Q4 GRADE 9 - PHYSICS

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This results in an acceleration due to gravity,

I.​ PROJECTILE MOTION always acting downward at -9.8 m/s².
Projectile Motion Therefore, the motion of the ball demonstrates
❖​ It occurs when an object moves both a projectile motion.
horizontally and vertically at the same
time. These objects, called projectiles, ➢​ Horizontally Launched Projectile
follow a curved path known as a
trajectory.
❖​ Their motion combines uniform
horizontal movement with free fall,
influenced by gravity, an attractive force
exerted by mass. The horizontal
distance traveled is called the range.

Equations of UAM ❖​ Horizontally launched projectiles are

(Uniformly Accelerated Motion)​ projectiles that are launched with an
initial velocity from an elevated position
vf = vi + at vf = final velocity
and follow a curved-like path to the
d = vit + ½ at² vi = initial velocity
ground.
vf² = vᵢ² + 2ad t = elapsed time
❖​ There is no force acting upon horizontal
d = [(vf + vi)/2]t d = distance
velocity, therefore it is constant.
or d = vt​ a = acceleration
❖​ An object projected horizontally will
reach the ground in the same time as an
object dropped vertically.
Types of Projectile Motion ❖​ No matter how large the horizontal
velocity is, the downward pull of gravity
is always the same.

x y

distance dx = vxt dy = ½ gt² or dy =

v2²/2g
a ball being thrown by a man at a hill
velocity vx = constant v1y = zero
​ In the picture above, you can see the v1x = dx/t v2y = gt or
motion of the ball being thrown by a man v2y = sqrt (2dyg)
following a curved path due to gravitational
force, pulling objects toward the Earth, causing time t = dx/vx t = sqrt (2dy/g) or
them to fall. t = v2y/g
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LET’S SOLVE THIS!

An arrow is released and given an initial ❖​ Vertically launched projectiles or
horizontal speed of 20 m/s at a height of 100 Angle-launched projectiles are
m. projectiles launched at an angle with
1.​ How long will it take to reach the respect to the horizontal and rises to a
ground? peak while moving horizontally. Upon
2.​ How far will it travel horizontally? reaching the peak, the projectile falls
3.​ What would be its velocity just with a motion that is symmetrical to its
before it hit the ground? path upwards to the peak.
❖​ In the example above, the projectile is
Using the GRESA Method:
the ball which is travelling on a curved
Given vx = 20 m/s dy = 100m g = -9.8 m/s path also known as a parabola.
❖​ A freely falling object accelerates at -9.8
Required t = ? dx = ? v2y = ? v2 = ? m/s², where the negative sign indicates
downward motion.
❖​ If an object is dropped from a height
Equation t = sqrt dx = vxt v2y = gt
without being thrown, its initial velocity is
(2dy/g) v2 = sqrt (vxt² 0 m/s.
+ v2y² ) ❖​ The vertical component of a projectile
undergoes change because gravity is
Solution Answer pulling it downward.

1. t = sqrt (2 (100) / 1. t = 4.51 s x y

9.8 m/s²) 2. dx = 90.2 m distance dx = vxtT dy = ½ gt²
2. dx = (20 m/s) 3. v2y = 44.198 m/s dy = v1²/2g
(4.51s) v2 = 48.51 m/s velocity vx = constant v1y = v1sinθ
3. v2y = (- 9.8) (4.51) vx = v1x = v2x v2y = gt or
v2 = sqrt [(20)² + v1x = v1cosθ v2y = sqrt (2dyg)
(44.198 m/s)²] time tT = 2(dx/vx) tT = sqrt (2dy/g) or
tT = tup + tdown tT = 2(v1y/g)
➢​ Vertically Launched Projectile tT = 2 sqrt tup = tdown = t
(2dy/g)
if the projectline landed on
the same level it was
released.

LET’S SOLVE THIS!

