Topic 3

Networks
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 Computer Network
• Two or more computer systems that are connected and able to
communicate and exchange data.

• Computer networks can also include multiple devices/mediums which help in

the communication between two different devices; these are known as Network
devices and include things such as routers, switches, hubs, and bridges.
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 Types of Network
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 LAN (Local Area Network)
● Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small
area such as building, office.
● LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
● It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
● The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
● Local Area Network provides higher security .
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 LAN (Local Area Network)
● One disadvantage of a LAN is that it can be vulnerable to security breaches,
as all devices on the network are interconnected and susceptible to
unauthorized access.
● Another disadvantage is that network performance can degrade as more
devices are added, leading to congestion and slower data transmission speeds.
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 LAN (Local Area Network)
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 PAN (Personal Area Network)
● Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person,
typically within a range of 10 meters.
● Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal
use.
● Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network
are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
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 PAN (Personal Area Network) types
❖ Wireless Personal Area Network:
➢ Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using wireless
technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
❖ Wired Personal Area Network:
➢ Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
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 Examples Of Personal Area Network:
➢ Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person.
For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person
establishes a network connection and then creates a connection with another
device to share the information.
➢ Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also
known as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices
such as printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
➢ Small Home Office : It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and
to a corporate network using a VPN
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 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
➢ A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic
area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
➢ Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
➢ In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
➢ The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN,
OC-3, ADSL, etc.
➢ It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
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 Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
➢ MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
➢ It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
➢ It can be used in a college within a city.
➢ It can also be used for communication in the military.
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 WAN (Wide Area Network)
○ A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries.
○ A Wide Area Network is much bigger network than the LAN.
○ A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
○ The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
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 Examples Of Wide Area Network:
○ Mobile Broadband:
■ A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
○ Last mile:
■ A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
○ Private network:
■ A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the
telecom company.
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 Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
○ Geographical area:
■ A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.
○ Centralized data:
■ In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails, files or
backup servers.
○ Get updated files:
■ Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get the updated files
within seconds.
○ Exchange messages:
■ In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like Facebook, Whatsapp,
Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
○ Sharing of software and resources:
■ In WAN network, we can share the software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
○ Global business:
■ We can do the business over the internet globally.
High bandwidth:
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○
■ The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of
our company.
 Disadvantages Of Wide Area Network:
○ Security issue:
■ A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN network as all the
technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
○ Needs Firewall & antivirus software:
■ The data is transferred on the internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so
the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is
needed to protect from such a virus.
○ High Setup cost:
■ An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the purchasing of routers,
switches.
○ Troubleshooting problems:
■ It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.
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 VLAN = Virtual Local Area Network
○ A virtual local area network (VLAN) is a logical group of workstations, servers and
network devices that appear to be on the same LAN despite their geographical
distribution.
○ A VLAN allows a network of computers and users to communicate in a simulated
environment as if they exist in a single LAN.
○ VLANs are implemented to achieve scalability, security and ease of network
management and can quickly adapt to changes in network requirements and
relocation of workstations and server nodes.
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 VLAN = Virtual Local Area Network
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VLAN vs LAN
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 Internetwork
○ An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or
computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are
configured by a local addressing scheme. This process is known as
internetworking.
○ An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
○ An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
○ The reference model used for internetworking is Open System
Interconnection(OSI).
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 Types Of Internetwork:
○ Extranet:
■ An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such as
Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol . It is used for information
sharing. The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login
credentials. An extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as
MAN, WAN or other computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, at least it
must have one connection to the external network.
○ Intranet:
■ An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as
Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members.
The main aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the
organization employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for
teleconferences.
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 Intranet Advantages
○ Communication:
■ It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the organization can
communicate with another employee through email, chat.
○ Time-saving:
■ Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
○ Collaboration:
■ Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet. The information is
distributed among the employees of the organization and can only be accessed by the
authorized user.
○ Platform independence:
■ It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected to another device with
different architecture.
○ Cost effective:
■ People can see the data and documents by using the browser and distributes the
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duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.
 Topology
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other.
There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
• Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a
network. It refer to the physical interconnections of all devices in the
network.
• A logical topology is a concept in networking that defines the architecture of
the communication mechanism for all nodes in a network. Using network
equipment such as routers and switches, the logical topology of a network can
be dynamically maintained and reconfigured.
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 Bus Topology
Computer network in which a bus
connects all the devices together
through a common cable.
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 Advantages of Bus topology:
• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly
connected to the cable without passing through a hub.
Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are
mainly used in bus-based networks that support upto 10
Mbps.
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as
the installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known, and hardware components are easily available.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect
on other nodes.
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 Disadvantages of Bus topology:
• Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it
requires a lot of cabling.
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment
to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then
it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages
simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide with
each other.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network
would slow down the network.
• Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to
communication issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the
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signal.
 Ring Topology
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit
to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing : It is a network access method in which token is passed from
one node to another node.
• Token : It is a frame that circulates around the network.
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Ring Topology
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 Working of Token passing
• A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to
computer until it reaches the destination.
• The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
• The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it
sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
• In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier
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 Advantages of Ring topology:
• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network
without bringing the network down.
• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation
and monitoring are available.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is
not dependent on the single host computer.
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 Disadvantages of Ring topology:
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine
the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down
the network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes.
Adding new devices increases the communication delay.
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 Star Topology
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is
connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached
to the server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
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 Advantages of Star topology:
• Efficient troubleshooting : In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the
centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to
troubleshoot the problem.
• Network control : Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
• Limited failure : As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
• Familiar technology : Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
• Easily expandable : It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open
ports on the hub.
• Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial
cable.
• High data speeds : It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one
of the most popular Star topology networks.
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 Disadvantages of Star topology:
• A central point of failure:
• If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will
not be able to communicate with each other.

