the plate into smaller
triangles.
• Process:
o Meshing:
▪ We can divide the square plate into a mesh of CST elements. For
example, we could divide the square into four triangles by drawing
diagonals.
▪ Each triangle represents a CST element, and the corners of the
triangles are the nodes.
o Applying Loads and Boundary Conditions:
▪ We could apply a load to one edge of the square, and fix the opposite
edge.
▪ Then the FEM process would calculate the displacements of each
node.
o Understanding Limitations:
▪ If the stress distribution in the square is complex (e.g., a sharp stress
concentration), the CST elements might not provide very accurate
results. To improve accuracy, we would need to use a finer mesh
(more smaller triangles).
o This example demonstrates how CST elements are used to break down a continuous
object into discrete elements for FEM analysis.
o It also highlights the importance of mesh density in achieving accurate results.
Important Considerations:
• Material Properties: In any real-world problem, you would need to define the
material properties of the object being analyzed.
• Boundary Conditions: Properly defining the boundary conditions (fixed supports,
applied loads) is crucial for accurate results.
• Software: Finite element analysis is typically performed using specialized
software (e.g., ANSYS, Abaqus).
3. Plane Strain
• Definition:
o Plane strain is a state of strain in which the strain component
perpendicular to a particular plane is assumed to be zero. This condition
typically occurs in long, cylindrical structures or when a structure is
constrained in one direction.
o Imagine a very long dam or tunnel. The deformation in the longitudinal
direction (along the length) is negligible compared to the deformation in
the cross-sectional plane.
• Key Characteristics:
o It's another two-dimensional simplification of a three-dimensional
problem.
o The strain components εz, γxz, and γyz are considered to be zero.
o This simplification is valid when the length of the object is much larger than
its cross-sectional dimensions.
• Applications:
o Analysis of dams, tunnels, long pipes, and other structures with significant
length.
o Geotechnical engineering problems.
3a. Rectangular Elements in Plane Strain
• Advantages:
o Simplicity: Rectangular elements, particularly those with four nodes
(quadrilateral elements), offer a straightforward geometric
representation. This can simplify mesh generation and data input.
o Accuracy (Compared to CST in some cases): When properly formulated,
rectangular elements can provide better accuracy than constant strain
triangular (CST) elements, especially in situations where the stress or
strain gradients are not excessively high.
o Integration: The mathematical integration needed for the element stiffness
matrix is often simpler for rectangular elements than for more complex
quadrilateral shapes.
• Key Considerations:
o Formulation: The accuracy of a rectangular element depends heavily on its
formulation. Higher-order rectangular elements (with more nodes) can
capture more complex deformation patterns.
 o Distortion: Highly distorted rectangular elements can lead to inaccurate
results. It's important to maintain a reasonably regular mesh.
o Isoparametric Formulation: Many modern FEM codes use isoparametric
formulations for rectangular elements. This allows for more flexible
geometry representation and improved accuracy.
• Applications within Plane Strain:
o When analyzing a long tunnel, for instance, a cross-sectional slice of the
tunnel can be modeled using a plane strain analysis.
o The cross section would be meshed with rectangular elements.
o The forces that would be acting on the tunnel, like the earth pressure,
would be applied to the model.
o The software would calculate the stress and strain within the tunnel cross
section.

