Introduction to Thermodynamics

Engr. John Isaiah Torres, RMEE, LEED GA

School of Mechanical, Manufacturing, and Energy Engineering

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Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, the students should be able to
• Define thermodynamics.
• Learn the basic concepts and definitions of thermodynamics.
• Recall the basic properties of a working substance.
• Define temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

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Basic Principles and
Definitions

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Thermodynamics
Basic Principles and Definitions

• Thermodynamics is a branch of
physics that deals with the
transformation of energy and its
effect on the physical properties
of a working substance
• It came from the Greek words
therme (heat) and dynamis
(power).

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Working Substance
Basic Principles and Definitions

• Energy transformation
is made possible by a
working substance, a
fluid where energy can
be stored or extracted.
• A fluid is a substance
that has low resistance
to flow and has a
tendency to conform to
the shape of its
container (liquid, gas)

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Thermodynamic Viewpoints
Basic Principles and Definitions

• Microscopic thermodynamics
considers and sums up the
behavior of each individual
molecule of the working
substance.
• Macroscopic thermodynamics
is concerned with the bulk
effect of many molecules
without considering the events
occurring at the molecular
level.

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System
Basic Principles and Definitions

• A system is the portion of the

universe, a certain quantity of
matter, or a certain volume in
space that one wishes to study.
• The surroundings is the entire
region about the system.
• The boundary delineates the
system from the surrounding.
It may be imaginary, fixed, or
moving.

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Types of System
Basic Principles and Definitions

• An isolated system does not

allow any interaction
between the system and its
surroundings.
• A closed system allows the
transfer of energy across the
boundaries, but no exchange
of matter occurs.
• An open system allows both
mass and energy to cross its
boundaries.

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Control Mass vs. Control Volume
Basic Principles and Definitions

• Control mass is the

same as a closed
system. It is the
quantity of matter
which one wishes to
study.
• Control volume is the
same as an open
system. It is the fixed
volume in space which
one wishes to study.

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Property
Basic Principles and Definitions

• A property is a characteristic which

describes the condition of a substance
Intensive properties are independent
of size. (Ex: temperature, pressure)
• Extensive properties are dependent of
size. (Ex: total volume, total energy)
• Specific properties are extensive
properties defined per unit mass (Ex:
specific volume, specific energy)
• Extensive properties are capitalized.
Specific properties are in lower case.
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State
Basic Principles and Definitions

• The state of a system is

defined by its properties.
• A change in one property will
result to a change in state.
• According to the state
postulate, for simple
substances, two independent
intensive properties are
needed to define its state.

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Equilibrium
Basic Principles and Definitions

• A system is in equilibrium if
there are no unbalanced
potentials within the system.
• Thermodynamic equilibrium
is achieved if all types of
equilibrium are satisfied.
• Thermal equilibrium
• Mechanical equilibrium
• Phase equilibrium
• Chemical equilibrium

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Process
Basic Principles and Definitions

• A process is any change that a

system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another.
• A path describes the series of
states through which a system
passes during a process.
• A process is defined by the
initial and final states together
with the path it follows.

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Special Processes
Basic Principles and Definitions

• Isothermal process – constant temperature

• Isobaric process – constant pressure
• Isochoric/Isometric process – constant volume
• Isentropic process – constant entropy

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Quasiequilibrium Process
Basic Principles and Definitions

• A quasiequilibrium or
quasistatic process is an
idealized type of process in
which all states through which
the system passes through
may be considered as
equilibrium states.
• For nonequilibrium
processes, intensive properties
may vary with time and space.

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Cycle
Basic Principles and Definitions

• A cycle is
a series of
processes
such that
the final
state is
equal to
the initial
state.

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Phase
Basic Principles and Definitions

• A phase is a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in

chemical composition and physical structure (solid, liquid, gas)
• A homogeneous system consists of one phase.
• A heterogenous system consists of multiple phases.

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Pure Substance
Basic Principles and Definitions

• A pure substance is a substance

with constant chemical
composition throughout its
mass.
• It may be a single-phase or
multi-phase system.