• Cable:
• Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of
routing is required.
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 Tree Topology
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
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 Advantages of Tree topology:
• Support for broadband transmission:
• Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are
sent over long distances without being attenuated.
• Easily expandable:
• We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree
topology is easily expandable.
• Easily manageable:
• In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star
networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection:
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
• Limited failure:
• The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
• Point-to-point wiring:
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• It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Disadvantages of Tree topology:
• Difficult troubleshooting:
• If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot
the problem.
• High cost:
• Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
• Failure:
• A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus
cable will damage the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult:
• If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
•
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 Cable
Copper wire (usually coaxial and twisted pair) and fibre (fibre optic cable-made
from glass). Cables allow for the connection of computers over a network.
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 OSI (Open System Interconnection)
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a reference model for how applications
communicate over a network. This model focuses on providing a visual design of how
each communications layer is built on top of the other, starting with the physical
cabling, all the way to the application that's trying to communicate with other devices
on a network.

A reference model is a conceptual framework for understanding relationships. The purpose

of the OSI reference model is to guide technology vendors and developers so the digital
communications products and software programs they create can interoperate and to
promote a clear framework that describes the functions of a networking or
telecommunications system that's in use.
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 How the OSI model works
Information technology (IT) networking professionals use OSI to model or
conceptualize how data is sent or received over a network . Understanding this is a
foundational part of most IT networking certifications, including the Cisco Certified Network
Associate (CCNA) and CompTIA Network+ certification programs. As mentioned, the model
is designed to break down data transmission standards, processes and protocols
over a series of seven layers, each of which is responsible for performing specific
tasks concerning sending and receiving data.
The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two endpoints in a
network can be divided into seven distinct groups of related functions, or layers. Each
communicating user or program is on a device that can provide those seven layers of
function.
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 How the OSI model works
In this architecture, each layer serves the layer above it and, in turn, is served by the layer
below it. So, in a given message between users, there will be a flow of data down through
the layers in the source computer, across the network and then up through the layers in the
receiving computer. Only the application layer at the top of the stack doesn't provide
services to a higher-level layer.