• Plane strain simplifies the analysis of long structures by assuming zero strain in
the longitudinal direction.
• Rectangular elements provide an efficient and often accurate way to discretize the
cross-sectional area in plane strain problems.
4. The isoparametric formulation
The isoparametric formulation is a crucial concept in the Finite Element Method
(FEM), particularly when dealing with quadrilateral elements. It allows for the analysis
of elements with irregular shapes, which is essential for accurately modeling complex
geometries. Here's a breakdown:
Core Idea:
• The essence of the isoparametric formulation is to use the same shape functions
to define both the element's geometry and the displacement field within the
element. This "same parameters" approach simplifies the formulation and enables
the mapping of irregular element shapes to a regular "parent element."
Key Concepts:
• Natural Coordinates:
o Isoparametric elements use a local, or "natural," coordinate system (often
denoted as ξ and η) to define points within the element. For a quadrilateral
element, this natural coordinate system typically ranges from -1 to +1 in
both the ξ and η directions.
o This allows us to define a standard "parent element" (e.g., a square in the
ξ-η plane) that is easily handled mathematically.
 • Mapping:
o The isoparametric formulation establishes a mapping between the natural
coordinate system (ξ, η) and the global Cartesian coordinate system (x, y).
This mapping is achieved using the shape functions.
o This means that any point within the irregular element in the x-y plane can
be uniquely located within the regular parent element in the ξ-η plane, and
vice versa.
• Shape Functions:
o Shape functions are interpolation functions that define the displacement
field and the element's geometry.
o In an isoparametric quadrilateral element, the shape functions are used to:
▪ Interpolate the displacements within the element based on the
nodal displacements.
▪ Map the coordinates from the natural coordinate system to the
global coordinate system.
• Jacobian Matrix:
o The Jacobian matrix is a crucial component of the isoparametric
formulation. It relates the derivatives of the shape functions with respect
to the natural coordinates to the derivatives with respect to the global
coordinates.
o The Jacobian is essential for transforming integrals from the natural
coordinate system to the global coordinate system, which is required for
calculating the element stiffness matrix.
• Numerical Integration:
o Because the integrals involved in calculating the element stiffness matrix
can become complex, numerical integration techniques (such as Gauss
quadrature) are typically used.
Advantages:
• Geometric Flexibility:
o Isoparametric elements can accurately represent complex and curved
boundaries, which is a significant advantage over simple rectangular
elements.
• Mesh Generation:
o The mapping capability simplifies mesh generation, as irregular element
shapes can be generated from a regular parent element.
• Accuracy:
o When properly formulated, isoparametric elements can provide accurate
results, even for complex geometries and stress distributions.
5. Axi-Symmetric Elements in Finite Element Method (FEM)
Axi-symmetric elements are used in Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to model structures
that exhibit symmetry about a central axis (usually the z-axis). This means that if you
were to rotate the structure around this axis, its geometry, loading, and boundary
conditions would remain unchanged.
1. What is Axi-Symmetry?
Axi-symmetry occurs in problems where the geometry, material properties, and applied
loads are symmetric around a central axis. Instead of modeling the full 3D structure, we
can reduce the problem to a 2D plane, significantly decreasing computational effort.
2. Assumptions in Axi-Symmetric Analysis
• The structure is rotationally symmetric about the z-axis.
• Loads and boundary conditions are also symmetric around the z-axis.
• The displacement components are:
o u (radial displacement in the r-direction)
o w (axial displacement in the z-direction)
• There is no displacement in the θ-direction (circumferential direction).
This assumption allows us to solve a 3D problem using a 2D finite element model,
reducing computational cost while maintaining accuracy.
3. Axi-Symmetric Element Shape & Degrees of Freedom
Axi-symmetric elements are 2D elements in the r-z plane that represent the full 3D solid
when revolved around the z-axis.
Types of Axi-Symmetric Elements:
1. Linear Triangular Element (2-node)
o Simple but less accurate for curved boundaries.
o Each node has two degrees of freedom (DOF): radial and axial
displacements (u, w).
2. Quadratic Triangular Element (6-node)
o More accurate for complex shapes.
o Higher order polynomial representation.
3. Linear Quadrilateral Element (4-node)
o More accurate than triangular elements.
o Each node has two DOF (u, w).
4. Higher Order Quadrilateral Elements (8-node, 9-node)
 o Used for higher accuracy.
o Captures stress variations more effectively.
4. Governing Equations for Axi-Symmetric Elements
The general equilibrium equations in 3D elasticity are reduced for axi-symmetric
conditions:

5. Applications of Axi-Symmetric Elements

Axi-symmetric elements are widely used in engineering applications, including:
• Pressure vessels (cylindrical or spherical tanks)
• Pipes and nozzles
• Rotational components (flywheels, disks, turbine rotors)
• Concrete and soil structures (tunnels, dams, foundations)
• Forging and metal forming processes (axisymmetric deformation)

6. Advantages of Axi-Symmetric Elements

Reduced Computation: Converts 3D problems into 2D, reducing the number of
elements.
Accurate Stress Analysis: Suitable for stress concentration areas in symmetric
components.
Efficient Modeling: Can represent complex structures like rotating disks without full 3D
meshing.
Conclusion
Axi-symmetric elements are a powerful tool in FEM for analyzing rotationally
symmetric structures efficiently. By simplifying a 3D problem into a 2D one,
computational effort is reduced without compromising accuracy. Understanding their
application is crucial for engineers dealing with mechanical, civil, and aerospace
structures.

6. Numerical Integration & Gaussian Quadrature in Finite Element Method (FEM)

Numerical integration is used in Finite Element Method (FEM) to evaluate
integrals that arise in element stiffness matrices, force vectors, and other formulations.
Since exact integration is often impractical for complex functions, we use quadrature
techniques, with Gaussian Quadrature being one of the most efficient and widely used
methods.
1. Numerical Integration Basics
Given an integral of the form:

2. Gaussian Quadrature
Gaussian quadrature is a highly efficient numerical integration method that
provides exact results for polynomials up to a certain degree. It is based on evaluating
the integral at optimal points (Gaussian points) rather than equally spaced points.
The Gaussian quadrature rule approximates:

3. Gaussian Quadrature for Different Orders

The accuracy depends on the number of Gauss points:
1-Point Gauss Quadrature (n = 1)

2-Point Gauss Quadrature (n = 2)

3-Point Gauss Quadrature (n = 3)

4. Application in Finite Element Method (FEM)

5. Advantages of Gaussian Quadrature

• Efficient – Requires fewer points compared to other methods
• Accurate – Exact for polynomials up to degree 2n−12n-12n−
• Standardized – Used in FEM software like ANSYS, ABAQUS, COMSOL