A soccer ball was kicked 30 m/s, at an angle of
45° from the ground.
a football player kicking the ball from the ground
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1. What is its initial horizontal velocity? initial by an object with mass with a constant
vertical velocity? value of -9.8 m/s².
2. How high will it reach? ●​ Range - It is the horizontal distance
3. How long will it be on flight? traveled by a projectile.
4. How far will it travel horizontally?
Condition Horizontal Vertical
Using the GRESA Method:
Motion Motion
Given θ = 45° v1x = 30 m/s g = 10 m/s Are forces No Yes, gravity
present? acts
Required v1x = ? d y = ? tT = ? dx = ? downward
v1y = ? Is acceleration No Yes, gravity
present? acts
Equation v1x = dy = tT = dx = downward at
v1cosθ v1²/2g 2(v1y/g) vxtT 10 m/s²
v1y =
Is velocity constant changing
v1sinθ constant or by 10 m/s²
changing? each second
Solution Answer

1. v1x = 30cos45° 1. v1x = 21.21 m/s II.​ HEIGHT AND RANGE OF A

v1y = 30sin45° v1y = 21.21 m/s PROJECTILE
2. dy = (21.21)² / 2(10) 2. dy = 22.49 m
= 449.8641/ 2(10) 3. t = 4.24 s
T
3. tT = 2(21.21/10)
4. dx = 89.93 m
4. dx = (21.21)(4.24)

SUMMARY

DEFINITION OF TERMS
●​ Projectile Motion - It is a combination
of uniform horizontal motion and free The projectiles are launched with the
fall. same speed but at different angles where the
●​ Projectiles - It is an object that travels paths neglect the air resistance.
horizontally and vertically at the same
time. 2D Projectile Motion
●​ Trajectory - It is the actual curved path ❖​ This type of motion occurs when a
of a projectile. projectile is launched with both vertical
●​ Gravity - It is an attractive force exerted and horizontal components, causing it to
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move in two dimensions. Its path

angles result in a how fast it moves
through space follows a curved greater vertical horizontally,
trajectory. velocity component, determined by the
❖​ The range of a projectile is the same for a higher launch angle horizontal velocity
two different launch angles that add up leads to a greater component.
to 90°. maximum height.
ex.
A higher launch For a given launch
angle increases the speed, the optimal
projectile's time in the balance between
air. these factors occurs
at a 45° launch
angle, maximizing
the horizontal
distance.
❖​ An object thrown at 60° will cover the
same horizontal distance as one thrown
at 30°, provided both have the same APPLICATION OF CONCEPT
initial speed.
❖​ The maximum range is typically
achieved at a launch angle of 45°.
Launch Angle
❖​ A 2D projectile always follows a
parabolic trajectory, but the specific
shape of the parabola depends on the
initial velocity's magnitude and direction. The ball launched at the ball launched at
❖​ Changing the launch angle affects the 60° has a greater 40° has a launch
initial velocity components in both the initial vertical velocity angle closer to
horizontal and vertical directions. component. So, it 45° It has a closer
reaches a greater balance of initial
HOW DOES LAUNCH ANGLE AFFECT height and is in the vertical and
air for a longer time. horizontal velocity
HEIGHT RANGE
components.
The maximum height The horizontal Therefore, it travels a
of a projectile distance a projectile greater horizontal
depends on its initial travels depends on distance.
vertical velocity. its time in the air,
which is influenced
by the vertical
velocity component.

Steeper launch It also depends on

 Q4 GRADE 9 - PHYSICS
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3.​ Find the mass of a car with a

III.​ IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
momentum of 60,000 kg·m/s when
Momentum traveling at 20 m/s.
❖​ is also called the inertia in motion and
Given m = 1,200 m = 1,800 p=
the difficulty encountered in bringing a
kg kg 60,000
moving object to a stop. v = 30 m/s p = 36,000 kg·m/s
❖​ It is a measure of an object's motion and kg·m/s v = 20
depends on both its mass and velocity. m/s
❖​ The greater the mass or velocity of an
Required p=? v=? m=?
object, the more momentum it has,
making it harder to stop.
Equation p = mv v = p/m m = p/v
❖​ The momentum of an object is equal to
of the object times its velocity where it is
Solution Answer
expressed as:

1. p = (1,200)(30) 1. p = 3,600 kg·m/s

2. v = 36,000/1,800 2. v = 20 m/s
3. m = 60,000/20 3. m = 3000 kg

The Law of Conservation of Momentum

QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT This law states that the total momentum
of a system remains constant before and after
Momentum p kilogram a collision, provided no external forces act on
meters per it. This means that the total momentum of
second objects before the collision is equal to the total
(kg⋅m/s) momentum after the collision.