The seven layers of function are provided by a combination of applications, operating

systems (OSes), network card device drivers, networking hardware and protocols that
enable a system to transmit a signal over a network through various physical
mediums, including twisted-pair copper, fiber optics, Wi-Fi or Long-Term Evolution
(LTE) with 5G.
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 7 Layers of The OSI model
1. Physical
2. Data-link
3. Network
4. Transport
5. Session
6. Presentation
7. Application
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 Advantages of Layers:
• Easy to manage
• Greater understanding of each layer
• Common language for each layer
• Makes protocol design easier
• A manufacturer can focus on technologies of a particular layer
• Product of different manufacturer can work together
• Technology advance of layer are independent of technology advancements of
other layers (wireless technology advances are not dependent on advances of
media format compression (GIF))
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 VPN
A virtual private network, or VPN, is an encrypted connection
over the Internet from a device to a network. The encrypted
connection helps ensure that sensitive data is safely
transmitted.
It prevents unauthorized people from eavesdropping on the
traffic and allows the user to conduct work remotely.
VPN technology is widely used in corporate environments.
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 How does a virtual private
network (VPN) work?
A VPN extends a corporate network through encrypted
connections made over the Internet. Because the traffic is
encrypted between the device and the network, traffic remains
private as it travels.

An employee can work outside the office and still securely

connect to the corporate network. Even smartphones and
tablets can connect through a VPN.
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 VPN types
1. Site to site VPN
This type of VPN connects entire networks and facilitates
secure data interchange between different sites. VPN
gateways are used.
2. Remote-access VPN
This type of VPN connects individual hosts to private
networks and facilitates teleworkers who need to access
their company’s network securely using the Internet. Every
host has VPN client software installed.
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 Site to site VPN
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 Remote Access VPN
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 Protocols
The rules of communication are called protocols.
Consider them as strict predefined rules.
a protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern the communication
between devices over a network. It ensures that data is transmitted in a
standardized and efficient manner, enabling devices to understand and
interpret the information exchanged.
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 Some of the protocols required for
communication to take place include:
• The presence of an identified sender
• The presence of an identified receiver
• The presence of an agree-upon method of communicating
• The presence of a common language
• The presence of a common grammar
• The presence of an agreed-upon speed timing time and
delivery
• The presence of confirmation or acknowledgment
requirements
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 Computer Network Protocols
also provide:
• Rules about the message format
• rules about the way intermediary devices should facilitate the
communication
• Rules about initiation and termination of computer session
• Rules about the type of error checking to be used.
• Rules about about the data compression methods and
algorithms
• Rules about an error detection and correction mechanism
• Rules about recovery and resending of data
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 Computer Network Protocols
also guarantee:
• Data integrity
• Source integrity
• Flow control
• Congestion management
• Deadlock prevention
• Error checking
• Error detection
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 Factors that affects the
speed of data transmission:
• Bandwidth of the network
• Data transfer rate of storage devices
• Interferences *
• Malicious software
• Number of connected devices
• Number of users and user’s demands at particular time
• Packet loss and retransmission
• Read speed of storage devices
• Slowest segment
• Speed, technology and capacity of the server
• Time required for user authentication and various security checks that
take place.
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• Types of file send and transmission medium