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Basic Properties

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Mass
Basic Properties

• The mass of a body is the CONVERSIONS

absolute quantity of matter in it.
• 1 kg = 2.205 lbm
UNITS
• 1 slug = 32.2 lbm
• Kilogram mass (kg/kgm)
• 1 slug = 14.59 kg
• Pound mass (lbm)
• 1 MT = 1000 kg
• Slug
• 1 short ton = 2000 lbm
• Metric ton (MT)/tonne
• US/Short ton
• 1 short ton = 907 kg
• British/Long ton • 1 long ton = 2240 lbm

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Weight
Basic Properties

• The weight of a body is the Conversions

force of gravity acting on it. • 1 N = 1 kg m/s2
W = mg
• 1 lbf = 1 slug ft/s2
UNITS
• 1 dyne = 1 g cm/s2
• Newton (N)
• Pound force (lbf)
• Kilogram force (kgf)
• Dyne

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Moles
Basic Properties

• A mole is the amount of

substance containing
6.022x1023 particles.
• This value is known as
Avogadro’s number.
• The relationship between
mass and mole may be
obtained through the
molecular weight.
m = n ∙ MW

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Density, Specific Volume & Specific Weight
Basic Properties
• Density is mass per unit volume.
kg lbm • At standard conditions
𝜌= 3= 3 kg lbm
m ft 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.2 3 = 0.075 3
• Specific volume is volume per unit m ft
mass.
m3 ft 3
v= = kg lbm
kg lbm 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 3 = 62.4 3
• Density and specific volume are m ft
reciprocals of each other.
• Specific weight is weight per unit N lbf
volume. 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9810 3 = 62.4 3
N lbf m ft
𝛾 = 𝜌g = 3 = 3
m ft
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Specific Gravity
Basic Properties
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• Specific gravity or relative SG =
𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
density is the ratio between
the density/specific weight of a • For liquids, the reference is water.
substance to that of a reference • For gases, the reference is air

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Sample Problem 1
Basic Properties

The mass of a fluid is 0.311 slug. Its density is 30 lbm/ft3. The

acceleration due to gravity is 31.90 fps2. Find (a) the specific
volume, (b) the specific weight, and (c) the total volume.
a. 0.0333 ft3/lbm
b. 29.72 lbf/ft3
c. 0.3338 ft3

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Sample Problem 2
Basic Properties

A cylindrical drum, 2 ft x 3ft, is filled with a fluid whose specific

gravity is 0.641. Determine the (a) total volume of the fluid, (b)
the total mass in pounds and slugs, (c) its specific volume, and
(d) its specific weight at g = 31.90 ft/s2.
a. 9.42 ft3
b. 377 lbm; 11.71 slugs
c. 0.025 ft3/lbm
d. 39.63 lbf/ft3

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Pressure

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Pressure
Pressure

• Pressure is the normal

force exerted by a fluid
per unit area.
• For gases, pressure is
caused primarily by the
collision of gas
molecules on the
surface.
• For liquids at rest,
pressure is caused
primarily by the weight
of the liquid.

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Units of Pressure
Pressure

• The common units of pressure include

• N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
• Pounds per square inch (psi)
• kg/cm2
• Bars
• Atmospheres (atm)
• Torr
• mm Hg / in Hg
• m H2O / ft H2O

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Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure

• Atmospheric pressure is the • At sea level, the magnitude

pressure exerted by atmospheric of atmospheric pressure is:
gases on the Earth’s surface. • 101.325 kPa
• 1.01325 bars
• 14.7 psi
• 1 atm
• 760 torr
• 760 mm Hg
• 29.92 in Hg
• 10.33 m H2O
• 34 ft H2O

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Absolute and Gage Pressure
Pressure

• Absolute pressure is the

actual pressure and is
measured with respect to
perfect vacuum or absolute
zero pressure. (kPaa, psia)
• Gage or relative pressure is
measured relative to the
atmospheric pressure. (kPag,
psig)
• Negative gage pressure is
called vacuum pressure.
Pabs = Patm + Pgage
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Sample Problem 3
Pressure