Mass m kilograms or
grams
(kg or g)

Velocity v meter per

second
m/s

LET’S SOLVE THIS!

1.​ Determine the momentum of a 1,200 kg
car moving at a speed of 30 m/s. The image shows how momentum is
2.​ Calculate the speed required for a 1,800 transferred during a collision. The first ball,
kg car to achieve a momentum of initially in motion, collides with a stationary ball,
36,000 kg·m/s. causing it to move. Since no external forces act
Q4 GRADE 9 - PHYSICS
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on the system, the total momentum before and

INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL
after the collision remains the same. The longer the impact time, the lower impact
force, assuming the change in momentum
FACTORS AFFECTING IMPACT FORCE remains constant. This follows Newton's Second
Law of Motion.
VELOCITY VS. IMPACT FORCE
MASS VS. IMPACT FORCE

v = 20 m/s
v = 30 m/s

v = 15 m/s

DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL t = 30 m/s

The greater the velocity, the stronger the impact
force during a collision. Velocity represents an DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL
object's motion before the collision, while impact If a truck and a car are moving at the same
force is the force exerted during the collision. velocity and lose their brakes, the truck will
cause more damage upon collision due to its
greater mass, which results in a higher
TIME OF IMPACT VS. IMPACT FORCE momentum.

Impulse
❖​ It is the change in momentum of an
object which can be mathematically
t = 35 seconds expressed as:

❖​ It uses the unit: Ns

❖​ It considers the Second Law of Motion:
t = 50 seconds
Law of Acceleration
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crashes, the passenger's momentum must

decrease to zero. Without an airbag, this
happens quickly, resulting in a large force
that can cause severe injuries. However,
airbags extend the duration of impact,
reducing the force exerted on the passenger,
thereby minimizing injury. In short, airbags
MOMENTUM → IMPULSE help protect passengers by using impulse
principles to safely reduce momentum with
Impulse-Momentum Theorem​ less force.

IV. WORK AND ENERGY

↓​ ​ ​ ​ ↓ WORK
-​ a measurable change on a system
IMPULSE​ CHANGE IN MOMENTUM
caused by force
❖​ This theorem highlights important -​ Work is done if the object you push
relationships, including the inverse moves a distance in the direction
relationship between force and time. towards which you are pushing it.
As the duration of impact increases, the -​ Work is done if the force is parallel to
force exerted decreases, assuming the
the displacement
change in momentum remains constant.

APPLICATION OF CONCEPT FORMULA FOR WORK

F = force in kg m/s2
or Newton (N)
W = Fd
d = displacement in
meter (m)

Nm or Joules (J) =
Unit of work =

LET’S SOLVE THIS!

Airbags relate to impulse and momentum Lee pushes a 20 kg crate across by
by increasing the time of impact, which applying a constant force of 50 N. If the crate
reduces the force experienced by a person moves a distance of 5 meters in the direction of
during a collision. According to the the force, how much work does Lee do on the
impulse-momentum theorem, when a car crate?
 Q4 GRADE 9 - PHYSICS
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Given N = 40 kg deg = 30° d = 5 m

Given N = 20 kg F = 50 d = 5 m
Required
Required W=?
W = Fd

Equation W = Fdcos(θ)
Equation W = Fd
Solution Answer
Solution Answer
W = (40 N)(10 m)cos(30°) W = 346.4 J
W = (50 N)(5 m) W = 250 J

Case 2: Force is applied at a certain angle

V. THERMODYNAMICS
with respect to the displacement.

NOTE! THERMODYNAMICS
-​ Any thermodynamic system in an
Sin θ = Opposite/Hypotenuse equilibrium state possesses a state
Cos θ = Adjacent/Hypotenuse variable called internal energy (E).
Tan θ = Opposite/Adjacent Between any two equilibrium states, the
change in internal energy is equal to
LET’S SOLVE THIS! the difference of the heat transfer into
Lorenz pulls a 15 kg sled on a snowy the system and the work done by the
surface by applying a force of 40 N at an angle system.
of 30° above the horizontal. If the sled moves a -​ Thermo: from the Greek word “therme”
distance of 10 meters, how much work does which means heat.
Lorenz do on the sled? -​ Dynamics: from the Greek word
“dynamikos” which means powerful.
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Heat (Q)
FORMULA FOR TOTAL MECHANICAL
-​ energy caused by temperature ENERGY
difference
-​ the amount of internal energy entering MET = PE + KE
or leaving a system.
PE = Potential Energy
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS KE = Kinetic Energy