• User’s PC CPU speed and RAM
 Data compression
Data compression (bit rate reduction) is the reduction of bits by encoding data
using fewer bits than the original representation.
File compression is commonly used when sending a file from one computer to
another. It makes the file smaller and the transfer rate faster with no data loss.
The receiver must have program that will decompress the file.
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 Data compression
Data compression (bit rate reduction) is the reduction of bits by encoding
data using fewer bits than the original representation.
File compression is commonly used when sending a file from one computer to
another. It makes the file smaller and the transfer rate faster with no data loss.
The receiver must have program that will decompress the file.
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 In lossy compression, the data in a file is removed
and not restored to its original form after Types of data compression.
decompression. Specifically, data is permanently
removed, which is why this method is also known as
Lossless compression restores and rebuilds file data in its
irreversible compression.
original form after the file is decompressed. The file can be
This data loss is not usually noticeable. However, decompressed to its original quality without any loss of data.
the more a file is compressed, the more This compression method is also known as reversible
degradation occurs, and the loss eventually compression.
becomes visible.
With this method, although file sizes are reduced, the
Lossy compression reduces file size much more reduction is less compared to reduction using lossy
than the file size achieved after lossless compression.
Lossless
compression Lossy
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 Characterististics of
different transmission media
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 Wired communication
❏ Copper cable (metal conductor)
❏ Coaxial cable
❏ Unshielded twisted pair cable
❏ Shielded twisted pair cable
❏ Fiber optic cable
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 Wireless communication
❏ Microwave Radio
• used extensively for mobile telephone networks and
LANs.
❏ Satellites:
• use microwave signals
❏ Infrared
• used only for very short distances
❏ RFID
❏ Free space optics:
• use of lasers for wireless computer communication.
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 Packet Switching
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 Data packet
❏ Data packet is a unit of information in a form
suitable to travel between computers.
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 Packet Switching
❏ Packet switching refers to a communication
method used in computer networks (digital) in
which data are grouped into packets.
❏ The original file is divided into packets before
transmission and each packet may follow a
different path to the destination.
❏ Each packet is sent individually, possibly
reaching the destination via different routes.
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 Packet Switching types
❏ Datagram packet switching
• each packet contains the receiver address.
the path that datagram take between the
same source and destination can be different
❏ Virtual circuit packet switching
• a route from source to destination is set up
before any transmission takes place.
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 Network
topologies
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 Wireless Networks
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 Advantages of wireless networks
❏ Installing a cable can often be difficult
❏ Installing a cable can often be expensive
❏ Easy to set up a temporary link
❏ Wireless communication is truly wireless
❏ It is cost less to set up a wireless network
❏ Easier to plan wireless network
❏ A lot of public access points exist
❏ It is the only way to connect some devices (tablet, smartphone)
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❏ Flexibility/convenience
 Disadvantages of wireless networks
❏ Wireless communication gives relatively low speed
❏ Wireless communication gives high error rates
❏ Wireless communication is affected by weather
❏ Wireless communication offers weakest protection, security, privacy.
❏ Wireless networks are less reliable
❏ Some old devices don’t have wireless connection capability.
❏ Health concerns
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 Hardware components of a wireless
network
• A modem
• A wireless router serves a similar function to traditional routers in wired
networks.
• A wireless network adapter/wireless NIC
• A device that has the ability to connect to the wireless network (PC,
smartphone, etc)
• Wireless antennas.
• A wireless repeater
• Ethernet to Wireless Access Point or Ethernet to wireless repeater.
• Ethernet over power line to wireless repeater or WAP.
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 Software components of a wireless
network
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
• Software Firewall
• Name/SSID
• NIC drivers
• Operating System
• Security Software
• Wireless Application Protocol
• Web browser
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 Characteristics of wireless networks
• 1G 2G
• 3G
• 4G
• LTE
• WiMAX
• 5G
• Sensor networks
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 WiMAX vs LTE
• Both considered as 4G technology and are all IP technologies
• They use different channels
• LTE is compatible with 2G and 3G system while WiMAX doesn’t.
• Building LTE network is more expensive than building WiMAX network
• LTE allows much greater speed for mobile users.
• WiMAX isn't as popular and LTE is much more widespread
• WiMAX is considered a better choice for low-cost network installation in
developing countries
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 Network security methods
• Passwords
• Antivirus
• Firewall
• Turn on /off wireless broadcasts
• Enable/disable SSID broadcasts
• Block access to wireless devices by MAC address
• WEP Wireless Security
• WPA, WPA2 Wireless Security
• Wireless Protected Setup (WPS)
• Prevent Physical Access
• Encryption software
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 WPS methods
• PIN
• Push buttons
• the user pushes a WPS button on both devices (wireless router or access
point and the client device)
• NFC
• USB transfer
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