A vacuum gage mounted on a condenser reads 0.66 m Hg. What

is the absolute pressure in kPa when the atmospheric pressure is
101.3 kPa.
13.3 kPa

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Sample Problem 4
Pressure

Convert the following pressure readings into kPaa, assuming that

the barometer reads 760 mm Hg: (a) 90 cm Hg; (b) 40 cm Hg
vacuum; (c) 100 psig; (d) 8 in Hg vacuum; and (e) 76 in Hg.
a. 221.32 kPa
b. 48 kPa
c. 790.61 kPa
d. 74.23 kPa
e. 358.70 kPa

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Fluid Pressure and Depth
Pressure

• Fluid pressure does not change

in the horizontal direction
provided that they are
interconnected by the same fluid.
• Pressure in a static fluid
increases linearly with depth.
dP = 𝛾 dh
• For incompressible substances
such as liquids or for gases at
small elevation change
ΔP = 𝛾h = 𝜌gh

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Sample Problem 5
Pressure

The lower half of a 10 m high cylindrical container is filled with

water and the upper half with oil that has SG = 0.85. Determine
the pressure difference in kPa between the top and bottom of the
cylinder.
90.74 kPa

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Pressure Measurement: Barometer
Pressure

• A barometer is a device used

for measuring atmospheric
pressure.
• It was first developed by
Evangelista Torricelli.
• It uses a mercury-filled tube
that is inverted into a mercury
container open to the
atmosphere.
• Density of Hg = 13,600 kg/m3
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Sample Problem 6
Pressure

Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the

barometric reading is 740 mm and gravitational acceleration is 9.7
m/s2. The density of mercury is 13,570 kg/m3.
97.41 kPa

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Sample Problem 7
Pressure

The barometer of a mountain hiker reads 930 mbars at the

beginning of a hiking trip and 780 mbars at the end. Neglecting
the effect of altitude on local gravitational acceleration and air
density, determine the vertical distance climbed. Assume g = 9.7
m/s2
1289 m

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Pressure Measurement: Manometer
Pressure

• A manometer is a device used

for measuring pressure
differences.
• It is made from plastic or glass
tubes that contain one or more
fluids such as mercury, water,
and alcohol.
• The pressure is obtained
through the difference in the
heights of fluid columns.

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Sample Problem 8
Pressure

Find the pressure P.

100.6 kPa

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Temperature and Zeroth Law
of Thermodynamics

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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• The zeroth law of thermodynamics

states that when two bodies, isolated
from the environment, are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, the two
are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
• This law justifies the concept of
temperature and the use of
thermometers.

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Temperature
Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• Temperature is a measure of
the random motion of the
molecules in the system.
• It is also a measure of thermal
energy in a system.
• It is a relative measure of how
“hot” or “cold” a substance is.
• It is a property that indicates
whether a system is in thermal
equilibrium.
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Arbitrary Temperature Scales
Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• The magnitude of temperature

may be described using arbitrary
temperature scales.
• Conversion
• The most common arbitrary 5
temperature scales are Celsius and °C = °F − 32
Fahrenheit. 9
9
Freezing Boiling °F = °C + 32
Scale 5
Point Point
Celsius 0 100
Fahrenheit 32 212
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Absolute Temperature Scales
Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics requires
the use of absolute
temperatures which are
measured from absolute
zero*
• Kelvin and Rankine are
absolute temperature
scales.

K = °C + 273
R = °F + 460

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Sample Problem 9
Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The temperature of a system is 328 K. Express the temperatures

in °F, °C, and °R.
a. 131°F
b. 55°C
c. 591°R

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Sample Problem 10
Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Determine the temperature at which the same value is indicated

in both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scale.
-40°

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Sample Problem 11
Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

During a heating process, the temperature of a system rises by

10°C. Express this rise in temperature in K, °F, and °R.
10 K, 18°R, 18°F

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Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, the students should be able to
• Define thermodynamics.
• Learn the basic concepts and definitions of thermodynamics.
• Recall the basic properties of a working substance.
• Define temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

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