-​ “Energy cannot be created nor Conservative Force

destroyed.” -​ is a force with the property that the total
-​ The internal energy of a system work done in moving a particle between
changes from an initial value Ui to a final two points is independent of the path
value Uf due to heat added (Q) and work taken.
done by the system (W). Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy
-​ The total amount of mechanical
FORMULA FOR CHANGE IN INTERNAL energy, in a closed system without
ENERGY dissipative forces such as air, friction,
ΔU = Uf – Ui = Q – W and resistance remains constant.
-​ This means potential energy (PE) can
ΔU = change in internal energy of a system become kinetic energy (KE) or vice
Uf = final energy of the system versa. Energy cannot be created nor
Ui = initial energy of the system destroyed, it is only converted from one
Q = heat transferred into the system (positive form to another.
if heat is added, negative if heat is removed) -​ The decrease in potential energy is the
W = work done by the system (positive if same as the increase in kinetic energy.
work is done by the system, negative if work
is done on the system).

VI. MECHANICAL ENERGY

-​ The sum of the potential energy and

kinetic energy in a system
-​ Since the loss in potential energy is only
converted to kinetic energy, the total POINT A: Potential Energy (PE) is at its
mechanical energy of a given system is maximum because of its height or position.
constant. POINT B: As the pendulum moves, the
-​ The unit for energy is Joule (J) potential energy decreases, and the kinetic
energy increases. Half of the potential energy
is lost and converted to kinetic energy. Hence,
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potential energy is equal to kinetic energy. (PE

= KE) POINT C
POINT C: Potential Energy (PE) is at its
PE = 15 J. PE is at minimum, KE is at
minimum because of its height or position,
maximum. KE = MET. All potential energy is
while kinetic energy is at its maximum.
converted to kinetic energy, therefore kinetic
From point C to E, the reverse will happen.
energy is zero.
The maximum kinetic energy at C will slowly
transform into potential energy. Eventually, Solution:
potential energy is at maximum while kinetic PE = 15
energy is at minimum at E. KE = 0
POINT D: Kinetic energy is once again equal
to Potential energy (KE = PE).
POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY
LET’S SOLVE THIS!
There are two (2) basic forms of mechanical
energy:
1. Potential Energy
-​ the energy associated with height or
position.
FORMULA FOR POTENTIAL ENERGY

m = mass in kg
PE = mgh g = gravitational
POINT A constant, 9.8 m/s2
h = height in meters
Since we are looking for KE, we will convert
the equation to KE = MET - PE ex.

Solution: KE = 15 - 0
KE = 15 J

POINT B

MET = 15 (answer from point A). PE is

decreased, KE is increased. Loss of PE =
gain of KE. KE = MET - PE

Solution:
KE = 15 - 7
KE = 8
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A woman holding a ball. The ball stored ❖​ Chemical Potential Energy (CPE)
potential energy due to its position or height -​ a chemical bond can be thought of as
from the ground. an attractive force between atoms.
other examples: rock on the cliff, book on the -​ ex. food - when we take food, the CPE
table. is converted to KE which allows our
body to move.
LET’S SOLVE THIS!
A mass of 2 kg is taken from the ground 2. Kinetic Energy
to a height of 10 m. Find the potential energy of -​ is the energy that is associated with
the object. motion.
-​ it is directly proportional to speed.
Given m = 2 kg g = 10 m/s2 h = 10 m
FORMULA FOR KINETIC ENERGY
Required PE = ?
KE = 1/2mv2 m = mass in kg
v = velocity in m/s2
Equation PE = mgh

Solution Answer

PE = 2 kg (10 m/s2)(10 m) PE = 200 J

3 Types of Potential Energy

❖​ Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE

or Potential Energy)
-​ energy possessed by an object due to
its position or location.
-​ the higher the position, the higher the
GPE
-​ position is directly proportional to GPE. When the ball is at the top, it has
-​ ex. anything off of the ground potential energy. However, as the ball falls, the
potential energy converts to kinetic energy.
❖​ Elastic Potential Energy (EPE) When the ball reaches the ground, there is no
-​ anything that can act as a spring or more potential energy since it has all been
rubber band can have elastic potential converted to kinetic energy.
energy. other examples: moving car, rolling ball
-​ ex. anything that can be stretched like
a rubber band.
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LET’S SOLVE THIS!

How much kinetic energy does a 0.15
kg ball thrown at 24 m/s have?

Given m = 0.15 kg v = 24 m/s

Required KE = ?

Equation KE = 1/2mv2
-​ A heat engine operates in a cyclic
Solution Answer process using a working substance,
such as in a diesel or steam engine. It
KE = ½ (0.15 kg)(24 m/s) KE = 43.2 J absorbs heat (Q1)​from a reservoir at
temperature (T1)​and releases heat
Note: Mechanical Energy Conservation applies (Q2) to a sink at a lower temperature
to GPE and EPE. (T2).
-​ The net work output, which can be used
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS to drive mechanical systems (e.g.,
transferring energy to vehicle wheels via
-​ Heat will not flow spontaneously from a a shaft), is repeated cyclically until the
colder body to a warmer body and heat desired work is achieved. The efficiency
energy cannot be transformed of a heat engine is given by:η = W/Q1
completely into mechanical work.
-​ This law decides whether the process ❖​ Clausius’ statement (heat
occurs on its own or not. pump/refrigerator)
-​ Tells us the direction in which the -​ It is impossible to transfer heat from a
process will proceed. cold body to a hot body without external
❖​ Kelvin Planck’s statement (heat work.
engine) -​ Heat naturally flows from a
-​ A heat engine must exchange the heat higher-temperature to a
with at least two thermal reservoirs, one lower-temperature body and cannot
at a higher temperature, and the other at spontaneously move in the reverse
a lower temperature. Then only the direction.
engine will operate.
-​ In simpler terms, no engine can
completely turn heat into work without
losing some heat to the surroundings
such as air or water.
Q4 GRADE 9 - PHYSICS
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Gas - Gases have

the highest entropy
because their
particles move freely
in all directions.

- In all spontaneous processes, the entropy of

the universe increases
- ∆Suniverse > 0 or ∆Suniverse + ∆Ssurrounding > 0

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE

To keep the interior of a refrigerator cool, When we melt ice, it transforms from solid
heat should be transferred from the interior to (low entropy) to liquid (high) entropy, and
the surrounding area using a compressor when it evaporates, it turns to gas (higher
entropy).
➢​ Law of Thermodynamics based on
Entropy
LET’S SOLVE THIS!
Assume that the temperature of coffee is
A SMALL BACKGROUND
50°C (323 K), and the temperature of the
Randomness - the Solid - molecules are surroundings is 20°C (293 K).
movement of structured and a.​ Case 1: the coffee may release heat to
molecules ordered. They are the surrounding
compact, meaning b.​ Case 2: The coffee may release heat to
Entropy is the their level of the surrounding
measurement of the randomness/entropy
disorder or is very low. Case 1: Negative value, the entropy of the
randomness of the universe decreases, violates the second law of
molecule Liquid - The liquid thermodynamics
●​ Entropy phase has higher Qsystem = 10 J
Formula: ∆S = entropy because the Qsurrounding = -10 J
∆Q/T particles are free to ∆Suniverse = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurrounding
move. Since they ∆Suniverse = (∆Qsystem/∆Tsystem) + (∆Qsurrounding/∆Tsurrounding)
aren’t locked in = (10/323) + (-10/293) = - 0.00316 J/K
place, they can
spread out in many Case 2: Positive value, entropy of the universe
different ways. is increasing, satisfies the second law of
thermodynamics
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Qsystem = -10 J
VIII. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Qsurrounding = +10 J
∆Suniverse = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurrounding Electricity and Magnetism
∆Suniverse = (∆Qsystem/∆Tsystem) + (∆Qsurrounding/∆Tsurrounding) -​ Electricity generation, transmission,
= (-10/323) + (10/293) = + 0.00316 J/K and distribution deliver power to
consumers, involving complex
ex.
processes that ensure efficient energy
Spontaneous Process - occurs on its own,
supply.
natural, and entropy of the universe increases.
-​ Electricity is generated by converting
1.​ Air leaks from the balloon on its own
various energy forms into electrical
2.​ A ball will roll down an incline
energy. Power plants utilize generators
3.​ Ice will melt into water
that rotate a coil within a magnetic field,
inducing an electric current through
Non-Spontaneous Process - does not occur
electromagnetic induction.
on its own, needs an external influence to
happen, and entropy of the universe
decreases.
1.​ Air never enters the balloon on its own.
2.​ A ball will never roll uphill unless an
external force such as pressure.
3.​ Water will never boil at room
temperature.
➔​ In each cycle, find (a) the heat absorbed
in each cycle and (b) the time for each
cycle.

SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

❖​ Hydroelectric Power Plants - Water

movement spins turbines, generating
electricity.
❖​ Fossil Fuel Plants - Burning coal or
gas produces steam, turning turbines.
❖​ Solar Energy - Photovoltaic cells
convert sunlight directly into electricity.
❖​ Wind Energy - Wind turbines spin
blades connected to generators.
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3.​ Neighborhood transformers further

reduce voltage which ensures safe
levels for household appliances.
4.​ Electricity enters homes, where a
service drop wire connects homes to the
distribution network and an electric
meter measures consumption.

Transmission of Electrical Energy

-​ Once generated, electricity must travel
long distances to reach consumers.
-​ High-voltage transmission is essential
to reduce energy loss due to resistance
in wires.

Important Components of Electrical Energy

Transmission

❖​ Step-up Transformers - it focuses on

increasing voltage for long-distance
travel.
❖​ Transmission Lines - has high-voltage
lines supported by tall towers that IMPORTANCE OF TRANSFORMERS
transport electricity efficiently.
❖​ Step-down Transformers - reduces the Transformers are critical in ensuring
voltage at substations to prepare it for efficient power transmission and distribution.
distribution. They regulate voltage levels to minimize
energy loss and maintain safety standards.
Steps in Electricity Distribution
Electricity is distributed to homes and ❖​ Step-up transformers
industries at lower voltages for safe usage. -​ increase voltage for efficient
Here are the following steps in its distribution: long-distance transmission.
❖​ Step-down transformers
1.​ Electricity reaches distribution -​ reduce voltage before reaching
substations. Step-down transformers homes and businesses.
lower the voltage.
2.​ Electricity flows through distribution With increasing concerns over
lines. It travels through underground environmental sustainability, many countries
cables or overhead power lines. are adopting renewable energy sources to
generate electricity.
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A power plant produces 500 MW of electricity,

but only 450 MW reaches consumers. What is
TYPES OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES
the efficiency?

❖​ Hydropower Using GRESA Method:

-​ is made when flowing water is
used to generate electricity. Given P_output = 450 MW, P_input = 500
❖​ Solar Power MW
-​ is converted when sunlight is
transformed into electrical energy. Required
❖​ Wind Energy η=?
-​ is created when wind-driven
turbines are used to generate Equation
power. 𝑝
η = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 100%
➔​ Renewable energy sources reduce 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

dependence on fossil fuels and

minimize environmental impact.
Solution Answer

EFFICIENCY IN ELECTRICAL
TRANSMISSION η=
450
𝑥 100% = 90% The power plant is
500
90% efficient.
When electricity travels through power
lines, some energy is lost due to resistance.
High-voltage transmission minimizes this
Higher efficiency means less energy waste
loss by reducing the current required.
and lower costs.

FORMULA FOR EFFICIENCY Electricity and Magnetism

P_output = Power
delivered to
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
η= 𝑥 100% consumers
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

P_input = Power
generated at the
source

η = Efficiency

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
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Without step-up transformers, long-distance

HEAT TRANSFERRING METHODS
electricity transmission would be inefficient due
to excessive energy loss. Similarly, step-down ❖​ Conduction is the direct transfer of heat
transformers ensure that the electricity entering through solid materials.
our homes is at a safe voltage for appliances. ❖​ Convection is the heat transfer through
the movement of fluids (liquids and
VIII. HEAT, WORK, AND EFFICIENCY gases).
❖​ Radiation is the transfer of heat in the
form of electromagnetic waves, even in
a vacuum.

Thermal Efficiency

The ratio of useful work output to heat input is

expressed as a percentage.

ENGINE EFFICIENCY
- Heat flows from a hot reservoir to a cold
reservoir

Why are Machines not 100% Efficient? FORMULA FOR ENGINE EFFICIENCY

Machines are not 100% efficient because of QH = remove from,

QH = W + Qc absorbs = hot
the following:
Qc = exhausts to,
Woutput = QH - Qc
❖​ Friction between moving parts of a expels = cold
machine causes energy loss. Even with
lubrication, friction is unavoidable.
❖​ Gravity affects all machines. To determine the thermal efficiency of an
❖​ The Second Law of Thermodynamics engine, look at how much energy gets out
states that heat cannot be completely based on how much energy takes in.
converted to work without changing the
state of the working substance. FORMULA FOR THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Heat is the transfer of energy due to 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡= Heat energy

temperature differences, while work involves Derived Formula:
supplied to the system
energy used to move an object against a force. 𝑊 𝑄ℎ−𝑄𝑐 𝑄𝑐
ethermal = = =1-
Heat engines convert thermal energy into 𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄𝐶 𝑄ℎ 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡= Useful heat
mechanical energy, playing a crucial role in energy converted into
𝑄𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
transportation, electricity generation, and Formula: η = 𝑄𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑥 100
work.
industrial processes.
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𝑄𝑐 𝑇𝑐
EFFICIENCY IN TERMS OF RATE =
𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐻− 𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐
𝑊 𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = →1 −
𝑊 𝑃 𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐻
ethermal = 𝑄𝐻
→ 𝑡
𝑄𝐻 → 𝑄𝐻
𝑡 𝑡

𝑄𝐻 𝑃
=
𝑡 𝑒
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝑐
P= -
𝑡 𝑡

Rates of Energy Usage

𝑄𝐻
❖​ rate at which heat is absorbed:
𝑡
𝑄𝑐 Heat Engines:
❖​ rate at which heat is expelled:
𝑡
𝑊 -​ Devices that convert thermal energy
❖​ rate at which work is done: = into mechanical work.In a
𝑡
Power spontaneous process, heat flows
naturally from hot to cold. While the
CARNOT EFFICIENCY non-spontaneous process requires
-​ must be expressed in Kelvin (K) work input to transfer heat from cold to
hot (e.g., refrigerators).

4 PARTS OF CARNOT MODEL Factors Affecting Heat Energy

❖​ Isothermal Expansion When heat is applied to a system, it increases

❖​ Adiabatic Expansion the internal energy of the system’s molecules,
❖​ Isothermal Compression causing movement. This principle is used in
❖​ Adiabatic Compression various real-world applications:

-​ When using steam engines, water is

FORMULA FOR CARNOT EFFICIENCY heated to produce steam, which
expands and moves a piston to
𝑄𝐻− 𝑄𝑐 𝑄𝑐 generate work.
𝑒𝑇𝐻 = →1 − -​ When internal combustion engines
𝑡 𝑄𝐻
are used, fuel combustion releases
heat, which causes gases to expand
and drive mechanical motion.
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-​ In thermal-powered devices, devices

Given W = 200 J, 𝑄𝐻 = 500 J
like hot air balloons rise because heated
air becomes less dense and lifts the
balloon. Required
η=?
Efficiency on Heat Engines
Equation
-​ Heat engines cannot convert all the 𝑊
η = 𝑄 𝑥 100%
input heat into useful work due to 𝐻

energy loss in the form of waste heat.

The efficiency of different types of
Solution Answer
engines varies:

Type of Engine Efficiency (%)

η= ( ) 𝑥 100% = 40%
200
500
The heat engine
is 40% efficient.
Steam Engine 29%

Steam Turbine 40%

Diesel Engine 56% Factors Affecting Efficiency

Gasoline Engine 60% -​ Temperature difference between heat

source and surroundings.
-​ Energy losses due to friction and
exhaust gases.
KEY FORMULA FOR EFFICIENCY OF -​ Design and material properties of the
HEAT ENGINES engine.

W = Work output Environmental Impact and Thermal

Pollution
η=
𝑊
𝑥 100% 𝑄𝐻 = Heat input
𝑄𝐻
Most heat engines release waste heat into the
environment, contributing to thermal pollution.
The inefficient use of energy results in excess
heat being dumped into air and water bodies,
affecting ecosystems.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:

A heat engine absorbs 500 J of heat and does WAYS TO REDUCE THERMAL
200 J of work. What is its efficiency? POLLUTION

Using the GRESA Method: ❖​ Improving engine efficiency.

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❖​ Using renewable energy sources. 2.​ Convection – movement of heated fluid

❖​ Recycling waste heat through or gas, essential in transferring
cogeneration systems geothermal heat to the surface.
3.​ Radiation – heat emitted in the form of
Heat, Work, and Efficiency electromagnetic waves, though less
significant in geothermal processes.

A car engine uses heat from burning

fuel to expand gases and move pistons, but
Thermal Energy (heat from Earth's interior)
inefficiencies like heat loss through exhaust
→ Mechanical Energy (steam moves
and friction reduce overall performance.
turbines) → Electrical Energy (generator
produces electricity).
VIIII. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER
Heat is an essential form of energy PLANTS
utilized in various ways, playing a significant
role in our daily activities and industrial 1.​ Dry Steam – utilizes naturally occurring
applications. Geothermal Energy is a steam directly from underground to
sustainable and renewable energy source power turbines.
derived from the Earth's heat, offering an 2.​ Flash Steam – high-pressure hot water
alternative to fossil fuels. is converted to steam before turning the
turbines.
HEAT TRANSFER AND ENERGY 3.​ Binary Cycle – transfers geothermal
TRANSFORMATION heat to a secondary working fluid with a
lower boiling point to produce steam.
Three Types of Heat Transfer
1.​ Conduction – the direct transfer of heat
through solid materials, such as
underground rocks heating water.
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Active Components
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND
SUSTAINABILITY 1.​ Diode – allows current to flow in only
one direction, used for rectification,
Advantages
signal clipping, and voltage regulation.
➔​ Geothermal energy is a clean, 2.​ LED (Light Emitting Diode) – emits
renewable, and abundant power light when current flows through it, used
source with a minimal environmental in indicators, displays, and lighting.
footprint. 3.​ Transistor – acts as an amplifier or
➔​ Low carbon emissions make it a switch in circuits, used in signal
preferable alternative to fossil fuels. processing and control applications.
4.​ IC (Integrated Circuit) – contains
Challenges multiple electronic components like
transistors, resistors, and capacitors in a
➔​ Possible toxic gas emissions such as single package, used in
hydrogen sulfide during drilling. microcontrollers, processors, and logic
➔​ Water contamination risks due to the circuits.
extraction of underground fluids.
Electromechanical Components
Government Actions
1.​ Relay – an electrically operated switch
➔​ Expansion and optimization of that controls a high-power circuit with a
geothermal projects to strengthen low-power signal.
energy security and sustainability 2.​ Switch – manually or electronically
efforts. controls the opening and closing of a
circuit.
X. ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND
THEIR FUNCTIONS Power Components

Passive Components 1.​ Battery – stores and supplies electrical

energy.
1.​ Resistor – limits the flow of electric 2.​ Transformer – converts AC voltage
current, controlling voltage and current levels, used in power supplies and
in a circuit. electrical distribution.
2.​ Capacitor – stores and releases 3.​ Voltage Regulator – maintains a stable
electrical energy used for filtering, output voltage despite variations in input
smoothing, and timing applications. voltage or load conditions.
3.​ Inductor – stores energy in a magnetic
field when current passes through it,
used in filters, transformers, and energy
storage applications.
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Sensors and Special Components

1.​ Thermistor – a temperature-sensitive

resistor, used in temperature sensing
applications.
2.​ Photodiode – converts light into
electrical current, used in optical
sensors and solar panels.
3.​ Microcontroller – a small computer on
a chip that can process inputs and
control outputs, used in automation and
embedded systems.

N-TYPE VS P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

N-TYPE P-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTORS

-​ have an -​ have an
excess of excess of
electrons. holes" where
an electron
could exist.

As you take a photo, a capacitor powers

the LED flash, resistors regulate current, and
your phone uses semiconductors, transistors,
diodes, and inductors for processing, charging,
and power transfer, while solar panels help
power homes.